South East RTS

Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

REVISION 7 (Sunday, 26 February 2012 at 20:17)

PUBLISHED Sunday, 12 February 2012

Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

Contents
Contents .................................................................................................................................................. 2
Section - 1

Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 3

Section - 2

Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) ...................................................................................... 3

2.1

Methods of Operation ........................................................................................................... 4

2.2

Limitations of PSR .................................................................................................................. 5

Section - 3

Transponders .................................................................................................................... 6

Section - 4

Secondary Surveillance RADAR (SSR) ................................................................................ 6

4.1

Limitations of SSR .................................................................................................................. 7

4.2

Data processing and presentation......................................................................................... 9

4.3

Mode S transponders .......................................................................................................... 11

Section - 5

Methods of identification, validation and verification ................................................... 12

5.1

Identification ....................................................................................................................... 12

5.1.1

Identification using PSR ....................................................................................................... 12

5.1.1.1

Turn Method ................................................................................................................... 13

5.1.1.2

Departure Method .......................................................................................................... 13

5.1.1.3

Position Report Method .................................................................................................. 13

5.1.2

Identification using SSR ....................................................................................................... 13

5.1.2.1

Code Change ................................................................................................................... 14

5.1.2.2

Validation of previously identified data .......................................................................... 14

5.1.2.3

IDENT method ................................................................................................................. 14

5.2

Validation of Mode A codes ................................................................................................ 14

5.3

Verification of Mode C......................................................................................................... 14

Section - 6

Squawk Codes ................................................................................................................. 15

6.1

Flight Plan code ................................................................................................................... 15

6.2

Approach unit codes ............................................................................................................ 15

6.3

Conspicuity codes ................................................................................................................ 16

6.4

Listening codes .................................................................................................................... 16

Section - 7

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 16

Section - 8

Further Reading............................................................................................................... 16

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

This document is written for VATSIM-UK approach controllers and is for the use on the VATSIM
network only! It goes without saying this document should never be used outside of this
environment.

Section - 1 Introduction
Radio detection and ranging (RADAR) was, famously, developed in secret during World War Two in
order to detect enemy aircraft approaching. It has since been exploited in a variety of capacities
including radio astronomy, motor vehicle detection, weather and terrain information gathering,
outer space rendezvous systems and guided missile targeting systems. Of course our primary
interest is in the application for air traffic control systems. This document will detail the operation
and interpretation of RADAR systems for air traffic services.

Section - 2 Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR)

Primary surveillance RADAR is the most basic of RADAR systems applied in an aviation capacity. It is
classic radar reflecting all echoes including clouds, aircraft and other object alike. This has some
advantages all targets can be observed by RADAR whether they want to or not and objects
wishing to be detected require no additional equipment. However this system provides only
position information and by monitoring change of position or detecting Doppler shift - speed
information.

Figure 1 Primary Surveillance RADAR (PSR) in use at Solent.

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

2.1 Methods of Operation

The RADAR system consists of two key components. A transmitter which emits radio waves in
defined directions and a receiver which detects radio waves from specific directions. These are often
co-located (but sometimes they are not) and are always pointing in the same direction. This principle
detects objects because the radio waves from the transmitter are reflected by the object and
detected as reflected waves by the detector.
Distance information is ascertained by response time the further away an object is the longer the
return pulse takes to be detected. There are considerations when using RADAR for detecting range
the pulse needs to be powerful enough to reach the object and return to the transmitter. To
increase the range of a RADAR system requires compromises in accuracy of the returns detected.
Direction of the object is determined by the direction that the detector and transmitter are pointing
when they receive the signal. In order to build up a picture of the sky in a reliable and consistent
manner both the detector and transmitter are usually rotating. The rotation speed is an important
variable when designing RADAR systems.
Speed of an object is calculable by two methods either by memory systems within a computer
interpreting the results and comparing each blip to the previous position or by analysing the
returning signal which will have some Doppler shift associated with it. This is a phenomenon that
results in the change in frequency of a wave when it is emitted from a moving object. Since we know
the transmitted frequency then by measuring the frequency of reflected waves we can gain an
understanding of the velocity of the source.
RADAR systems spend relatively small amounts of their time transmitting instead taking in as much
data as possible in the form of reflected waves. The system performs flip-flopping transmitting a
pulse and then listening for reflections. After a defined time it transmits a second pulse and
listens for further reflections. This is repeated until the head has completed a full revolution to build
up a picture of the sky.

