Sha Tao

Advanced Optowave Corporation,

Ronkonkoma, NY 11779

Benxin Wu1
Department of Mechanical, Materials,
and Aerospace Engineering,
Illinois Institute of Technology,
10 W. 32nd Street,
Engineering 1 Building, Room 207 A,
Chicago, IL 60616
e-mail: bwu11@iit.edu

Yun Zhou
Electro Scientific Industries, Inc.,
Fremont, CA 94538

Gary J. Cheng
School of Industrial Engineering,
Purdue University,
West Lafayette, IN 47906

The Investigation of Plasma

Produced by Intense Nanosecond
Laser Ablation in Vacuum Under
External Magnetic Field Using
a Two-Stage Model
In this paper a two-stage physics-based model has been applied to study the evolution of
plasma produced by high-intensity nanosecond laser ablation in vacuum under external
magnetic field. In the early stage (Stage I), the laser-induced plasma generation and its
short-term evolution are described through one-dimensional (1D) hydrodynamic equations. An equation of state (EOS) that can cover the density and temperature range in the
whole physical domain has been applied to supplement the hydrodynamic equations. In
the later stage (Stage II), the plasma long-term evolution is simulated by solving 2D gas
dynamic equations. The two-stage model can predict the spatial distributions and temporal evolutions of plasma temperature, density, velocity, and other parameters. The model
is used to study and discuss the effects of external magnetic field on the plasma evolution.
It provides a useful tool for related fundamental studies and practical applications.
[DOI: 10.1115/1.4025685]
Keywords: laser ablation, laser-induced plasma

Introduction

Plasma generation and evolution during laser-material interactions may be a very important physical process in many laserbased applications, such as pulsed laser deposition (PLD), laser
induced breakdown spectrometry (LIBS), and laser ablation
[14]. Due to the existing free electrons, external magnetic field
may have a significant effect on laser-induced plasma evolution,
which has been experimentally studied in literatures (e.g., in Refs.
[57]). The experimental study has provided very useful scientific
information to understand the effect of magnetic field on laserproduced plasma. However, it is also highly desirable to have a
physics-based model in this area, because the model can provide
a useful scientific tool to help better understand the relevant
processes.
During nanosecond (ns) laser ablation at sufficiently high laser
beam intensities, the target material may be driven above the thermodynamic critical temperature, where the dominant mechanism
for plasma generation is expected to be hydrodynamic expansion
[810], instead of surface vaporization across a sharp liquidvapor
interface. The plasma early-stage evolution may be approximately
one-dimensional due to the small plasma expansion length above
the target, yet its long-term evolution will become multidimensional. Therefore, for a physics-based model for the effect of
external magnetic field on plasma produced by intense ns laser
ablation, it is very desirable to consider both the hydrodynamic
expansion mechanism for plasma generation, and the plasma
long-term multidimensional evolution.
However, this kind of model has been rarely reported in literatures. For example, in Ref. [11], a model has been developed for
laser ablated carbon plume flow under magnetic field. However,
the model does not simulate the initial plasma generation process.
In Ref. [12], a model has been used to study the effect of magnetic
1
Corresponding author.
Manuscript received March 21, 2013; final manuscript received October 5, 2013;
published online November 7, 2013. Assoc. Editor: Yung Shin.

field on laser-induced plasma, and the authors of Ref. [12] mention in the paper that the laser and material settings in Ref. [12]
are similar to those in Ref. [13]. In Ref. [12], the initial plasma
generation process is not simulated through physics-based modeling. In Ref. [14], a one-dimensional (1D) model has been developed to study the effect of magnetic field on plasma induced by
intense ns laser ablation based on the hydrodynamic expansion
mechanism. However, the 1D model cannot well describe the
long-term, multidimensional evolution of the plasma.
This paper will employ a physics-based model to study plasma
generation and evolution under an external magnetic field due to
intense ns laser ablation of a metal target in vacuum. The model
has considered both the involved hydrodynamic expansion mechanism and the long-term, multidimensional expansion of the
plasma. Due to the complexity of the physical processes and the
involved numerical challenges, a two-stage model is employed,
which is an approximate, but reasonable approach that shows reasonably good agreements with some of the experimental measurements taken from the literature as shown later. The model is used
to study how an external magnetic field affects the evolutions of
important plasma parameters, such as temperature, density, and
velocities. The study provides useful information and also a useful
tool (the model) for future fundamental research work and practical applications in related areas.

