Paolo Pinto

Aeronautical Engineer and Computer Programmer

The Pacejka Equation

Since the 70s Dr. Pacejka has been developing several tyre behaviour models
which led to the Magic Formula : a function simulating with relative
simplicity and good approximation the main tyre characteristics.
The Magic Formula is a transcendent function :
Y(x) = D sen(C arctan(Bx E [ Bx arctan(Bx) ] )
where B,C,D,E are coefficients. relevan
The x, y variables can be associated from time to time to different parameters ;
for example :
x = slip angle , y = Fy
force

if studying the tyres ability to provide centripetal

x = slip ratio

for the tractive force

, y = Fx

It is also possibile to take into account camber, ply steer and conicity, with
slight modifications..
The function actually has the near-magic property of being useful for simulating
many different tyre phenomena just by changing the coefficient and the
meanings of x, y.

Function study
The Y(x) function is anti-symmetric ; it always goes through the axis origin and
it always has there a null second derivative.
In tyre models y(0) >0 is always desiderable ; it is possibile to demonstrate that
this implies B,C being of the same sign.
For the same reason it must always be y(0) < 0 ; this implies
E > -(1 + C2/2)
The curve always shows an horizontal asymptote for x tending to infinity.
The asymptotes value is :
D sen(C/2)
if E <1

D sen (C arctan (/2))

-D sen (C/2)

if E =1
if E >1

As a consequence, the need to have y(x)>0 for x tending to infinity leads to

coefficients :
E<1 ; 0 <C <2
It must be said that several other different couples of values for E, C could suit
this need.

The B parameter
B is called Stiffness Factor
It controls the slope of the curve at the origin ; in practical models it must
always be B>0
It must be pointed out that B also exerts a strong influence on the relative
minimum and maximum position

The C parameter
C is called Shape Factor
The possible presence of a relative maximum (a peak in NON mathematically
correct terms) on the right of the zero depends on C being >1 (provided the
previously stated conditions are met) .
This maximum happens at m ; a position which may be obtained from :
B(1-E)m + E arctan(Bm) = tan (/(2C))

(*)

The bigger the value of C, the more pronounced the maximum.

Typical values for C are 1.3 for the centripetal force simulation and 1.6 for the
tractive force simulation

The D parameter
D is also called Peak Value
It constitutes a superior limit to the functions values, since the factor : .
sen(C arctan(Bx E [ Bx arctan(Bx) ] )
cannot obviously exceed 1 .

The E parameter
E is also called Curvature Factor; it is usually set at a value less than zero. As the
absolute value of E goes down the curve assumes a flatter shape

PHISICAL APPLICATION
Not many data are available in technical literature about the real tyres
characteristics, expecially about race tyres.

Although this is understandable for the latest developements, this desolating

scarcity is the same even for 20 years old designs.
When data are available they are often only partial : for example in [2] the
Lateral Force vs Slip Angle plots stop at = 6, and only 4 different values of
vertical load are considered.
This makes the Magic formula useful to those wanting to create a race vehicle
simulation., since it allows to extend the tyre behaviour to the whole range of
slip angles and vertical loads, once that the parameters are set to match a limited
quantity of experimental data.
Obviously it will be impossible to have a perfect match ; one must also consider
that all of the analytical formulas (and many numeric solutions too) used in
Engineering are useful only to give a first approximation, to the Experimental
Engineers delight.
Another application of the curves is the simulation of tyre for which no data is
available at all, by making use of the ones of similar tyres.
For example, if wanting to simulate a tyre similar to a given one, but a softer
compound, it will often be enough to raise the value of D.
This because (AS A RULE OF THUMB) , B,C,E depend on the carcass
construction, while D depends on the compound.
If it is desired a tyre able to give the pilot a very clear warning of the limits
approaching (as in videgames, where a lack of the acceleration input ought to be
compensated by an enhanced visual input), the parameters of choice are C and
E, since they rule on the adherences fall after the maximum.
A wider (and hence stiffer) tyre can be simulated by an increase of B, which
will increase the initial slope. In this case it will also be useful a decrease in C,
to diminish the BCD parameter on which the peak adherence slip angle depends.
The Pacejka curves are here used to plot the various diagrams , i.e. slip
angle versus adherence coefficient , at varying vertical loads FZ
It must be said that this kind of approach is not very common in literature, since
usually the centripetal force is plotted, instead of the adherence coefficient.
The two values are anyway linked by a proportionality factor, thereby
legitimating this change.
It wont be unuseful to remember that adherence factor is not an exceedingly
formally correct term , since it would be more orthodox to refer to a normalized
force Fy/Fz
The easy understanding of will anyway led to its use in these pages.