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

Figure 2 Typical RADAR head arrangement combining PSR and SSR. Credit (FAA)

2.2 Limitations of PSR

PSR is limited in the following ways

By line of sight to avoid obstacles RADAR sites are often on hills and mounted above the
surrounding landscape. This means RADAR systems have a floor below which nothing can
be seen usually several hundred feet above the surrounding terrain. Similarly in
mountainous environments RADAR systems may suffer from loss of signal due to the
relative positioning of the object, the transmitter, detector and terrain.
RADAR overhead the RADAR head is unable to transmit directly upwards. This results in a
small area overhead the RADAR where reflections are distorted or are entirely non-existent.
This forms a cone the diameter of which is approximately 3nm at FL100 and expands the
higher it gets.
The maximum non-ambiguous range. That is the range a pulse can travel and return to the
detector prior to the next pulse being transmitted. This is a result of the flip-flopping
system (discussed above) with defined listening periods. On a rotating detector this is the
maximum range a pulse can travel, be reflected, and still be detected before the RADAR
begins transmitting again. Longer range RADAR systems have a very slow RPM in order to
collect data from the further targets this allows the transmission and detection of longer
pulses (to improve accuracy) however the accuracy of the range information is reduced
by having longer blips.
RADAR sensitivity (and power of the return target). While planes, being made of metal are
very good reflectors the smaller and more composite based aircraft will return weaker
signals. Coupled with high noise levels and environmental factors the RADAR system will
eventually be unable to deconvolute the signal from the background.

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

Heavy or widespread precipitation can cause strong returns to appear on a PSR which
reduces information on aircraft within that area. This information can be filtered by reducing
the range of the RADAR head or by reducing the gain on the signal.

Section - 3 Transponders
Aircraft transponders are electronic devices that provide a defined response when it detects a
specific radio pulse known as an interrogation. The transponder has a settable code which assists
in identification and monitoring of specific aircraft as well as functionality which allows for the
reporting of altitude to the air traffic system.
Under mode A, the transponder responds with the transponder code only. These are four digit, octal
numbers (digits 0 through 7) which allows for the transmission of the code in 12 binary bits. A
thirteenth bit is reserved for the ident function. A bit is recorded on the transponder as 12
readable and writable electronic states either 1 (on) or 0 (off). The transponder then converts the
on or off to a radio signal which is then transmitted in 0.45s pulses. The RADAR head then
decodes these pulses back into 1s and 0s which can then be interpreted by the equipment on the
ground. This results in 212 codes available for selection by a transponder. When you divide that by
the 4 digits of the transponder we are limited to 8 selectable numbers on the panel. (Since 212=84)
Where rated as mode C, the transponder returns the pressure altitude, encoding using a Gilham
code - occupying another four-bit octal code as well as the transponder code.

Section - 4 Secondary Surveillance RADAR (SSR)

Secondary surveillance RADAR provides not only range and position information (as PSR does, see
above in section 3) but also additional information such as aircraft squawk code (and thus the
identity of the aircraft), pressure altitude, and (where aircraft and RADAR systems are equipped with
Mode S) supplementary information.
SSR relies on the same equipment as PSR with one exception each target must be equipped with
a transponder. SSR detects a different frequency than it transmits in order to gather the secondary
information. None of the transmitted (and thus reflected) waves are detected by the SSR. Pulses
transmitted by SSR are much weaker than PSR because they do not need to be detected as
reflections.
Interrogation of a transponder by a RADAR sweep allows for improved understanding and increased
information about aircraft in the vicinity of the RADAR head. As the interrogation pulse is detected
by the transponder it sends its own signal back to the RADAR receiver. This signal contains a
variety of information depending on the mode of operation that the transponder is equipped with
and the information requested by the RADAR head. This interrogation and response method forms a

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

network of computers talking to each other via radio frequencies. PSR is, by comparison, a primitive
system which bounces a significant amount of energy through the airspace seeking responses.