Model

Figure 1 shows the model schematic diagram. It is assumed that

the target (aluminum) is in the region of z < 0 and its original surface is located at z 0. The ambient vacuum is in the region of
z > 0. The ns laser pulse (which starts at t 0 and ends at t tp)
~
propagates along the z direction. An external magnetic field (B)
is assumed to be applied as shown in Fig. 1, which exists in the
domain above the target.
The laser-induced plasma generation and evolution process can
be approximately divided into two stages [10,15,16]. Stage I

Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

C 2013 by ASME
Copyright V

DECEMBER 2013, Vol. 135 / 061009-1

Downloaded From: http://manufacturingscience.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 12/20/2014 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

1D hydrodynamic equations [10,17,18] in the whole physical

domain including both the target condensed phase and the plasma
plume above the target. The hydrodynamic equations are supplemented by the quotidian equation of state model [19], which can
cover the entire wide range of the involved material temperatures
and densities. The material thermal conductivity is obtained
through the Lee-More model [20,21], while the optical properties
are obtained using the Drude model [2224] combined with the
Lee-More model. The hydrodynamic equations are numerically
solved with a finite difference method [2527]. Please see
Ref. [10] for more details on the model in Stage I.
Fig. 1 The schematic diagram of the two-stage model (sizes
not drawn to scale)

(from t 0 to the end of laser pulse, t tp) is the laser-induced

plasma generation and its early-stage evolution. Due to the short
duration of ns laser pulse, the process in Stage I can be approximately assumed to be one-dimensional (1D). Stage II (t > tp) is
the long-term plasma evolution, which is a multidimensional
process.
Therefore, an approximate, yet reasonable two-stage model is
employed. The hydrodynamic expansion process in Stage I is
described through 1D hydrodynamic equations supplemented by a
wide range EOS. Due to the short laser pulse duration, the effect
of the external magnetic field is not very significant in Stage I
under the studied conditions as implied by the results in Ref. [5].
Figure 4 of Ref. [5] shows that during the early stage the plume
front locations with and without the external magnetic field are
close. For example, Fig. 4 of Ref. [5] shows that the plume front
location is at approximately around 0.7 mm at the time of
around 10 ns both with and without the external magnetic field.
Therefore, it is assumed that the magnetic field can be approximately neglected in Stage I. In Stage II, the plasma long-term
evolution in vacuum under the applied external magnetic field is
simulated by solving 2D axisymmetric gas dynamic equations that
include the effect of the magnetic field. Stage I ends and Stage II
starts at the end of the laser pulse. For example, if an 8-ns (full
width at half maximum) laser pulse is used in the simulation, then
the laser pulse completes at approximately t 16 ns, at which
Stage I ends and Stage II starts.
Based on the simulation result at the end of Stage I, at the
beginning of Stage II, the plasma total mass and energy are first
determined, based on which the plasma initial conditions (which
are assumed to be spatially uniform) in Stage II are determined.
As shown in Fig. 1, the plasma plume resulted from the 1D calculation in Stage I is in the shape of a cylinder (with the same radius
as the laser spot), which appears as a rectangle with two sharp corners at its top in the 2D r-z plane. At the beginning of Stage II, it
is assumed that the two sharp corners can be changed into two
quarter-circles (with the same radius as the laser spot), which has
been found to yield more reasonable long-term plasma profiles in
the simulation in Stage II. Although this two-stage model is an approximate approach, its predictions agree reasonably well with
some of the experimental measurements taken from the literature
as shown later.
2.1 Stage I: Plasma Generation and Early-Stage
Evolution. Ns laser pulse at sufficiently high intensities can drive
the target material above the thermodynamic critical temperature,
where the dominant mechanism for plasma generation is expected
to be hydrodynamic expansion [810]: driven by pressure gradient, the material in the target condensed phase moves into the
plasma plume above the target across a narrow transition layer at
around the target surface, where the material density decreases
quickly but continuously.
Following the same approach as the corresponding author and
Shins previous work in Ref. [10], the laser-induced plasma generation and its early stage evolution in Stage I are described through
061009-2 / Vol. 135, DECEMBER 2013

