Chapter 6: Supporting Materials and Research Techniques

Outline
I.

Supporting materials are any resources that can render a presentations content more
precise, more authoritative, or more believable.
A.
Use a wide variety of supporting materials for maximum effectiveness.
B.
Facts are verifiable information about states of affairs.
1.
Facts state something is (or was) the case and others could agree to it
being correct.
2.
Advantage: facts can be proven conclusively. With documentation, facts
have high authority and can carry a high presumption of truth.
3.
Limitations
a)
Purely factual presentations rarely generate intense interest or
commitment.
b)
Facts are sometimes difficult to customize to audiences and
situations.
c)
Facts may be based on a persons perspective.
C.
Statistics are any information presented in a numerical form.
1.
Advantages
a)
Very precise and audience usually accepts the statistics
b)
More credible than speaking in generalities
2.
The interpretations of the numbers, not simply the numbers themselves,
have impact.
3.
Several types of average
a)
Median: the number halfway between the lowest and highest value
in a distribution of numbers
b)
Mode: the most frequently occurring number in a series
c)
Mean: sum of all values divided by the number of entries
4.
Dangers and disadvantages of statistics
a)
Numbers can be altered to manipulate statistics.
b)
Surveys must be constructed carefully to have valid information.
c)
False precision refers to information presented with statistical
exactness when the data actually cannot be measured so precisely.
5.
How to use statistics wisely
a)
Avoid information overload by limiting the amount of statistics
presented at one time.
b)
Use analogies to help the audience visualize numbers.
c)
Give life to statistics by embedding them in stories or examples.
d)
Use presentation aids to help listeners keep track of numbers.
6.
Things to consider when using statistics:
a)
What was the source?
b)
How might the number have been obtained?
c)
Is the type of measurement appropriate?
d)
Do other measurements yield the same statistics?
e)
How do these statistics compare with others?
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f)
g)
h)

D.

E.

What might explain discrepancies between different statistics?

Do the interpretations fit the statistical data?
How could the statistics be manipulated to support a particular
view?
Examples are specific instances of an idea.
1.
Examples make concepts concrete and show practical illustrations
clarifying content.
2.
Two types of examples can furnish supporting materials.
a)
Actual examples are true instances of a point.
b)
Hypothetical examples provide what if scenarios; they should be
realistic to be effective.
3.
Examples carry enormous force in presentations.
4.
Some research argues examples are more powerful than statistics when in
conflict.
5.
Disadvantages of examples
a)
Unrepresentative examples do not represent typical cases and may
mislead the audience.
b)
An example cannot prove a point alone because an example of the
opposite viewpoint almost always exists.
Testimony refers to the words of other people validating a point.
1.
Lay testimony comes from ordinary people who have some direct
experience relevant to the topic.
a)
Main advantage: person tends to be non-technical and has an
ability to relate and connect to ordinary people
b)
Main disadvantage: cannot relay insight beyond direct experience
2.
Expert testimony comes from people who have identifiable credentials in
the field being discussed.
a)
Main advantage: experts can speak authoritatively on matters
beyond their personal experience
b)
Main disadvantage: experts may be unable to translate their
technical knowledge into terms non-experts can understand.
c)
Five ways to judge whether an expert is expert:
(1)
Is the expert recognized by the relevant community of
experts in that field?
(2)
Does the expert use techniques employed by respected
authorities?
(3)
What are the experts qualifications?
(4)
How well does the expert know the literature in the field?
(5)
How clearly does the expert explain the method and the
conclusion?

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3.

II.