Figure 3 Secondary Surveillance RADAR (SSR) (only) in use at Solent

Just as the PSR spends much of its time receiving so does an SSR. It is also only designed to capture
either the mode A information or the mode C information at any one time. It transmits two pulses
(one requesting mode A information and the other requesting mode C information) of about 0.2s
separated by a gap of 21s. The 21s gap is used to receive information from the transponders that
have been interrogated by the 0.2s transmission. The RADAR head receives 21s of mode A
information followed by a short period of transmission followed by another 21s of receiving mode
C information after which the sequence then repeats. The RADAR head communicates all of this
information to the data processing system which combines it and displays it on the situation display
for the controller.
For backup purposes PSR and SSR are often combined in order to provide information about nontransponder equipped objects and to prevent any SSR malfunctions (at either the aircraft or ground
station end) causing unwanted loss of information.

4.1 Limitations of SSR

The limitations of SSR are detailed below

While 4096 (212 or 84) squawk codes might seem like a sufficient number once specific use
codes have been allocated many areas of congested airspace suffer from a lack of available

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

squawk codes. For this reason they have to be very carefully managed not only nationally
but across continents. For this reason in many ACCs (for example Maastricht) some flights
are becoming solely reliant on Mode S which eliminates the need for unique squawk
codes.
Since all aircraft will reply to SSR when it is detected the replies can sometimes merge
together meaning traffic can be detected in the wrong position or its signal can be
superimposed on another resulting in the traffic disappearing entirely. This process is
called Garbling. Further to these problems traffic within 2nm of each other can sometimes
get their responses intertwined this results in aircraft swapping datatags.
While traffic is being interrogated by one ground signal it cannot reply to another request
this means that responses to second RADAR heads can be delayed by up to 0.1s resulting
in further inaccuracies.
FRUITing (False Replies Unsynchronised to Interrogator Transmission). This occurs where
one or more of the targets involved is in the main beam of at least two interrogators. This
results in replies to a RADAR head which didnt request a response several of these can
build up to present a target on a controller display which does not exist.
SSR requires traffic to have a transponder installed and functional. Using SSR alone produces
an incomplete picture as traffic may be permitted to operate within airspace without a
transponder.

Many (if not all) of these deficiencies are addressed by the implementation of Mode S systems.

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

Figure 4 RADAR floor and slope definitions. Image credit: Todor Atanasov

4.2 Data processing and presentation

As discussed above (in sections 4 and 5) with mode C transponders (and even mode S
transponders) the information returned to a RADAR site by a transponder is limited to live
information (position, pressure altitude, speed (rate of change of position), vertical speed (rate of
change of pressure altitude) and track. All other information such as flightplan, assigned heading,
assigned speed, co-ordination point, exit level, scratchpad information and aircraft type data is all
held on the ground. This is presented to the controller as either as part of a datablock (and
associated functionality within) or by flight strip (or some combination of the two).

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

Figure 5 Example of data processing sources as presented on a situation display

In its raw form Mode A/C SSR data is displayed as a blip, a pressure altitude and a squawk code. To
improve situational awareness and to take full advantage of SSR systems are designed to perform an
operation known as code/callsign conversion. This is the process of matching a squawk code from a
SSR return to an allocated squawk code in a flight plan. For this to work effectively traffic which
needs to be code/callsign converted needs to be allocated a unique squawk code. Duplicated
squawk codes can result in erroneous results being displayed to the controller. The process of
combining RADAR information and flight plan information is known as correlation

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

Figure 6 Demonstration of data presentation examples for a) PSR only; b)PSR+SSR together and c) PSR, SSR
with code/callsign conversion.

4.3 Mode S transponders

Mode S (select) transponders are able to return an even greater level of information. Each aircraft,
when manufactured, is given a unique 24-bit fixed address, the system now interrogates this code,
and a Mode S transponder returns information such as the full callsign, pressure altitude, indicated
airspace, indicated heading, track, QNH setting, level selected on the MCP. The system periodically
checks for all Mode S aircraft in the vicinity allowing for any new targets to be interrogated. . Given
that Mode S is not (currently) used on VATSIM this section is intentionally brief.