2.2 Stage II: Plasma Long-Term Evolution. At the end of

Stage I, the conditions of laser-induced plasma can be predicted
by the model in Stage I, which will be used to determine the
plasma initial conditions (in the way discussed earlier) for the
model calculation in Stage II, where the plasma long-term evolution in vacuum under the applied external magnetic field is
described by solving 2D gas dynamic equations in the plasma
plume region [11,12,14,25]
!

7
6
6 qVr 7
7
6
7
L6
6 qVz 7
5
4
Etotal
2
qVz
6
6
qVr Vz
!
6
N6
6
qVz2
4
!

@ L 1@M @N

r @r
@t
@z
2
rqVr
6
6
rqVr2
!
6
M6
6
rqVr Vz
4
3
7
7
7
7
7
5

Etotal PVz

(1a)

3
7
7
7
7
7
5

rEtotal PVr
2

7
6
7
6
 @P=@r
7
6
R6
~  a~z 7
7 (1b)
6 @P=@z J~ B
7
6
5
4
1 ~2 ~ ~ ~
J J  B  V
r

where r and z are spatial coordinates, q and P are the material density and pressure, respectively, Vr and Vz represents velocity components in r and z directions, respectively, t is time, Etotal is the
volumetric total energy, including both the internal energy and
the kinetic energy, a~z denotes the unit vector in z direction, r is
the plasma electrical conductivity, given by r 1=qr (where qr is
~ is the velocity vector, and J~ is the
the electrical resistivity), V
electric current density induced by electromagnetic field and can
be calculated as [11]
~  B
~
J~ rru V

(2)

where u represents the electrostatic potential, and the term ru in

Eq. (2) is neglected in this study. Also, following Ref. [11], it is
assumed that the magnetic field in plasma is equal to the externally applied magnetic field.
The plasma electrical resistivity, qr , can be calculated using the
following equation [28]:
qr

1 p3=2 me1=2 Ze2 c2 ln K

cE
22kB T 3=2

(3)

where cE is a parameter whose value depends on the ionic charge

Z [28], me is the electron mass, e is the electron charge, c is the
speed of light in vacuum, kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the
plasma temperature, and K can be calculated by [29]
s
12p e30 kB3 T 3
(4)
K 3
Ze
ne
Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://manufacturingscience.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 12/20/2014 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

