Theory of extragalactic radio sources Mitchell C. Begelman Joins Inu for Laboratory Astrophysics, University of Colorado and National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado 80309 ‘and Department of Astrophysical, Planetary, and Atmosphere Sciences, Unversity of Colorado, Boulder Colorado 80509 Roger D. Blandford ‘Theoretical Astrophcs, California Institut of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125 Martin J. Rees Institue of Astronomy, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 OHA England Powerful extragalactic radio roures comprise two extended regions containing magnetic fed and synchroton-emiting relativistic dectrons, each linked by ato ctrl compact radio source located the maceur ofthe atoiated galaxy. Thene sare climate stream of plasma that emerge from then ‘deus in opposite rections, long which flow mass, momentum, energ, and magnetic Mux. Methods of ws ing the observations diagnostically to infer the ressures, denis, and Oi velocities within js are ox: Dine. The ets terminate in the extended radio components, where they itract strongly withthe sut- founding medium trough a combioation f shock waves and iataities Ita may expand freely, be come fined by external pas pressure, or be pinched by toroidal magnetic fields. Shear flows are known to be Keli Helmholtz untae and thus may be responsible fr some ofthe observed oclation af ats about their mean directions and for creating the turbulence and shock waves nosed to accelerate the eativitc clectrona. Large-scale bending may be catsed by change inthe ans within te nucleus, gravitational interaction af the radio galaxy with a companion galaxy, of rapid motion of the source through dense iter- {aletc gas. The compact radio soures also exlbit eet morphology and contin more dfct clues a (9 the origins of jets: in particular, the variations sometimes obuervd imply bull lows that are relat is widely belived that nuclear activity is ulimately scribble to gas accreting onto a massive back hole ‘The acttion can proceed in several diferent fashion, depending upon whether ce not the gas has angular ‘momentum and whether or not the radiation emitd is suffice intense to influence the dynamics of the ‘oe. Several distinct mechanisms Tor et production inthe content of black hols have been propose. (A ternative mechanisms involving dense star clusters and masive spinning stars are alo reviewed) Sop. Sone jets may’be collimated along the spin aus of gas cloud suounding the source ofthe Highte jet 35. “Magnetic fields may be crucial in collimating jets, especialy if they are wrapped around the jet by orbiting fs and can thereby climate the outflow through the pinch effect. In fact the spin energy of the Back hole could aio be extracted by magnetic tory, in which cae the jet would contain elestrons a pos ‘rons and carry a large electromagnetic Poynting Mux. Statistical investigations of active galasies aso Tur ‘sh valuable information on ther nature and evolutionary behavior. The formation of particular Kinds of fources appears to be correlated with environmental effects and conic epoch In ado, the brightest Compact radio sources on the shy, which probably involve relativistic motion, may be intially fin 0 jess beamed in our direction. There is now compeling evidence forthe continuous fclng of extragalactic ‘adio source through fs emerging from the niles of the seule galaay, The morphological clei Cation of radio sources i interpreted in terms ofthe powers, speeds, and surroundings of jes. ‘The ratio of "he mass acretion rate to the mass of the hole may determine whether an active nutes wil be primarily a ‘ermal object ke am opial quasar ora nonthermal objet ike argo galaxy. The sathors otlne sn Tied model of nuclear activity and assess what future progress may stem fom observational developments (especially the proposed very long bascline ary), experimental approaches rach as wind tonne ml tions) and theoretical stds Gin parties, large-scale numerical hydrdynamical computing). CONTENTS Physics of Jets 29 AAW Physial parameters 20 1. Fld mode! 269 List of Symbols 256 2. Presse 270 1. Introduction 231 3. Density 270 AL Prologue 257 4 velocity m BL Development of extragalactic radio astronomy 237 1B. Interaction of jets with thee envionment 2 1. Observations 237 Advance of the head a 2. Theory 29 2. Hot spas ms ©. Observations of extragalactic radio sources— exam: 3. Cocoon 2s les and tends 260 44. Nature ofthe ambient media am D. This review 266 © Collation, stability, and dsipation m 1 dete 266 1. Colimation by gas pressure a7 2 Black holes 267 2. Cooling effets 29 3. Unified model of active galactic mle 267 5. Freedom of confinement? 