Parameter

PSR

SSR

Mode S

Who is visible

Everyone

Only those with a

transponder

Only those with a

Mode S transponder

Human Error potential

Nil being in the air

renders you visible

Reliant on entry of
correct SSR code

Reliant on entry of
callsign to transponder

Transmitted beam
strength

Strong (to reflect)

Weak (to trigger

transponder)

Weak (to trigger

transponder)

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

Range

Lower and dependant

on aircraft

Higher - Independent
of target cross-section.

Higher - Independent
of target cross-section

Interrogation

Nil

Broad - asking for all

Mode A / C

Selective asking for

each aircraft

Reply limitation

Nil aircraft reflects

every wave

Cannot be interrogated
at same time (1.5s)

Is told not to reply by

the RADAR head

Duplication limit

Nil

4096 codes available

16.7 million

What information is
returned

Position and Speed

As PSR & transponder

code & altitude

As SSR & a multitude

of information

Side Effects

Tradeoff between
range and accuracy

FRUITing, Garbling and

other issues

Nil

Figure 7 Table detailing the advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary RADAR as well as
Mode S.

Section - 5 Methods of identification, validation and verification

The concepts in this section can be easily muddled. In many situations these three procedures
happening simultaneously;
Identification: The situation which exists when the position indication of a particular aircraft is seen
on a situation display and positively identified. (ICAO)
Validation: Confirming that any assigned mode A code is set correctly by the pilot.
Verification: Confirmation of the accuracy of the mode C readout by the controller. (MATS Pt 1)

5.1 Identification
Identification is required for both PSR and SSR data returns to corroborate the information on the
situation display. Depending on whether the controller is able to utilise PSR or SSR will determine
which method they are able to use.
A pilot must be informed as soon as their aircraft is identified when outside of controlled airspace or
where identification if completed using the method detailed in 5.1.1.1.

5.1.1 Identification using PSR

One of the following methods is to be employed when PSR is used to identify aircraft. Other
equipment (where installed and approved) may be used. These methods are rarely used on VATSIM

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

as it is always possible to access SSR information. They are included for those controllers simulating
primary only facilities.

5.1.1.1 Turn Method

The turn method is commonly used for PSR identification, particularly where it has not departed
from nearby aerodrome. To identify a particular aircraft on a situation display where all returns
appears identical requires one of those returns to perform a unique action. As we only have very
basic amount of data (no transponder or altitude information) we identify by observing heading and
track changes.
This method requires the controller to ascertain the heading of an aircraft and, following a period of
observation, changing the track of the aircraft by at least 30. This turn can be:
an instruction from the controller
an instruction from another controller
reported by the pilot.
Traffic must always be informed when identified by turn method and must always be given its
position.

5.1.1.2 Departure Method

Identification can be achieved by correlating a PSR return within 1nm of the end of the departure
runway with a known airborne time. Care must be taken to avoid mistaking the aircraft for one
conducting a missed approach, overflying the airfield, holding overhead the airfield or departing
from an adjacent runway.

5.1.1.3 Position Report Method

This method can be used where a pilot reports:

Over an exact reporting point displayed on the situation display

At a particular distance(not exceeding 30nm) on a particular radial from a co-located VOR/

DME or TACAN (DME). The source facility must be displayed on the situation display.

over a VRP or other prominent geographical location displayed on the controller display as
long as the pilot is clear of cloud, visual with the surface and below a height of 3000ft.

This method should be reinforced using an alternative if there is any doubt about its validity.

5.1.2 Identification using SSR

Identification of transponder equipped aircraft can be accomplished using three methods (as well as
the methods detailed in 5.1.1.). Controllers allocating any mode A code must also validate that code.

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

5.1.2.1 Code Change

By observation of compliance with the instruction to select a discrete four digit code transponder
code. Note:- This method requires the controller to see the Mode A code change for it be a valid
method.

5.1.2.2 Validation of previously identified data

Recognising a validated mode A code previously assigned to that aircrafts callsign. Where
code/callsign conversion is in use, recognising the callsign on the display is enough to maintain
identity provided the code has been validated.

5.1.2.3 IDENT method

Observing the IDENT feature when it has been requested by the controller. Caution should be used
for simultaneous requests for IDENT in the same area. Aircraft squawking 7000 are not to be
identified using this method.