where e0 is the permittivity of free space, and ne denotes the electron number density, which is obtained through Saha equations
[18] based on the aluminum ionization potentials [30,31]. Based
on the electron number density, the plasma EOS can also be
obtained [18].
In Stage II, it is assumed that at the target surface, the adiabatic
and no-slip boundary conditions can be applied. It should be noted
that the external magnetic field will induce the current density J~
~ J~ B
~ [11] in
and hence the electromagnetic (EM) force of F
the plasma. The force may confine the plasma expansion in z
direction and its expansion in any horizontal plane (a plane where
~ is not parz constant), as long as the plasma material velocity V
~ (see Eq. (2)). However, because the plasma overall
allel to B
expansion velocity in r direction is often smaller than the overall
velocity in z direction [5,32], the model in this paper mainly
focuses on the magnetic field confinement effect on the plasma
z-direction expansion, and the confinement effect in any horizontal plane is neglected in the model. In addition, in the studied time
range in Stage II the plasma velocity can go up to the order of
104 m/s, but the plasma overall mass density is low due to the
expansion. Therefore, the convection process is expected to be
dominant over the thermal conduction process, and hence the
latter is neglected in the model in Stage II.
The finite-difference essentially non oscillatory scheme from
Ref. [27] is applied to solve Eq. (1). Due to the very high expansion speed of laser-induced plasma in vacuum, a relatively large
computational domain in r and z directions is needed. This results
in a large computational cost, and therefore parallel computing
with message passing interface (MPI) [33] is performed on a
multi-core computer for this study.
It should be noted that although this paper follows the same
approach as the corresponding author and Shins previous work in
Ref. [10] for the model in Stage I, the model in Stage II is significantly different from that in Ref. [10]. In Ref. [10], the effect of
external magnetic field is not considered and the 2D gas dynamic
equations (Eq. (1)) are not numerically solved in Stage II. Instead,
in Ref. [10] a semi-analytical model has been applied to simulate
the process in Stage II. This has shown clear differences of the
work in this paper from the previous work in Ref. [10].

Results and Discussions

The prediction of the model will be compared with some of

the experimental measurements in Ref. [5] to test the model. In
Ref. [5], an 8-ns laser beam (wavelength: 1.06 lm and intensity:
4 GW/cm2) is incident onto an aluminum target, and the generated
plasma expands in vacuum under a transverse magnetic field
(B 0.64 T) [5]. An 8-ns laser pulse has also been used in the
simulation.
Figure 2(a) compares the model-predicted plasma front locations with those measured in Ref. [5], with and without the external magnetic field. Both the experiments and the model
calculations in the figure show that the external magnetic field has
a confinement effect on the plasma expansion. Figure 2(b) shows
the comparison of model-predicted electron number density at
1 mm from an aluminum target surface, with the experimentally
measured electron density at 1 mm from an aluminum target surface taken from Ref. [5]. It can be seen from Fig. 2 that the overall
agreements between the model predictions and the experimental
measurements given in the figure are reasonably good considering
that the involved physical process is very complicated.
Figure 3 shows the model-predicted spatial distributions of
plasma mass density with and without the external magnetic field.
For better comparisons, the density scale bars are the same for the
two plots. The plasma can expand without any confinement in
vacuum when there is no external magnetic field; however, when
the external magnetic field is applied, the plasma expansion will
be confined due to the induced EM force by the magnetic field in
the plasma. As a result, when there is no external magnetic field,
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Fig. 2 Comparisons of (a) model-predicted plasma front locations with experimental measurements taken from Ref. [5],
where the plasma is produced by ns laser ablation of an aluminum target in vacuum with or without a transverse magnetic
field (in Ref. [5], laser pulse duration: 8 ns, laser wavelength:
1.06 lm, and intensity: 4 GW/cm2; magnetic field: B 5 0.64 T),
and (b) model-predicted electron number density at 1 mm from
an aluminum target surface, with the experimentally measured
electron density at 1 mm from an aluminum target surface taken
from Ref. [5] (see Ref. [5] for experimental details and the measurement data error bar information).

the plasma has a much larger relative low-density region behind

its expanding top front than that with the external magnetic field,
which can be seen from Fig. 3. It can also be seen from Fig. 3 that
due to the confinement effect of the EM force induced by the magnetic field, the plasma density distribution is relatively more uniform than that without the magnetic field.
Figure 4 shows the spatial distributions of model-predicted
plasma temperature at different times, with and without the external magnetic field. When the magnetic field is absent, the plasma
peak temperature decreases quickly with time, and the percentage
of the plasma relative high-temperature (red) region is also
smaller than that when the external magnetic field exists (please
read the online electronic version of the paper for colorful
figures). This is because when there is no magnetic field, the
plasma expands freely without any confinement, during which
part of the plasma internal energy converts into its kinetic energy.
When the external magnetic field is applied, it can be seen that at
t 40 ns a high temperature (red) region exists right behind the
DECEMBER 2013, Vol. 135 / 061009-3