29 18 Format and scope of rth 268 ‘6 Magnetic cllimation 280 Reviews of Modern Pies, Vl 56, No.2 Pat, Ap 1968 Copyright 1904 Te Amacan Physic! Society 255256 Bogelman, Blandford, and lees: Extragalactic radio sources Kelvin Helmbote instability Viscosity and turbulence Particle acoclertion and radio emission 1. Pressure bending 2. Orbital motion 4. Presson motion I, Physics of Galactic Nucl, A.” Noclear radio sources 1 Overview 2 Physical conditions 4. Radio sourse modes 1B. Prime movers 1 Sar clsters 2 Spinas and supermassive disks 3. Black holes Accretion lows 1. Gas supply 2. Quasisphercal accretion 3. Accretion with angular momentum . Thin disks Tor Physical parameters Sealing ls toction of ets Nozzle Punts Winds Plasrnoide Hydromagnetic es lectron-positron jes 1 Radiative acceleration 1 Annililation and eadiatve loses 7. Cam ullenrelatvini jets be generated” see ax 1V. Statics of Rado Sources ‘A. Taxonomy of extragalactic objects BL Radio luminosity factions 1. Source counts ad the (/V) test 2. Space deity of extragalactic objects Galas b Quasars ) Radio-quiet quasars (i) Radiooud quasars Seyfert gnlani 4. Blazare © Radio galasie © Angular size—redshift relations D. Chistes and astocitions E. Beaming 'V. Summary and Future Prospects A Summary 1 Fath 2. Hope 2. Charity B. Observational prospects 1, Linked interferometers 2 vbr 13. Space Telescope 4 Xray astronomy (C.Experimenal prospects D. Theoretical prospects Acknowledgments ‘Appendix A" Radiation Processes 1. Synchrotron radiation 2 Equipartion energy yet eae Fev. Med. Prys, Vol 8, No 2, Par, Apt 1884 28 2s a7 280 a1 201 22 23 2s 2s Ds aes 236 27 297 29 300 so 301 wos os mos os 3. Synchrotron sfabsorption 236 < 6 5 6 6 37 1 Nonteativstie gas dynamin a7 2 Relative gu dynamics a7 3. Onedimensona adiabatic motion 58 4 Shock waves 8 ‘SStaioncy axisymmetric low in gravitational fil 38 6 Magnetohydrodynaies 9 Appendix C. Reavy 539 1 Special clavate kinematics ofa moving source 339 2. Lorene transformation of radiation formas a9 3. Conmegrspty 0 4 Black holes 0 References oi LIST OF SYMBOLS B magnetic flux density a Jet diameter Iy radiation intensity f spin angular momentum of black hole Sy jansky (1 Jy=10-™ ergsem™?5~' Hz) ‘Ho Flubble constant (100 kms~'Mpe™! as- sumed) Le Eddington luminosity (Lp=4nGMM,¢ /a,) M ‘mass (of central object) M ‘mass inflow rate Mo solar mass (1Mo=210" g) ne electron density P, spectral power at frequency ¥ P pressure pe parsee (1 pe=3.09%10!" em) R radius (of central object) r radius (along jet) a sravitational radius of black hole (_=6M /e) Sy ‘lux density at frequency v, measured in Jy v volume VLA Very Large Array. A radio interferometer in New Mexico, operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory LBI_very-long-baseline interferometry spectral index —d InI,/d lay B slope of the pressure-radius relation ~d Inp/d iar x Lorentz factor (y,=jet Lorentz factor) @ ‘opening angle of Jet (0~d/r) ° czas density (p.=density outside jet) Y density of extragalactic objects. per unit comoving cubic Hubble radius cosmological density parameter (Q=87Gp/3H3) gyrofrequency (,=eB/me) pe? viscosity parameter (shear stress/pressure) ‘NumberBegelman, Blandford, and Rees: Extragalactic radio sources 27 I. INTRODUCTION A. Prologue ‘A few percent of the known galaxies in the universe contain hyperactive central regions. Compared with the size of a galaxy (tens of kiloparsecs)! the seat of this ac- tivity is extraordinarily compact, as indicated by rapid variability of the radiation flux on time scales as short as minutes. Yet the power output of an active galactic nue cleus, in some of its more dramatic manifestations, can, ‘exceed the luminosity of a thousand normal galaxies (.e., ~10* ergss™') and equal the mass-energy equivalent of several solar masses per year. The manifestations of nuclear activity are extremely: diverse. The 200 of active galaxies includes quasars,? Sey- fert galaxies, radio galaxies, BL Lac objects, etc., each type characterized by a set of observed properties and each subdivided to exhibit internal correlations. Active galactic nuclei are observed throughout the whole elec- tromagnetic spectrum from 100-MHz radio waves to 100-MeV gamma rays. In this review, we are concerned with the subset of active galaxies that show powerful ra- dio emission on length scales from parsecs to megapar- sees. These radio sources are believed to be powered by. the associated galactic nuclei and involve energies that