The audience must be given a reason to believe the source has credentials
and is trustworthy.
4.
Expert and lay testimony are complimentary; use both types to give full
support.
5.
Celebrity testimony consists of the support of well-known but minimally
qualified sources.
a)
Celebrity testimony is not very credible.
b)
Some celebrities do have credentials on certain topics.
F.
Narratives are structured stories.
1.
Narratives bring life to ideas and events, describing them in a context that
includes character, action, and setting.
2.
Stories must have coherence and fidelity.
a)
A coherent narrative has clearly defined characters, logical plot
progressions, and consistency.
b)
A narrative has fidelity if it connects to the values of the audience.
3.
Strategies for good narratives:
a)
Clearly distinguish factual from fictional narratives.
b)
Make stories vivid by including dialogue and specific descriptions.
c)
Keep the plot organized.
d)
Give the characters distinct identities.
e)
Have a moral to the story.
4.
Main advantage of narratives: stories make ideas concrete, realistic, and
immediate to the audience
5.
Disadvantages of narratives:
a)
Stories alone do not prove a point.
b)
Stories may not resonate with the audience.
c)
Stories tell only one perspective.
d)
Equally convincing stories supporting the opposite viewpoints
exist.
The research process
A.
Research is the process of locating and gathering information to solve a problem
or answer a question.
B.
Why conduct research?
1.
Research extends the communicators range of knowledge.
2.
Research reduces communication apprehension.
3.
Research bolsters the communicators credibility, defined as the degree
the audience believes a communicator.
4.
Audiences likely identify with and believe claims if the claims have a
solid research backing.
5.
Research provides information to the audience members helping them
answer their questions.
6.
Satisfies the audiences curiosity by pre-empting challenges and doubts.
7.
Research can be entertaining as the audience likely doesnt already know
the information from the research.
C.
Primary and secondary sources
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1.

D.

E.

F.

Primary sources are firsthand accounts directly relaying information one

seeks.
2.
Secondary sources analyze, interpret, or evaluate objects or events.
Books as an information source
1.
Libraries are excellent free sources for books.
2.
Google Books searches full text versions of books, but may exclude
some content of works under copyright.
3.
Books may contain essays on several viewpoints.
4.
Information tends to be less current than periodicals.
Periodicals as an information source
1.
Periodicalswhich include magazines, newspapers, and scholarly
journalsare sources published at regular intervals.
2.
Use databases such as EBSCOhost, InfoTrac, LexisNexis, ProQuest,
and/or WilsonWeb to locate periodical articles.
3.
Advantages:
a)
Sources are highly credible and authoritative.
b)
Many full text versions of articles are available.
c)
Databases allow for precise searches.
d)
Articles can be downloaded, e-mailed, or printed.
e)
Peer-reviewed (refereed) articles have been read and critiqued by
experts familiar with the topic area.
f)
Peer-reviewed articles tend to have high quality, researched-based
information.
4.
Limitation: technical jargon often used in peer-reviewed articles
The Internet as an informative source
1.
Public Web: searchable information using search engines and Web
directories. Types of Internet information:
a)
Government sponsored information contains vital statistics,
demographics, historical records, health information, scientific
research, congressional testimony, laws, and regulations.
b)
Most news sites have the current articles online for free.
c)
Primary source repositories contain firsthand information such as
diaries, letters, memoirs, interviews, speeches, personal narratives,
etc.
d)
Online reference publications include dictionaries, encyclopedia,
almanacs, etc.
e)
Nonprofit organizations, societies, and advocacy groups have
information, but the information is often biased toward the groups
position.
f)
Some full text articles and books are available in the public
domain.
2.
Deep Web content contains valuable scholarly information located on
networks or in databases Internet search engines and directories cannot
locate. Often the information is not free of charge.
a)
Most of the information for college level assignments is not found
on the regular Internet, but in the deep Web.
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b)

G.

Assets from the deep Web:

(1)
Full text periodical articles located in subscription
databases
(2)
Full text articles, essays, multimedia documents, and other
documents in subscription reference databases
(3)
Full text of e-books in subscription e-book services
(4)
Multimedia files such as music files, art reproductions, film
and video clips, audio books, maps, and charts
(5)
Primary sources
(6)
Higher quality search engines
3.
Blogs and RSS feeds as information sources
a)
Blog (short for Weblog): a chronologically arranged, dated set of
entries consisting of commentaries or personal reflections on a
topic.
b)
Advantage: authors can generate content and post the content
instantaneously
c)
Disadvantage: often inaccurate information is posted; rarely have
an editor
4.
Web 2.0 resources
a)
Web 2.0 resources allow users to quickly post, edit, share, and
comment on Web-based content.
b)
Examples: YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, Google Docs
c)
Allows for access to content not available on other outlets
d)
Allows for sharing of resources on assignments
e)
It is imperative to verify content is authentic.
f)
A wiki allows multiple users to collaboratively author and edit
Web-based materials.
5.
Limitation to the Public Web for Academic Research
a)
Editors rarely screen and fact checkers rarely exist.
b)
Information is sometimes inaccurate.
c)
Corroboration- check facts or claims with several sources.
Personal interviews as sources
1.
Advantages
a)
Interviewers can control the questions so the desired information is
gathered.
b)
Interviews can reveal information not found in printed sources.
2.
Limitations
a)
The person interviewed may recall information inaccurately or
have a distorted perspective.
b)
Information could be outdated.
c)
Steps for conducting a good interview:
(1)
Plan the questions.
(2)
Make an appointment for the interview.
(3)
Set a time limit for the interview.
(4)
Record the interview.
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(5)

III.