Downloaded From: http://manufacturingscience.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 12/20/2014 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

Fig. 3 Model-predicted spatial distributions of plasma density at t 5 90 ns with and without the
transverse external magnetic field (the plasma is induced by ns laser ablation of an aluminum
target in vacuum at 4 GW/cm2, and the density scale bars are the same for the two plots)

Fig. 4 Model-predicted spatial distributions of plasma temperature at different times with and
without the transverse external magnetic field (the plasma is induced by ns laser ablation of an
aluminum target in vacuum at 4 GW/cm2)

plasma top front and the overall plasma temperature is much

higher than that without the magnetic field. As time goes on, the
relative high-temperature region becomes larger and by t 70 ns
most of the plasma region becomes red (above 35,000 K). In addition, it can be seen that when the external magnetic field is applied
the plasma peak temperature drop from t 40 ns to t 70 ns is
much smaller. This is because under the magnetic field the plasma
expansion is strongly confined by the EM force, which will slow
down the plasma peak temperature drop.
Figure 5 shows the vector plots for plasma velocity distributions at t 90 ns, with and without the external magnetic field.
The same length scale is used for the two vector plots, so that
061009-4 / Vol. 135, DECEMBER 2013

the arrow length in the two plots can be compared to reveal the
relative velocity magnitude. When there is no external magnetic
field, the plasma expands freely in vacuum, and has much larger
overall velocity magnitudes than those under the magnetic field,
particularly at locations near the plasma top front. In addition,
when the magnetic field is applied, the spatial distribution of
plasma velocity magnitude becomes relatively more uniform than
that in the absence of magnetic field, which should be due to the
confinement effect of the EM force.
High-intensity ns laser-induced plasma evolution involves very
complicated physical processes, and the application of an external
magnetic field makes the processes even more difficult to model.
Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://manufacturingscience.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 12/20/2014 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

Fig. 5 Model-predicted vector plots for plasma velocity distributions at t 5 90 ns

with and without the transverse external magnetic field (the plasma is induced by
ns laser ablation of an aluminum target in vacuum at 4 GW/cm2)

It should be kept in mind that the employed two-stage model is

based on simplified assumptions. Although the model calculation
shows reasonably good agreements with the experimental
measurements given in Fig. 2, there still exists lots of good (but
certainly also very challenging) work to do in the future to
improve the model. For example, for laser ablation under certain
laser conditions phase explosion may occur at certain delay time
and spatial locations [3439]. It may be a good work in the future
to also include the possible effect of the phase explosion process
(if occurs) in the model. Another possible work in the future is to
extend the model to 3D so that it can better describe the plasma
lateral expansion and can also consider the magnetic field effect
on the lateral expansion. Certainly, the involved numerical challenge is expected to be huge. It is also among the possible future
work to consider in the model the possibly different behaviors of
electrons, neutral particles, and/or different ionic species in the
plasma and to consider the possible effect of plasma on the externally applied magnetic field.
Although previous studies exist in the literature (e.g.,
Refs. [57,4045]) about the effects of magnetic field on laserinduced plasma, the employed model in this paper adds a useful
tool for related scientific studies and practical applications.

