Timber & Brick Presentation

HND Civil Engineering

Construction Materials & Testing (DW5C34)

To be used with the following handout:

"Manufacture & Properties of Materials"
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What you will hopefully learn from this PowerPoint

Basics of Raw Materials (Timber & Brick),

Manufacturing Processes and issues,
Testing procedures.

Physical & Mechanical Properties

Just so you know

Physical Properties
Describes the materials natural state

Solid, liquid or gas.

Shape, angle, area.
Texture.
Colour.
Odour.
Melting/boiling point.
Absorption.
Density.
Conductance.

Physical & Mechanical Properties

Just so you know

Mechanical Properties
Describes the materials properties and strength.
Tensile
Strength

Compressive
Strength

Flexural
Strength

Torsional
Strength

Shear
Strength

Timber
Handout Pages 45-53

Timber Origins

Have a brief read in your own time

Manufacture & Properties of Materials

Handout- Page 47

Timber Origins
Most commonly used

Types of Wood
Mahogany

Oak

Ash

Fir

Cedar

Pine

Type 1) Hardwoods

Type 2) Softwoods

Definition
Hardwood
Hardwoods come from deciduous trees.
i.e. trees that are broad-leaved and that shed in the autumn months.
Softwood
Softwoods come from coniferous trees.
i.e. evergreen, needle-leaved, cone-bearing trees.

Most commonly used

Timber Origins

Softwood Tree Cross-Section

Earlywood
Latewood

Heartwood

Rays
Pith

Growth Ring

Sapwood
Vascular
Cambium

Softwood Cellular Structure

Earlywood

Latewood

Inner
Bark

Rays

Secondary Phloem
Cork Cambium

Outer
Bark

Timber Origins
Key points
Heartwood essentially supports the weight of the tree. It is composed of dead cells and is
usually older, darker, drier and harder that the living Sapwood.
Sapwood is inferior in terms of durability due to its moisture content and presence of starch
which attracts insects and provides food for fungi. Sapwood is very porous which allows the
tree to naturally transport sap internally.
The cellular structure of the Earlywood and Latewood illustrates why timber is a popular
choice within construction, due to the cementing key that the structure creates when
combined with glue and adhesive.
Earlywood
Latewood
Earlywood
Latewood

Heartwood
Rays
Sapwood
Vascular
Cambium

Timber Manufacture
Timber Conversion
Through by Through

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Timber Manufacture
Timber Conversion

The alternative

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Timber Treatment
Preservative
Wood preservation- pressure or thermal impregnation of chemicals into wood to provide
effective long-term resistance to attack by fungi, bacteria, insects, and marine borers. There
are two forms of preservative, oil based or water based.

Seasoning
Seasoning- is the process of reducing the moisture content (MC) of timber to ensure it
is fit for the intended purpose
Why do we season timber
Seasoned timber is stronger.
Seasoned timber is easier to work with.
Every time the MC reduces, timber can shrink.
Reduces the tendencies to warp, split or shake.
Seasoned timber lighter will be stronger and more reliable.
Timber must be below 20% MC to reduce the chances of Dry Rot.
Removal of sap makes it less likely to attract fungi and wood parasites.
Lower the MC, the easier to provide finish i.e. paint, varnish, etc.
*After seasoning both Heartwood & Sapwood have very little difference between them in terms of density and strength.
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Timber Treatment
Seasoning

There are two methods of seasoning; Air (Natural) and Kiln (Artificial).

Air Seasoning

Kiln Seasoning

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Timber Testing

Compressive
Strength

Video

Compression Test

Flexural
Strength

Video

Bend Test

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Timber Testing

Tensile
Strength

Tensile Test

Screw Pull Out test

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Brick & Blockwork

Handout Pages 37-44
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Brick & Blockword Origins

Clay bricks are constructed from a mixture of silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), limestone/chalk
(CaCO3), iron oxide (Fe2O3), and magnesia (MgO).
Bricks date back several thousands of years, first established in hot climates- where the
above mixture was moulded and dried in the sun.
Later on during Roman times, it was established that if this clay mixture was heated to a
high temperature, then the bricks could be produced much stronger.
This basic principle as not fundamentally changed over the years. However, obviously more
autonomous methods of manufacturing are utilised.
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Brick & Blockword Origins

Clay Bricks

Types of Bricks

Clay Bricks can be divided into 4 categories:

Common brick,
Facing brick,
Load Bearing and,
Engineering.

Sand Lime Bricks

Concrete Blocks

Both Sand Lime and Concrete are

classified according to their strength.

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Brick & Blockword Manufacture

Video

Brick Manufacturing
Manufacture & Properties of Materials Handout- Page 39-40
illustrates this process in a written formal.
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Brick & Blockword Manufacture

Sand Lime Manufacture
Lime and sand are mixed together with a very small amount of water, this is then placed into
a mould and subjected to large amounts of pressure to form the bricks.
These bricks are then transported to large pressure cookers (autoclaves), and cooked using
steam for a period of seven to eight hours. This process causes the sand and lime to
combine chemically, and once cooled down they are ready for use.

Concrete Blockwork Manufacture

Appropriate mixes of concrete with various aggregates and additives are mixed thoroughly,
and then placed into the required mould and allowed to set.
These moulds are then transported to large pressure cookers (autoclaves), and cooked
using steam for a period of five to ten hours- before being allowed to cool down.
More Info

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Brick & Blockword Issues

Sulphate Attack
Simply put, a Sulphate attack is when
horizontal cracking of the mortar joint appears
and as it progresses it causes expansion and
destruction of the mortar, leading ultimately to
structural failure.

Efflorescence
Efflorescence is when the the face of the
brickwork is subjected to salt deposits, caused
by natural impurities within the brick. Due to its
effect on the brick work finish, it should be
avoided at all costs. However, it will remove
itself naturally over time- it is also worth
mentioning that this does not damage the
brick work nor lead to remedial works.
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Brick & Blockword Tests

Strength Test

Video

Compression testing of bricks is commonly used as it involved testing the bricks in the
manner in which they will be used within the structure.
Due to the likely differences in moisture content with each brick, each of the testing bricks
will be saturated with water for 24 hours prior to testing. (10 bricks should be tested)
To remove any possible effects due to brick imperfections, 3mm plywood sheets are placed
above and below the brick during the testing phase.

Water Absorption
Various methods of testing, however the testing mainly consists of boiling or subjecting oven
dried bricks for a period of time to assess how much water the brick will absorb. Bricks will
be weighed before and after the test to calculate the absorption.

Soluble Salts
A test sample (usually 10 or so bricks) are removed from each batch. These bricks are then
crushed into a powder and assessed for chemical analysis to establish how much solvable
salt content is present.

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Materials and Testing

Any Questions

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