IV.

V.

Offer the interview source the opportunity to verify the

information you are reporting.
H.
Other types of information
1.
Manuals can offer useful instructions about how something operates.
2.
Government materials can furnish information on many current events.
Overall source recommendations:
A.
Use many different types of sources.
B.
Compare content between sources.
C.
Peer-reviewed material is likely to have more quality, credibility, and reliability.
D.
Avoid sources with unclear authors or sponsors.
E.
A source having a name doesnt make the source credible.
F.
Get the full text of articles, not just the summary, abstract, or review.
Research strategies
A.
Before beginning:
1.
Write down information already known about the topic.
2.
Circle key concepts like names, dates, places, events, and different
viewpoints.
3.
Write down questions needing to be answered.
4.
Circle key words in these questions.
B.
Strategies for expanding and finding information in search engines
1.
Broaden searches with synonyms.
2.
Target searches with Boolean Operators (AND, OR, NOT).
3.
Extend searches with truncation - variant endings or spellings of words.
4.
Internet searches
a)
Choose the best search engine for your topic.
b)
Read through the help pages of the search engine being used.
C.
Research and support for specific assignments
1.
Products or services
a)
Use publications such as Consumer Reports and Consumers
Digest.
b)
Find information on the standards for a good product or service.
c)
Investigate the competition.
d)
Find organizations who endorse the product or service.
e)
Find financial information about the organization.
f)
Find testimony from the product or services usage.
2.
Controversial issues
a)
Use truncated words such as advantage*, attitude*, and benefit*
(text has many examples).
b)
Some databases (e.g., Issues and Controversies) specialize in
showing pros and cons of arguments.
Evaluating and citing sources
A.
ABCs of source quality: when determining quality look at the authority, bias, and
currency
1.
Authority: whether the sources education or experience is adequate and
related to the subject.
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a)

B.

C.

D.

Check the header and footer of a web page for a link to

information about the author or sponsor.
b)
Scan the beginning and end of an article to find a description of the
authors credentials.
c)
Search the library catalog or a periodical index to locate other
books or articles by the same author.
2.
Bias: whether the source has prejudicial opinions or information tainted by
personal interests
a)
Find sources as objective as possible.
b)
Look for footnotes or references documenting the information in
the source.
c)
Read the About Us or the About this Site web page
information.
d)
Skim the text of a source to decide if the author is attempting to
sell a product or make a false claim.
e)
Look for descriptions or reviews acknowledging pros and cons of a
product, service, or opinion.
3.
Currency: the recency of the information
a)
Seek copyright date or date of creation and date of updates.
b)
Carefully look for when different portions of web pages were
updated.
c)
Confirm currency by checking secondary sources.
Common styles of citing sources in written work include:
1.
Modern Language Association (MLA)
2.
American Psychological Association (APA)
3.
Chicago style
4.
Scientific
Oral citations are required whenever research is used in presentations.
1.
Using someones ideas without citing during a speech is plagiarism.
2.
An oral citation minimally requires: name of source, credentials of source,
and date.
Research integrity
1.
Plagiarism is defined as taking credit for someone elses words or creative
works as if they were your own.
2.
How to honestly cite sources:
a)
Choose to quote an authors exact words when the phrasing is
unique or strengthens your argument.
b)
Provide a citation for the source immediately before or after the
quotation.
c)
Verbally clarify when quoting someone else directly.
d)
Paraphrase an authors words by stating his or her ideas in your
own words with your own phrasing; dont simply repeat what the
source said.
e)
Compare your paraphrased remarks with the authors exact words
to make sure you have not copied from the author.
f)
Provide an oral citation for the paraphrased ideas.
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3.

Common information known by the public or intended audience does not

need to be cited.

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