D coefficient variability under vertical load

In starting the calculations for a complete tyre, the first value to be fixed should
be D, wich takes into account the adherence factor.

For a Formula One tyre, a value of 1.8 under a vertical load of 600 kg will be in
the ballpark
It is very important to make D dependent on the vertical load F z , since the
maximum adherence value depends on it.
A good formula, presented (in different ways) in [2] and [3] , will be :
= a1Fz + a2
(**)
where a1<0 ; a2>0
It ought to be pointed out that the nonetheless interesting paper [3] suggests
(Chapter 24) positive values for both these coefficients, a statement not
congruent with experimental data.
As an alternative it can be used the formula shown in [4] :
= 0 / (1+tFz)
(***)
Of course the right coefficient must be found; referring to the experimental
values given (in a different form) for a Goodyear front F1 tyre in [2], after a
brief comparative analysis it is observed that (**) provides a better match, at
least for this kind of tyre.
Plausibile values for the coefficients are :
a1 = -00138
a2 = 1.988
where FZ is measured in Kg
To all practical effects D is the adherence factor under a zero vertical load; the
ample variability of D under load (it can easily vary between 1.8 and 1.2) helps
understanding how far are the tyres adherence mechanics from the simple
Couloumbian model

Cornering stiffness variability under load

Cornering stiffness is normally meant as dFy/d ; in this paper it will be meant
as d/d .
The value dFy/d increases with the vertical load; yet d/d decreases with Fz.
Slip angle stiffness depends on thje vertical load by the formula :
BCD = a3 sen (2 arctan(FZ/a4))
By all practical means this leads to intervene on B and C , since D is chosen on
different grounds.
Yet it is important that the value of D be the one appropriate for the given load .
Unfortunately, it is not possible to use equation (*) to close the algebraic system,
since this would introduce the new variable E.
The best approach would of course be a numerical one, which finds the best
B,C,E triplet ; yet many numerical solution benefit from reasonably accurate
starting values.

Now, some hints are given for C, at least : as previously stated its value ought to
be comprised beetween 0 and 2 ; Ref. [1] quotes 1.3 as a good value (although
it is not stated which kind of tyre was examined to determine this)
So it will be, at least for a first evaluation
C = 1.3
The previous formula can therefore be rewritten as :
B = (a3 sen (2 arctan(FZ/a4))) / (C (a1Fz + a2))
The values to research are a3 and a4 , since all other parameters are set.
Once again it is possible to refer to the experimental values
The a4 parameter controls the diagram bending , while a3 is an intensity term.
Reasonable starting values can be :
a3 = 1.37
a4 = 120
where vertical load is expressed in Kg.

The maximums position

As a check it is possibile to observe what happens to m when the load increases
; it should increase too.
Lets remember its value is given by :
B(1-E)m + E arctan(Bm) = tan (/(2C))

(*)

A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE
Here is a plot of Pacejkas curves for a tyre of the following characteristics ,
under different vertical loads:
C
1,35
E
-0,4
a1
0,00138
a2
1,988
a3
1,37
a4
120

Adherence coefficient vs Slip Angle for a front F1 tyre

Glossary
Fx : force acting along the road in a direction orthogonal to the wheel axis
Fy : force acting along the road in the wheels axis direction
FZ : Vertical load on the tyre
m = slip angle of maximum adherence
= slip angle
= adherence factor

Bibliografia :
[1] M. Guiggiani : Dinamica del veicolo ; Citt Studi Edizioni
[2] M. Milliken, D.Milliken : Race Car Dynamics ; SAE

[3] Brian Beckman ; The Phisics of Racing ; Online Document

[4] G.Rimondi, P.Gavardi ; A new interpolative model of the mechanical
characteristics of the tyre as an input to handling models ; Rivista ATA 6/7/1991