5.2 Validation of Mode A codes

A controller assigning any mode A code must validate the code by checking as soon as possible that
the data displayed corresponds with the code that has been assigned. The code must be checked by
one of the following methods:

Instructing the aircraft to squawk the assigned code and observing that the correct numbers
appear on the situation display;

Instructing the aircraft to squawk IDENT and simultaneously checking the code numbers (or
callsign when code/callsign conversions are in use) associated with the SSR response;

Matching an already identified PSR return with the assigned code for the flight.

Controllers may deem mode A codes have been validated when they have been assigned by another
controller who is capable of validating the code (e.g. APP or CTR with SSR) except where the code in
use is a conspicuity code.

5.3 Verification of Mode C

Controllers are to verify the accuracy of Mode C data, once the aircraft has been identified and the
Mode A validated, by checking that the readout indicates 200 feet or less from the level reported by
the pilot.
Traffic with a deemed validated mode A code is assumed to have had its mode C readout verified.

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

Figure 8 Example of simultaneous identification, verification and validation on outbound traffic.

Section - 6 Squawk Codes

Squawk codes are essential for controllers to correlate traffic using SSR. They are sorted and
managed on a European level by Eurocontrol this prevents any overlap of squawk codes and a
large usable database. There are several types of squawk code discussed below.

6.1 Flight Plan code

This code is allocated to all airways traffic around 30 minutes before the flight plan off-block time. In
Euroscope these codes are allocated using the UKA plugin. On VATSIM this code is often kept for the
entire flight but in the real world the code may be changed each time traffic crosses an ORCAM
boundary. The world is split up into ORCAM regions in which no duplication of squawk code is
permitted. When an aircraft crosses an ORCAM boundary, it may be allocated a new squawk code in
order to prevent duplication in the new region.

6.2 Approach unit codes

Each RADAR unit is provided with a selection of codes which are available to non-airways traffic
joining and leaving controlled airspace for the purposes of identification and provision of services
inside and outside of controlled airspace. There are a limited number of these codes so it is
important to manage them carefully know which codes are already allocated and to retrieve
each code at the conclusion of the RADAR service by allocating a new code (e.g. 7000). Each aircraft
should be given a unique code which should not be repeated within the range of operation for that
approach unit. Each unit is allocated unique codes and because these will often extend to being
unique within the FIR.

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Introduction to RADAR
Principle of RADAR operation and interpretation of presented data

6.3 Conspicuity codes

Conspicuity codes are codes which are used to indicate the purpose of the flight and not its identity.
These codes include 7000 (general flight outside CAS), 7010 (aerodrome circuit), 0033 (paradropping) and other codes which are used by individual airports. Conspicuity codes cannot be
validated and the Mode C height information associated with them cannot be verified.
Usually one conspicuity code is provided for each unit. It should be set by pilots who are receiving a
service from the unit but do not need to be identified (for example under a basic or procedural
service). This code signifies to other controllers which unit the aircraft is talking to and therefore
allows coordination or other interactions to take place. The same code will be used by many aircraft
to indicate the ATC unit they are in communication with.

6.4 Listening codes

Some conspicuity codes are used to signify to the controller that the aircraft is on frequency, but do
not require a service from that unit. This enables the controller to establish communications if
necessary, though this is still challenging as the controller does not know the callsign of the aircraft.
Listening codes are for use within the vicinity of that unit or its airspace. The same code will be used
by many aircraft and (as above), cannot be validated and Mode C height information cannot be
verified.

Section - 7 Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Callum Presley for provision of excellent background reading, Ben
Hunwicks for useful discussion on mode S operations as well as to Dan Parkin, Kieran Hardern and
especially George Wright for their excellent feedback, suggestions and amendments.

Section - 8 Further Reading

MATS Part 1 (http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP493Part1corr.pdf )
Eurocontrol Mode S overview
(http://www.eurocontrol.int/msa/public/standard_page/modes_operational_overview.html)
CAA Squawk tables
(http://www.ead.eurocontrol.int/pamslight/pdf/4e415453/EG/C/EN/AIP/ENR/EG_ENR_1_6_en)
In depth RADAR information (http://www.radartutorial.eu/index.en.html)

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