ccan exceed 10 ergs, the mass equivalent of a million suns. This energy can be a substantial fraction, perhaps 10%, of the total energy an active nucleus radiates during its lifetime. It is unlikely that mass can be converted into energy with better than a few (up to ten) percent efficiency; therefore, the more powerful active galactic nuclei must have “processed” upwards of 10'Mo through a region which is not much larger than the solar system.) Most of the mass which is not converted to energy will collect at the bottom of the gravitational potential well, and it is the belief of most astrophysicists that this process leads inev- itably to the formation of a massive black hole, which is, not merely the by-product of activity in a galactic nu- cleus, but is in fact the “prime mover” responsible for producing the energetic phenomena which we observe. No other entity can convert mass to energy with such a high efficiency, or within such a small volume, 41 parsee (pe)= 3.09% 10" cm =3 light years 2The term “quasar” originally referred to “quasstllar” extra- galactic objects, i objects with bright starlike optical images. However, more and more quasars have been shown to exhibit low-surface-brightness extensions, and there seems no reason t0 doubt that all quasars reside in the centers of galaxies. For this reason we prefer to define quasars as those active galactie nuclei that are bright enough optically to outshine their host galaxies. ‘They usually exhibit broad emission lines and large redshifts, ‘implying great cosmological distances and powers. MMo=one solar mass = 210” g. Fey. Med. Pi, Vol. 6, No.2 Pat Ap 1088 It is beyond the scope of this article to describe com- pletely the role that black holes may play in active galac- tic nuclei, and we shall confine our attention to those properties directly relevant to the production of radio sources. Although we shall necessarily adopt a radio- astronomical perspective, we wish to emphasize that such “spectral chauvinism” has no place in the modern study of active galaxies and that a complete defense of the black hole hypothesis involves observations and ideas not re- viewed below. Over the past ten years radio observations have shown us unexpected phenomena which have revolutionized our ideas about the structure and energetics of active galactic ‘nuclei, Specifically, they have revealed that many galae- tic nuclei produce what appear to be collimated jets of plasma, which traverse the vast distances spanned by the extended radio emission. We shall argue that the concept of the jet is crucial to understanding all active nuclei, not just those associated with strong radio sources. However, it is the behavior of the jets themselves and the associated radio lobes that we can observe directly and of which we hhave the most detailed knowledge. Consequently, most theoretical work has been directed towards describing the radio sources without particular reference to their origins. ‘Our review will reflect this bias. 8. Development of extragalactic radio astronomy ‘The study of active galactic nucle, and especially extra- galactic radio sources, has evolved somewhat unsystemat- ically and carries a great deal of historical baggage, such as complex classifications schemes which will surely be- come streamlined as the field matures. Objects which ‘were once thought to be different are now being found to bee related. For this reason, we shall begin our discussion ‘with a brief sketch of the major observational and theoret- ical developments that led to our current viewpoint. 41. Observations The first nonoptical branch of the electromagnetic spectrum to be opened up for extensive astronomical in- vestigation was at radio wavelengths. (Excellent accounts of the early development of radio astronomy are given by Hey, 1971; Kraus, 1976; and Edge and Mulkay, 1976) By the early 1950s it was apparent that there were a large number of cosmic radio sources that were essentially unresolved—the radio “stars"—and a vigorous debate en- sued as to whether they were galactic or extragalactic ob- jects. When the positions were sufficiently well measured to permit optical identifications, it became clear that ‘many sources were indeed associated with external radio galaxies (¢g., Bade and Minkowski, 1954), and it was, Suggested that the radio emission might be caused by galaxy-galaxy collisions. A difficulty with this idea was Soon apparent from the earliest interferometric studies. In particular, Jennison and Das Gupta (1953) discovered that Cygnus A, the most powerful nearby extragalactic