Conclusion

The evolution of plasma produced by high-intensity ns laser ablation of a metal target in vacuum under an external magnetic field
has been studied through a two-stage physics-based model. In Stage
I (from t 0 to the end of laser pulse), the laser-induced plasma generation and its early-stage evolution are described through 1D
hydrodynamic equations coupled by a wide-range EOS. Then based
on the model-predicted plasma conditions at the end of Stage I, the
model in Stage II is applied to simulate the plasma long-term evolution by solving 2D gas dynamic equations. The model-predictions
agree reasonably well with some of the experimental measurements
taken from the literature [5] as shown in Fig. 2.
Based on the model, the study has revealed some of the major
effects of the magnetic field on plasma evolution under the investigated conditions: (i) the magnetic field has confinement effect on
the plasma expansion due to its induced EM force, and the material velocity in the plasma is reduced; (ii) as a result, the conversion of the plasma internal energy into its kinetic energy is
decreased, and the plasma overall temperature is higher than that
without the magnetic field; and (iii) the magnetic field has made
the spatial distributions of plasma parameters (e.g., density, temperature, and velocity) relatively more uniform.
It is good work in the future to improve and further test the
model. For many laser-based technologies, such as laser ablation,
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

pulsed laser deposition, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy [14,46], laser-induced plasma evolution may be an important process and may be affected by an externally applied
magnetic field. Therefore, the model may provide useful information for the relevant investigations about the above technologies if
an external magnetic field is also applied.

Acknowledgment
This material is based upon work supported by the National
Science Foundation under Grant Nos. CMMI 0970079 and
1000226. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do
not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science
Foundation.

References
[1] Greer, J. A., and Tabat, M. D., 1995, Large-area Pulsed Laser Deposition:
Techniques and Applications, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 13(3), pp. 11751181.
[2] Lowndes, D. H., Geohegan, D. B., Puretzky, A. A., Norton, D. P., and Rouleau,
C. M., 1996, Synthesis of Novel Thin-Film Materials by Pulsed Laser Deposition, Science, 273, pp. 898903.
[3] Popov, A. M., Colao, F., and Fantoni, R., 2010, Spatial Confinement of LaserInduced Plasma to Enhance LIBS Sensitivity for Trace Elements Determination
in Soils, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 25(6), pp. 837848.
[4] Cristoforetti, G., Lorenzetti, G., Benedetti, P. A., Tognoni, E., Legnaioli, S.,
and Palleschi, V., 2009, Effect of Laser Parameters on Plasma Shielding in
Single and Double Pulse Configurations During the Ablation of an Aluminium
Target, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 42, p. 225207.
[5] Harilal, S. S., Tillack, M. S., OShay, B., Bindhu, C. V., and Najmabadi, F.,
2004, Confinement and Dynamics of Laser-Produced Plasma Expanding
Across a Transverse Magnetic Field, Phys. Rev. E, 69, p. 026413.
[6] Harilal, S. S., Oshay, B., Tilllack, M. S., Bindhu, C. V., and Najmabadi, F.,
2005, Fast Photography of a Laser Generated Plasma Expanding Across a
Transverse Magnetic Field, IEEE T. Plasma Sci., 33(2), pp. 474475.
[7] Harilal, S. S., Oshay, B., Tao, Y., and Tilllack, M. S., 2007, Ion Debris Mitigation From Tin Plasma Using Ambient Gas, Magnetic Field, and Combined
Effects, Appl. Phys. B, 86, pp. 547553.
[8] Anisimov, S. I., Galburt, V. A., Ivanov, M. F., Poyurovskaya, I. E., and Fisher,
V. I., 1979, Analysis of the Interaction of a Laser Beam With a Metal, Sov.
Phys. Tech. Phys., 24(3), pp. 295299.
[9] Wu, B., Shin, Y. C., Pakhal, H., Laurendeau, N. M., and Lucht, R. P., 2007,
Modeling and Experimental Verification of Plasmas Induced by High-Power
Nanosecond Laser-Aluminum Interactions in Air, Phys. Rev. E, 76(2),
p. 026405.
[10] Wu, B., and Shin, Y. C., 2007, A Simple Two-Stage Model for the Formation
and Expansion of the Plasma Induced by High Intensity Nanosecond Laser
Metal Ablation in Vacuum, Phys. Lett. A, 371, pp. 128134.
[11] Pathak, K. A., and Chandy, A. J., 2009, Laser Ablated Carbon Plume Flow
Dynamics Under Magnetic Field, J. Appl. Phys, 105, p. 084909.
[12] Liu, T., Du, J., and Samulyak, R., 2008, A Numerical Algorithm for Magnetohydrodynamics of Ablated Materials, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 8, pp.
36743685.
[13] Lobao, D. C., and Povitsky, A., 2005, Interaction of Plume With Shock Waves
in Laser Ablation, AIAA J., 43(3), pp. 595607.

DECEMBER 2013, Vol. 135 / 061009-5

Downloaded From: http://manufacturingscience.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 12/20/2014 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

[14] Wu, B., Tao, S., Gao, Y., Zhou, Y., and Cheng, G., 2011, The Effect of
External Magnetic Field on the Plasma Induced by Laser Ablation in Vacuum,
Proceedings of the ASME 2011 International Mechanical Engineering Congress
& Exposition (IMECE2011-63259), Nov. 1117, Denver, CO.
[15] Anisimov, S. I., Lukyanchuk, B. S., and Luches, A., 1996, An Analytical
Model for Three-Dimensional Laser Plume Expansion into Vacuum in Hydrodynamic Regime, Appl. Surf. Sci., 9698, pp. 2432.
[16] Anisimov, S. I., Bauerle, D., and Lukyanchuk, B. S., 1993, Gas Dynamics
and Film Profiles in Pulsed-Laser Deposition of Materials, Phys. Rev. B,
48(16), pp. 1207612081.
[17] Gusarov, A. V., and Smurov, I., 2005, Thermal Model of Nanosecond Pulsed
Laser Ablation: Analysis of Energy and Mass Transfer, J. Appl. Phys., 97,
p. 014307.
[18] Zeldovich, Ya. B., and Raizer, Yu. P., 1966/1967, Physics of Shock Waves and
High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena, Academic Press, New York.
[19] More, R. M., Warren, K. H., Young, D. A., and Zimmerman, G. B., 1988, A
New Quotidian Equation of State (QEOS) for Hot Dense Matter, Phys. Fluids,
31(10), pp. 30593078.
[20] Lee, Y. T., and More, R. M., 1984, An Electron Conductivity Model for Dense
Plasmas, Phys. Fluids, 27(5), pp. 12731286.
[21] Desjarlais, M. P., 2001, Practical Improvements to the Lee-More Conductivity
Near the Metal-Insulator Transition, Contrib. Plasma Phys., 41(23), pp.
267270.
[22] Vidal, F., Johnston, T. W., Laville, S., Barthelemy, O., Chaker, M., Le Drogoff,
B., Margot, J., Sabsabi, M., 2001, Critical-Point Phase Separation in Laser
Ablation of Conductors, Phys. Rev. Lett., 86(12), pp. 25732576.
[23] Pedrotti, F. L., and Pedrotti, L. S., 1993, Introduction to Optics, Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, NJ.
[24] Ginzburg, V. L., 1961, Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasma,
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York.
[25] Tannehill, J. C., Anderson, D. A., and Pletcher, R. H., 1997, Computational
Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC.
[26] LeVeque, R. J., 1992, Numerical Methods for Conservation Laws, Birkhauser,
Verlag, Basel, Boston, MA.
[27] Liu, X. D., and Osher, S., 1998, Convex ENO High Order Multi-Dimensional
Schemes Without Field by Field Decomposition or Staggered Grids, J. Comput. Phys., 142(2), pp. 304330.
[28] Spitzer, L., 1956, Physics of Fully Ionized Gases, Interscience Publishers, New
York.
[29] Mitchner, M., and Kruger, C. H. Jr., 1973, Partially Ionized Gases, Wiley, New
York.
[30] Kaufman, V., and Martin, W. C., 1991, Wavelengths and Energy Level Classifications for the Spectra of Aluminum (Al-I Through Al-XIII), J. Phys. Chem.
Ref. Data, 20(5), pp. 775858.

061009-6 / Vol. 135, DECEMBER 2013

[31] Zaghloul, M. R., Bourham, M. A., and Doster, J. M., 2000, A Simple Formulation and Solution Strategy of the Saha Equation for Ideal and Nonideal
Plasmas, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 33, pp. 977984.
[32] Singh, R. K., and Narayan, J., 1990, Pulsed-Laser Evaporation Technique for
Deposition of Thin Films: Physics and Theoretical Model, Phys. Rev. B,
41(13), pp. 88438859.
[33] Pacheco, P. S., 1997, Parallel Programming With MPI, Morgan Kaufmann
Publishers, San Francisco CA.
[34] Yoo, J. H., Jeong, S. H., Greif, R., and Russo, R. E., 2000, Explosive Change
in Crater Properties During High Power Nanosecond Laser Ablation of Silicon, J. Appl. Phys., 88(3), pp. 16381649.
[35] Song, K. H., and Xu, X., 1998, Explosive Phase Transformation in Excimer
Laser Ablation, Appl. Surf. Sci., 127129, pp. 111116.
[36] Porneala, C., and Willis, D. A., 2009, Time-resolved Dynamics of Nanosecond
Laser-Induced Phase Explosion, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 42, p. 155503.
[37] Feng, X., Wang, X., 2007, Nanodomain Shock Wave in Near-Field
LaserMaterial Interaction, Phys. Lett. A, 369, pp. 323327.
[38] Zhigilei, L. V., 2003, Dynamics of the Plume Formation and Parameters of the
Ejected Clusters in Short-Pulse Laser Ablation, Appl. Phys. A, 76, pp.
339350.
[39] Miotello, A., and Kelly, R., 1995, Critical Assessment of Thermal Models
for Laser Sputtering at High Fluences, Appl. Phys. Lett., 67(24), pp.
35353537.
[40] Pandey, P. K., and Thareja, R. K., 2011, Plume Dynamics and Cluster Formation in Laser-Ablated Copper Plasma in a Magnetic Field, J. Appl. Phys.,
109(7), p. 074901.
[41] Shen, X. K., Lu, Y. F., Gebre, T., Ling, H., and Han, Y. X., 2006, Optical
Emission in Magnetically Confined Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy,
J. Appl. Phys., 100(5), p. 053303.
[42] Guo, L. B., Hu, W., Zhang, B. Y., He, X. N., Li, C. M., Zhou, Y. S., Cai, Z. X.,
Zeng, X. Y., and Lu, Y. F., 2011, Enhancement of Optical Emission from
Laser-Induced Plasmas by Combined Spatial and Magnetic Confinement, Opt.
Express, 19(15), pp. 1406714075.
[43] Dimonte, G., and Wiley, L. G., 1991, Dynamics of Exploding Plasmas in a
Magnetic Field, Phys. Rev. Lett., 67(13), pp. 17551758.
[44] Kim, T. H., Nam, S. H., Park, H. S., Song, J. K., and Park, S. M., 2007, Effects
of Transverse Magnetic Field on a Laser-Produced Zn Plasma Plume and ZnO
Films Grown by Pulsed Laser Deposition, Appl. Surf. Sci., 253, pp.
80548058.
[45] Neogi, A., and Thareja, R. K., 1999, Dynamics of Laser Produced Carbon
Plasma Expanding in a Nonuniform Magnetic Field, J. Appl. Phys., 85(2), pp.
11311136.
[46] Harilal, S. S., OShay, B., and Tillack, M. S., 2005, Spectroscopic Characterization of Laser-Induced Tin Plasma, J. Appl. Phys., 98(1), p. 013306.

Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://manufacturingscience.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 12/20/2014 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms