CHAPTER 1 : STRUCTURE

(10 hours)

SUBCONTENT :
1.1

ATOMIC STRUCTURE.

1.2

INTERATOMIC BONDING AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE SOLID.

1.3

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES.

1.4

EFFICIENCY OF ATOMIC PACKING, DENSITY COMPUTATION,

MILLER INDICES.

1.5

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC STRUCTURE, CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
You should be able:
Describe an atomic structure
Configure electron configuration
Differentiate between each atomic bonding
Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen
and Van der Waals bonds
Relate the atomic bonding with material
properties

1.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

What are ATOMS?
All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
Since the atom is too small to be seen even with the most powerful
microscopes, scientists rely upon on models to help us to understand the
atom.

Even with the worlds best

microscopes we cannot clearly
see the structure or behavior
of the atom.

Is this really an ATOM?

Even though we do not know what an
atom looks like, scientific models
must be based on evidence. Many of
the atom models that you have seen
may look like the one below which
shows the parts and structure of the
atom.

This model represents the

most modern version of the
atom.
Wave Mechanical Atomic Model
Bohr Theory

What does an ATOM look like?

Atoms are made of a nucleus that contains protons, neutrons and electrons that
orbit around the nucleus at different levels, known as shells.

Neutron

Protons and neutrons join together

to form the nucleus the central
part of the atom

Nucleon or
Nucleus

Proton
+

Electrons
move
around the
nucleus

Electron
Shell @ Orbital @ Energy level

Fig. : A simplified
diagram of atom
6

These particles have the following properties:

Particle

Proton

Charge

Location

Mass (amu)

Positive (+ve)

Nucleus

1.0073

Symbol

+
Neutron

Neutral

Nucleus

1.0087

Electron

Negative (-ve)

Orbital

0.000549

To describe the mass of atom, a unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu) is used.

The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom completely determine

its properties and identity. This is what makes one atom different from another.

Why are all ATOMS are ELECTRICALLY

NEUTRAL?
Most atoms are electrically neutral, meaning that they have an equal number of
protons and electrons. The positive and negative charges cancel each other out.
Therefore, the atom is said to be electrically neutral.

Neutron
-

Proton

Electron

+
++

Fig. : Beryllium atom

Proton = 4

NEUTRAL

Electron = 4

CHARGE

If an atom gains or loses electrons, the atom is no longer neutral and

it become electrically charged . The atom is then called an ION.
cation - ion with a positive charge
- If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a cation.

Na

11 protons
11 electrons

Na+

11 protons
10 electrons

Cations are smaller than their parent atom because

there is less e-e repulsion

anion - ion with a negative charge

- If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes an anion.

Cl

17 protons
17 electrons

Cl-

17 protons
18 electrons

Anions are larger than their parent atom because there is

9 more e-- e repulsion

Basics of the PERIODIC TABLE

periodic: a repeating pattern
table: an organized collection of information

Periodic Table (P.T.)

An arrangement of elements in
order of atomic number;
elements with similar
properties are in the same
group.
10

The periodic table below is a simplified representation which

usually gives the :

Two main classifications in P.T.

1) period: horizontal row on the P.T.
Designate electron energy levels

2) group or family: vertical column on the P.T.

11

ATOMIC NUMBER and ATOMIC MASS

Atom can be described using :
1) ATOMIC NUMBER

2) ATOMIC MASS

ATOMIC NUMBER, Z = no. of protons

SYMBOL
ATOMIC MASS , A =
no. of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (N)

The element helium has the atomic number 2, is represented by

the symbol He, its atomic mass is12 4 and its name is helium.

PERIODIC TABLE

ATOMIC NUMBER tells how many PROTONS (Z) are in its atoms which determine the
atoms identity.

The list of elements (ranked according to an increasing no. of protons) can be looked up
on the Periodic Table. So, if an atom has 2 protons (atomic no. = 2), it must be helium(He).

ATOMIC MASS tells the sum of the masses of PROTONS (Z) and NEUTRONS (N) within the
nucleus E.g :

Lithium:
Atomic number = 3
3 protons, Z
4 neutrons, N
Atomic mass, A = 3 + 4 = 7

BUT... although each element has a defined number of protons, the number of neutrons
is not fixed

isotopes
14

ISOTOPES
Atoms which have the same
number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.

Different mass number

1
1H

2
1H

3
1H

(D)

(T)

Same atomic no. @ no. of protons

Atoms which have the same

atomic number but different atomic
mass .

Eg : Hydrogen has 3 isotopes.

Natural
Isotope

Proton

Neutron

Atomic
Mass

Hydrogen 1
(hydrogen)

Hydrogen 2
(deuterium)

Hydrogen 3
(tritium)

15

Exercise of isotopes :

Element
Hydrogen

Oxygen

Carbon
Chlorine
Sodium

Name
Hydrogen
Deuterium
Tritium
Oxygen-16
Oxygen-17
Oxygen-18
Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Chlorine-35
Chlorine-37
Sodium-23
Sodium-24

Number of
Proton

Nucleon
Number

Number of
Neutron

Example of isotopes :

Element
Hydrogen

Oxygen

Carbon
Chlorine
Sodium

Name
Hydrogen
Deuterium
Tritium
Oxygen-16
Oxygen-17
Oxygen-18
Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Chlorine-35
Chlorine-37
Sodium-23
Sodium-24

Number of
Proton
1
1
1
8
8
8
6
6
6
17
17
11
11

Nucleon
Number
1
2
3
16
17
18
12
13
14
35
37
23
24

Number of
Neutron
0
1
2
8
9
10
6
7
8
18
20
12
13

EXERCISE
Naturally occurring carbon consists of three isotopes,
12C, 13C, and 14C. State the number of protons,
neutrons, and electrons in each of these carbon atoms.
12C

13C

14C

#p _______

_______

_______

#n _______

_______

_______

#e _______

_______

_______

18

ANSWER
Naturally occurring carbon consists of three isotopes,
12C, 13C, and 14C. State the number of protons,
neutrons, and electrons in each of these carbon atoms.
12C

13C

14C

#p

#n

#e

6
19

ELECTRON SHELLS
The electron cloud that surrounded the nucleus is divided into 7 shells (a.k.a energy level)
K (1st shell, closest to nucleus) followed by L, M, N, O, P, Q.

Each of the shell, hold a limited no. of electrons.

E.g : K (2 electrons), L (8 electrons), M (18 electrons), N (32 electrons).

N (32 electrons)
4th shell

M (18 electrons)

3rd shell

L (8 electrons)

2nd shell

K (2 electrons)

1st shell

20

ORBITAL

Within each shell, the electrons occupy sub shell (energy sublevels)
s, p, d, f, g, h, i. Each sub shell holds a different types of orbital.
Each orbital holds a max. of 2 electrons.
Each orbital has a characteristic energy state and characteristic shape.

s - orbital
Spherical shape
Located closest to nucleus (first energy level)
Max 2 electrons

p - orbital
- There is 3 distinct p - orbitals (px, py, pz)
- Dumbbell shape
- Second energy level
- 6 electrons

d- orbital
- There is 5 distinct d orbitals
- Max 10 electrons
- Third energy level

22

Table : The number of available electron states in some of the electrons

shells and subshells.

The max. no. of electrons that can occupy a specific shell can be found
using the following formula:
Electron Capacity = 2n2

ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Electron configuration the ways in which electrons are arranged
around the nucleus of atoms. The following representation is used :
The following representation is used :
Energy level @
Principal
quantum no.

Orbital

1s2

No. of electrons
in the orbital

Example: it means that there are two electrons in the s orbital of the
first energy level. The element is helium.

Based on the Aufbau principle, which assumes that electrons

enter orbital of lowest energy first.
The sequence of addition of the
electrons as the atomic number
increases is as follows with the
first being the shell number the
s, p, d or f being the type of
subshell, the last number being
the number of electrons in the
subshell.

The electrons in their orbital are represented as follows :

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d107p6

How to Write the Electron Configuration of the Element?

3rd shell
(energy
level)

e- e-

e-

ee-

e-

e- e-

e- e-

e-

2nd shell
(energy
level)

e-

e-

e-

eLithium (3 electrons)

Magnesium (12 electrons)

Answer : ls2 2s1

Answer : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

26

Exercise: Electron Configurations

Atom

Symbol

Hydrogen

Helium

He

Lithium

Li

Beryllium

Be

Chlorine

Cl

Argon

Ar

Potasium

Calcium

Ca

Atomic Number

27

Electron configuration

By following these rules, we can build up the electron shell structure of all the atoms.
Atom

Symbol

Atomic Number

Electron configuration

Hydrogen

1s1

Helium

He

Lithium

Li

Beryllium

Be

Chlorine

Cl

Argon

Ar

Potasium

Calcium

Ca

2
3
4
17
18
19
20

1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2

2s1
2s2

2s2
2s2
2s2
2s2

2p6
2p6
2p6
2p6

3s2
3s2
3s2
3s2

3p5
3p6
3p6 4s1
3p6 4s2

The key to the properties of atoms is the electrons in the outer shell.
28

TRANSITION ELEMENT

Cr [Z = 24]
Mo [Z = 42]

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 (correct) halfly filled
5s1 4d5 (correct)
halfly filled

Cu [Z = 29]
Ag [Z = 47]
Au [Z = 79]

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10 (correct) completely filled
5s1 4d10 (correct)
completely filled
6s1 5d10 (correct)
completely filled

Exercise
Write the electron configuration for below element.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
a) K
b) K1+
c) Fe
d) Fe3+

Answer : EXERCISE
Write the electron configuration for below element.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
a) K

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

b) K1+

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

c) Fe

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

d) Fe3+

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5

Answer: TEST 1 [July 2011]

1a] With the aid of sketches, describe the Bohr Model of the
sodium [Na] and its ion in terms of valence electron , number of
electron and shell.
[4 marks]

Answer: TEST 1 [July 2011]

1a] With the aid of sketches, describe the Bohr Model of the
sodium [Na] and its ion in terms of valence electron , number of
electron and shell.
[4 marks]
Na

Na+

Valence electron
Number of electron

1
11

8
10

Number of shell

Drawing

1.2 INTERATOMIC BONDING AMORPHOUS

AND CRYSTALLINE SOLID
The forces of attraction that hold atoms together are called chemical bonds which can
be divided into 2 categories :

1) Primary Interatomic Bonding

Metallic, ionic and covalent

2) Secondary Atomic Bonding

Van der Waals

Chemical reactions between elements involve either the releasing/receiving or sharing of

electrons .

PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDING

1) IONIC BONDING

How is ionic bonding formed??

Often found in compounds composed of electropositive
elements (metals) and electronegative elements (non metals)
Electron are transferred to form a bond
Large difference in electronegativity required
35

Example: NaCl

IONIC BONDING

Properties :

Solid at room temperature (made of ions)

High melting and boiling points
Hard and brittle
Poor conductors of electricity in solid state
Good conductor in solution or when molten

EXAMPLE : IONIC BONDING

Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
CaF2
CsCl

H
2.1
Li
1.0

Be
1.5

Na
0.9

Mg
1.2

K
0.8

Ca
1.0

Rb
0.8

He
O
F
3.5 4.0

Ne
-

Cl
3.0

Ar
-

Br
2.8

Kr
-

Sr
1.0

I
2.5

Xe
-

Cs
0.7

Ba
0.9

At
2.2

Rn
-

Fr
0.7

Ra
0.9

Ti
1.5

Cr
1.6

Give up electrons

Fe
1.8

Ni
1.8

Zn
1.8

As
2.0

Acquire electrons

Exercise : Final Exam [April 2008]

1c] With the aid of sketches, describe how Sodium and Chlorine
atoms are joined.
[3 marks]

Answer : Final Exam [April 2008]

1c] With the aid of sketches, describe how Sodium and Chlorine
atoms are joined.
[3 marks]
Single electron on the outer shell of sodium atom is
transferred to the outer shell of chlorine [with 7
electrons] to make it 8, thus filling [valence] the outer
shell of chlorine.
[ mark]
Transfer of electron from sodium making it a positive
ion while chlorine atom change to negative ion after
receiving the electron.
[ mark]
Different charge in both ion attracted to each other to
form ionic bonds.
[ mark]

Draw = 1 mark

Sodium and chlorine bonds together by ionic bonding.

[ mark]

EXERCISE
Draw the following ionic bonding?
IONIC BONDING :
Group 1 metal + Group 7 non metal, eg : NaCl
Group 2 metal + Group 7 non metal, eg : MgF, BeF, MgBr, CaCl or CaI
Group 2 metal + Group 6 non metal, eg : CaO, MgO, MgS, or CaS

2) COVALENT BONDING

How is covalent bonding formed??

Electrons are shared to form a bond.
Most frequently occurs between atoms with similar electronegativities.
Often found in:

Molecules with nonmetals

Molecules with metals and nonmetals
(Aluminum phosphide (AlP)
Nonmetallic elemental molecules (H, Cl, F, etc)
Elemental solids (diamond, silicon, germanium)
Compound solids (about column IVA)
(gallium arsenide - GaAs, indium antimonide - InSb
and silicone carbide - SiC)

2) COVALENT BONDING
Properties
Gases, liquids, or solids (made of molecules)
Poor electrical conductors in all phases
Variable ( hard , strong, melting temperature, boiling point)

EXAMPLE : COVALENT BONDING

H2
H
2.1
Li
1.0

Be
1.5

Na
0.9
K
0.8

Mg
1.2
Ca
1.0

Rb
0.8

Sr
1.0

Cs
0.7

Ba
0.9

Fr
0.7

Ra
0.9

column IVA

H2O
C(diamond)

SiC
Ti
1.5

Cr
1.6

Fe
1.8

F2
He
-

O
2.0

C
2.5

Ni
1.8

Zn
1.8

Ga
1.6

Si
1.8
Ge
1.8

As
2.0

Sn
1.8
Pb
1.8

GaAs

Molecules with nonmetals

Molecules with metals and nonmetals
Elemental solids
Compound solids (about column IVA)

F
4.0

Ne
-

Cl
3.0
Br
2.8

Ar
Kr
-

I
2.5

Xe
-

At
2.2

Rn
-

Cl2

EXERCISE
Draw the following covalent bonding?

SINGLE BOND :
Hydrogen
Fluorine
Water
DOUBLE BOND :
Oxygen
TRIPLE BOND :
Nitrogen

3) METALLIC BONDING

How is metallic bonding formed??

Occur when some electrons in the valence shell separate
from their atoms and exist in a cloud surrounding all the
positively charged atoms.
The valence electron form a sea of electron.

Found for group IA and IIA elements.

Found for all elemental metals and its alloy.

3) METALLIC BONDING

48

3) METALLIC BONDING
Properties:
Good electrical conductivity
Good heat conductivity
Ductile
Opaque

Explain why are metals ductile and can conduct

electricity?

Explain why are metals ductile and can conduct

electricity?
Good electrical conductivity
- When an electrical potential difference is applied, the electrons move freely
between atoms, and a current flows.

Ductile
- The valence electrons are not closely associated with individual atoms, but
instead move around amongst the atoms within the crystal.
- The individual atoms can "slip" over one another yet remain firmly held together
by the electrostatic forces exerted by the electrons.
- This is why most metals can be hammered into thin sheets (malleable) or drawn
into thin wires (ductile).

SECONDARY INTERATOMIC BONDING

VAN DER WAALS

Arise from atomic or molecular dipoles

 Three bonding mechanism

Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
Eg: Inert gases, symmetric molecules (H2, Cl2)

Polar molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds

Asymmetrical molecules such as HCl, HF
Permanent Dipole Bonds
Hydrogen bonding
Between molecules
H-F, H-O, H-N

MOLECULE
Molecule is considered the smallest particle of a pure
chemical substance that still retains its composition
and chemical properties.

Most common molecules are bound together by

strong covalent bonds.
E.g. : F2, O2, H2.
The smallest molecule : Hydrogen molecule .

Type

Summary of BONDING

Bond energy

Melting point

Hardness

Conductivity

Comments

Ionic
bonding

Large
(150-370kcal/mol)

Very high

Hard and
brittle

Poor
-required
moving ion

Nondirectional
(ceramic)

Covalent
bonding

Variable
(75-300 kcal/mol)

Variable

Very hard
(diamond)

Poor

Directional
(Semiconductors,
ceramic, polymer
chains)

Low to high

Soft to hard

Excellent

Nondirectional
(metal)

Low to
moderate

Fairly soft

Poor

Directional
inter-chain
(polymer)
inter-molecular

Large -Diamond
Small Bismuth

Highest
diamond
(>3550)
Mercury (-39)

Metallic
bonding

Variable
(25-200 kcal/mol)
Large- Tungsten
Small- Mercury

Secondary
bonding

Smallest

* Directional bonding

Strength of bond is not equal in all directions

55

* Nondirectional bonding Strength of bond is equal in all directions

SUMMARY : PRIMARY BONDING

Ceramics
(Ionic & covalent bonding):

Metals
(Metallic bonding):

Polymers
(Covalent & Secondary):

Large bond energy

large Tm
large E
small a

Variable bond energy

moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate a

Directional Properties
Secondary bonding dominates
small Tm
small E
large a

Exercise : Final Exam [March 2002]

1a] Briefly describe differences between metallic bond and covalent bond.
Support your answer with an example and simple sketch.
(7 Marks)

Answer : Final Exam [March 2002]

1a] Briefly describe differences between metallic bond and covalent bond.
Support your answer with an example and simple sketch.
(7 Marks)
Type

Bond energy

Melting point

Hardness

Conductivity

Metallic
bonding

Variable
(25-200 kcal/mol)

Low to high

Soft to hard

Excellent

[e.g. :
Zinc]

Large- Tungsten
Small- Mercury

Bond energy

Melting point

Hardness

Conductivity

Variable
(75-300 kcal/mol)

Variable

Very hard
(diamond)

Poor

Type
Covalent
bonding
[e.g. :
Hydrogen]

Large -Diamond
Small Bismuth

Highest
diamond
(>3550)
Mercury (-39)

1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Crystal
structure

Crystalline
Material

Single Crystal

Noncrsytalline
material
(Amorphous)

polycrystal
* comprised of many single
crystal or grain

Crystalline materials...
atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
typical of: -metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers

crystalline SiO2

Noncrystalline materials...
atoms have no periodic packing
occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
noncrystalline SiO2

"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline

Structure of SOLID
Amorphous

No recognizable longrange order

Crystal

Atoms are disordered

No lattice

Entire solid is made up

of atoms in an orderly
array

All atoms arranged on

a common lattice

Polycrystalline

Completely ordered
In segments

Different lattice
orientation for each
grain

 Some engineering applications require single crystals:

--turbine blades

The single crystal turbine blades

are able to operate at a higher
working temperature than
crystalline turbine blade and thus
are able to increase the thermal
efficiency of the gas turbine cycle.

 Most engineering materials are polycrystals.

grain

QUESTION : FINAL EXAM [OCT 2012]

1a] With the aid of sketches, explain the following terms :

i.

Crystalline materials

ii.

Amorphous materials

iii.

Single crystalline

iv. Polycrystalline

[8 marks]

ANSWER : FINAL EXAM [OCT 2012]

Answer
Crystalline materials

Mark[s]

Atoms, molecules or ions are packed in a regularly ordered @

repeating pattern

crystalline SiO2
Draw [1]
Amorphous materials

Atoms, molecules or ions are packed in a irregularly ordered @

unrepeating pattern,

noncrystalline SiO2
Draw [1]
Single crystalline

Crystalline materials which is composed by one unit crystal or

grain extends throughout its entire without interruption

Draw [1]
Polycrystalline

Crystalline materials that are composed of more than one crystal

or grain [ consist of grain boundary]

Draw [1]

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Most metals exhibit a crystal structure which show a unique arrangement of atoms
in a crystal.
A lattice and motif help to illustrate the crystal structure.
Lattice (lines network in 3D) + Motif (atoms are arranged in a repeated pattern)

= CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

lattice

motif
68

crystal structure

Unit Cell - When a solid

has a crystalline
structure, the atoms are
arranged in repeating
structures called unit
cells. The unit cell is the
smallest unit
that demonstrate the full
symmetry of a crystal.

+
Lattice - The three
dimensional array
formed by the unit cells
of a crystal is called
lattice.

=
A crystal is a threedimensional repeating
array.

Unit cell - a tiny box that

describe the crystal structure.

Fig. : The crystal structure (a) Part of the space lattice for natrium chloride (b)Unit cell for natrium
chloride crystal

Crystal structure may be present with any of the

four types of atomic bonding.
The atoms in a crystal structure are arranged
along crystallographic planes which are designated
by the Miller indices numbering system.
The crystallographic planes and Miller indices are
identified by X-ray diffraction.

70

Fig. : The wavelength of the X-ray is

similar to the atomic spacing in crystals.

CRYSTAL SYSTEM AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

BRAVAIS LATTICE - describe the geometric arrangement of the lattice points and
the translational symmetry of the crystal.

7 crystal systems :
cubic, hexagonal,
tetragonal,
rhombodhedral,
orthorhombic, monoclinic,
triclinic.

71

By adding additional
lattice point to 7 basic
crystal systems
form 14 Bravais
lattice.

Crystal Structure of Metals

Common crystal structures for metals:

Simple Cubic (SC) - Manganese

Body-centered cubic (BCC) - alpha iron, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum,
tungsten, and vanadium.
Face-centered cubic (FCC) - gamma iron, aluminum, copper, nickel, lead, silver,
gold and platinum.

SC

BCC

FCC

SIMPLE CUBIC (SC)

The atoms lie on a grid: layers of rows and

columns.
Sit at the corners of stacked cubic
No. of atom at corner
= 8 x 1/8 = 1 atom

Total No. of atom in

one unit cell
= 1 atom
Example : Manganese
73

Body-centered Cubic Crystal

Structure

The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure:

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells

BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

Cubic unit cell with 8 atoms located at the corner & single atom at cube
center

No. of atom at corner = 8 x 1/8 = 1 atom

No. of atom at center = 1 atom
Total No. of atom in one unit cell = 2 atoms

Example : Chromium, Tungsten,Molybdenum,Tantalum, Vanadium

75

Face-centered Cubic Crystal

Structure

The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure:

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells

FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)

Atoms are located at each of the corners and the centers of all the
cube faces. Each corner atom is shared among 8 unit cells,face
centered atom belong to 2.

No. of atom at corner

= 8 x 1/8 = 1 atom

Example : Cu,Al,Ag,Au, Ni, Pt

No. of atom at face

= 6 x 12 = 3 atoms
Total No. of atom in
one unit cell
= 4 atoms
77

1.4 EFFICIENCY OF ATOMIC

PACKING,DENSITY COMPUTATION
AND MILLER INDEX

78

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR

Atomic packing factor (APF) is defined as the efficiency of atomic arrangement
in a unit cell.
It is used to determine the most dense arrangement of atoms. It is because how
the atoms are arranged determines the properties of the particular crystal.
In APF, atoms are assumed closely packed and are treated as hard spheres.
It is represented mathematically by :
APF = no. of atom, n x volume of atoms in the unit cell, (Vs)
volume of the unit cell, (Vc)

79

EXAMPLE
Calculate the APF for Simple Cubic (SC)?

APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52

80

EXERCISE
Calculate the APF for BCC and FCC ?

a) BCC

b) FCC

81

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: BCC

APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
a = 4R/3

Unit cell contains:

1 + 8 x 1/8
= 2 atoms/unit cell
a

82

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: FCC

APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74
a = 2R2

Unit cell contains:

6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
= 4 atoms/unit cell

83

Table : APF for simple cubic, BCC, FCC and HCP

a (lattice constant) and
R (atom radius)

Simple
cubic
BCC

FCC

a = 2R

a = 4R/3

a = 4R/2

Atoms/unit
cell

Packing
Density
(APF)

Examples

52%

CsCl

68%

Many metals:
-Fe, Cr, Mo, W

74%

Many metals : Ag,

Au, Cu, Pt

84

QUESTION : FINAL EXAM [Oct 2010]

1a] Give the definition of a unit cell. Briefly describe lattice constant in the unit cell.

[ 4 marks]

1b] Give the definition of APF for a unit cell and calculate the APF for FCC.
[4 marks]

85

ANSWER : FINAL EXAM [Oct 2010]

1a] Give the definition of a unit cell. Briefly describe lattice constant in the unit cell.
[ 4 marks]
Unit cell - a tiny box that
describe the crystal structure.

Answer

Mark [s]

The unit cell represent a repeating unit of atom position.

It is a small building block or a structure that can describe the crystal structure.

Lattice constants or lattice parameters are the magnitudes and directions of three lattice
vectors such as a, b and c.

Angle = , ,

86

ANSWER : FINAL EXAM [Oct 2010]

1b] Give the definition of APF for a unit cell and calculate the APF for FCC.
[ 4 marks]
Answer

Mark [s]

APF can be defined as the volume of atoms in a selected unit cell with respect to the volume of the
unit cell
Or;

An efficiency of an atomic arrangement in a unit cell

APF = no. of atom, n x volume of atoms in the unit cell, (Vs)

volume of the unit cell, (Vc)

APF for FCC = 0.74

87

DENSITY COMPUTATIONS
A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic
solid permits computation of its density through the
relationship :
=

nA
Vc NA

Where
n = number of atoms associated with each unit cell
A = atomic weight
Vc = volume of the unit cell
NA = Avogadros number (6.023 x 1023 atoms/mol)

88

EXAMPLE
Calculate the density for nickel (simple cubic structure).
Note that the unit cell edge length (a) for nickel is 0.3524 nm.
The volume (V) of the unit cell is equal to the cell-edge length (a) cubed.
V = a3 = (0.3524 nm)3 = 0.04376 nm3
Since there are 109 nm in a meter and 100 cm in a meter, there must be 107 nm in a cm.
109 x 1m
= 107 nm/cm
1 m 100 cm
We can therefore convert the volume of the unit cell to cm3 as follows.
4.376 x 10-2 nm3 x [1 cm ]3 = 4.376 x 10-23 cm 3
107 nm
The mass of a nickel atom can be calculated from the atomic weight of this metal and Avogadros
number.
58.69g Ni x
1 mol
= 9.746 x 10-23 g/atom
1 mol
6.023 x 1023 atoms
89

1(9.746 x 10-23 g/unit cell) = 2.23 g/cm3

4.376 x 10-23 cm 3/unit cell

EXERCISE
Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, FCC crystal structure and an atomic
weight of 63.5 g/mol. Compute its density and compare the answer with its
measured density.
Element

Copper

Symbol

Atomic
weight
(amu)

Density of
solid, 20oC
(g/cm3)

Crystal
Structure,
20oC

Atomic
radius
(nm)

Cu

63.55

8.94

FCC

0.128

crystal structure = FCC: 4 atoms/unit cell

atomic weight = 63.55 g/mol (1 amu = 1 g/mol)
atomic radius R = 0.128 nm (1 nm = 10 cm)
Density of Copper = 8.89 g/cm3

90

QUESTION : TEST 1 [August 2012]

1b] Platinum has a FCC structure, a lattice parameter of 0.393 nm and an atomic weight
of 195.09 g/mol. Determine :

i.

Atomic radius [in cm]

ii.

Density of platinum

[ 6marks]
Solution :

91

ANSWER : TEST 1 [August 2012]

1b] Platinum has a FCC structure, a lattice parameter of 0.393 nm and an atomic weight
of 195.09 g/mol. Determine :

i.

Atomic radius [in cm]

ii.

Density of platinum
[ 6marks]

Solution :

a = 4R/2
R = 0.139 nm @ 0.139 x 10-7cm @ 1.39 x 10-8cm
=

nA
Vc NA

= 21.345 g/cm3

MILLER INDICES
Miller indices is used to label the planes and directions of atoms in a crystal.
Why Miller indices is important?
To determine the shapes of single crystals, the interpretation of X-ray
diffraction patterns and the movement of a dislocation , which may determine
the mechanical properties of the material.

Miller indices
(h k l) : a specific crystal plane or face
{h k l} : a family of equivalent planes
[h k l] : a specific crystal direction
<h k l> : a family of equivalent directions

Figure : Planes of the form {110} in cubic systems

93

POINT COORDINATES
- The position of any point located within a unit cell may be
specified in terms of its coordinates (x,y,z)
z

Example : BCC structure

y

Point
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

x axis
0
1
1
0
1/2
0
1
1
0

y-axis
0
0
1
1
1/2
0
0
1
1

z-axis
0
0
0
0
1/2
1
1
1
1

Point
Coordinated
000
100
110
010
1/2 1/2 1/2
001
101
111
011

94

MILLER INDICES OF A DIRECTION

How to determine crystal direction indices?
i)

Determine the length of the vector

projection on each of the three axes,
based on
.

ii) These three numbers are expressed as the

smallest integers and negative quantities
are indicated with an overbar.
Figure : Examples of direction

iii) Label the direction [hkl].

Axis

Head (H)

x2

y2

z2

Tail (T)

x1

y1

z1

Head (H) Tail (T)

x2-x1

y2-y1

z2-z1

[h

l]

Reduction (if necessary)

Enclosed
* No reciprocal involved.

95

EXAMPLE : CRYSTAL DIRECTION INDICES

Axis

Head (H)

Tail (T)

Projection (H-T)

Enclosed

[1

0]

0,0,0
1

Axis

Head (H)

Tail (T)

Projection (H-T)

Enclosed

[1

0]

1,1,0

0,1,0
1,0,0

96

EXERCISE : CRYSTAL DIRECTION INDICES

Axis

Head (H)

1/2

Tail (T)

Projection (H-T)

1/2

Reduction (x2)

2__________0

Enclosed

[ 2

_____1_

1 ]

Axis

Head (H)

Tail (T)

Projection (H-T)

-1

Reduction (if necessary)

1__________-1_

Enclosed

[1

_____0_

0 ]
97

EXERCISE : CRYSTAL DIRECTION INDICES

Axis

Head (H)

Tail (T)

Projection (H-T)

-3/4

Reduction (x4)

2_________4_________-3_

Enclosed

[2

3]

Axis

Head (H)

Tail (T)

Projection (H-T)

-1

Reduction (x2)

1_________-1

Enclosed

[1

-2

2]
98

Determine the direction indices of the cubic

direction between the position coordinates
TAIL (3/4, 0, 1/4) and HEAD (1/4, 1/2, 1/2)?

Axis
Head

x
y
z
1/4 1/2 1/2

Tail

3/4

Projection

-2/4 1/2

1/4
1/4

(Head Tail)

Reduction

-2

(x4)

Enclosed

[ 221]

Draw the following Miller Indices

direction.
a) [ 1 0 0 ]
b) [ 1 1 1 ]
c) [ 1 1 0 ]
d) [ 1 1 0 ]

ANSWER : Draw the following Miller Indices

direction.
a) [ 1 0 0 ]
a)

b) [ 1 1 1 ]

b)

c) [ 1 1 0 ]
d) [ 1 1 0 ]
e) [ 1 1 2 ]

c)

d)

e)

MILLER INDICES OF A PLANE

How to determine crystal plane indices?
i) Determine the points at which a given crystal plane
intersects the three axes, say at (a,0,0),(0,b,0), and (0,0,c). If
the plane is parallel an axis, it is given an intersection .
ii) Take the reciprocals of the three integers found in step (i).
iii) Label the plane (hkl). These three numbers are expressed
as the smallest integers and negative quantities are indicated
with an overbar,e.g : a.

Axis

(h

l)

Interceptions
Reciprocals

Reduction (if necessary)

Enclosed

102

Figure : Planes with different Miller

indices in cubic crystals

(0 , 0 , 1)
+z
_
_ (1 , 0 , 0)
x

_
_
(0 , 1 , 0) y

+x
(1 , 0 , 0)

+y (0 , 1 , 0)

_
z _
(0 , 0 , 1)

EXERCISE. : CRYSTAL PLANE INDICES

Axis

Interceptions

Reciprocals

Reduction

Enclosed

( 2

2)

Axis

Interceptions

Reciprocals

Reduction

Enclosed

1
1

Not intercept at y axis,

find new axis

1
1

104

EXERCISE. : CRYSTAL PLANE INDICES

Parallel with z axis,
give
Axis

Interceptions

Reciprocals

Reduction
Enclosed

1
( 1

1
1

0
0 )

Not intercept at x axis,

find new axis
Axis

Interceptions

1/2

Reciprocals

Reduction

Enclosed

2 )

z = 5/6 1/3

Parallel with y axis,

give

EXERCISE. : CRYSTAL PLANE INDICES

Parallel with x axis,
give
Axis

Interceptions

-1

1/2

Reciprocals

-1

Reduction

-1

Enclosed

)
Plane pass through origin,
find new axis

Axis

Interceptions

Reciprocals

Reduction

Enclosed

( 0

0)

Determine the Miller Indices plane for the

following figure below?

Draw the following Miller Indices

plane.
a) ( 1 0 0 )

b) ( 0 0 1 )
c) ( 1 0 1 )
d) ( 1 1 0 )

ANSWER : Draw the following Miller Indices plane.

a) ( 1 0 0 )

b) ( 0 0 1 )
c) ( 1 0 1 )
d) ( 1 1 0 )

NOTE (for plane and direction):

PLANE
Make sure you enclosed your final answer in brackets () with no
separating commas (hkl)

DIRECTION
Make sure you enclosed your final answer in brackets () with no
separating commas [hkl]

FOR BOTH PLANE AND DIRECTION

Negative number should be written as follows :
-1 (WRONG)
1 (CORRECT)

Final answer for labeling the plane and direction should not have fraction
number
do a reduction.
110

1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

ATOMIC STRUCTURE, CRYSTAL
STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS

111

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Physical properties are the characteristic responses of materials to
forms of energy such as heat, light, electricity and magnetism.

The physical properties of metals can be easily explained as follows :

Solid at room temperature (mercury is an exception)
Opaque
Conducts heat and electricity
Reflects light when polished
Expands when heated, contracts when cooled
It usually has a crystalline structure
112

Mechanical Properties

Terminology for Mechanical Properties

The Tensile Test: Stress-Strain Diagram
Properties Obtained from a Tensile Test
Hardness of Materials

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Mechanical properties are the characteristic dimensional changes in response to
applied external or internal mechanical forces such as shear strength, toughness,
stiffness etc.
The mechanical properties of metals can be easily explained as follows :

114

Tensile Test
specimen

machine
115

Tensile Test

116

Terminology
Load - The force applied to a material during testing.

Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for

measuring change in length (strain).
Engineering stress - The applied load, or force,
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
material.
Engineering strain - The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test.

Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength

yield
strength

Strain
Hardening

UTS
y

necking

Fracture
5

2
Elastic region
slope =Youngs (elastic) modulus
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
strain hardening
fracture

Plastic
Region
Elastic
Region

1
E

y
2 1

4
Strain ( ) (DL/Lo)

Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

Elastic Region (Point 1 2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.

or

: Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Youngs Modulus) (psi)
: Strain (in/in)

- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent

deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will

no longer return to its original length.)

Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

Strain Hardening

- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the

curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same

Elastic Modulus (slope).

- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.

Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

Tensile Strength (Point 3)
- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.

 This diagram is used to determine how material will react under a certain load.

Figure : Stress strain diagram

Typical regions that can

be observed in a stressstrain curve are:

Elastic region
Yielding
Strain Hardening
Necking and Failure

123

Important Mechanical Properties

from a Tensile Test
Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear portion
of the stress-strain curve, it is usually specific to each
material; a constant, known value.
Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the yield
point, calculated by plotting young's modulus at a
specified percent of offset (usually offset = 0.2%).
Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest value of
stress on the stress-strain curve.
Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge length
divided by the original gauge length.

124

The stress-strain curve for an aluminum alloy.

Youngs Moduli: Comparison

Metals
Alloys
1200
1000
800
600
400

E(GPa)

200
100
80
60
40

109 Pa

Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond

Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin

Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

Carbon fibers only

CFRE(|| fibers)*

<111>

Si crystal

Aramid fibers only

<100>

AFRE(|| fibers)*

Glass-soda

Glass fibers only

GFRE(|| fibers)*

Concrete
GFRE*

20
10
8
6
4
2

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*

Graphite

Polyester
PET
PS
PC

CFRE( fibers)*
AFRE( fibers)*

Composite data based on

reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE)
fibers.

Epoxy only

PP
HDPE
PTFE
LDPE

Wood(

grain)

126

E
N
S
I
L
E

P
R
O
P
E
R
T
I
E
S

127

Yield Strength: Comparison

Room T values
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered

128

Yield Strength, y
tensile stress,

engineering strain,

p = 0.002

129

Elastic Deformation
1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch
return to
initial

F
Atomic bonds are stretched but not
broken.
Once the forces are no longer
applied, the object returns to its
original shape.
Elastic means reversible.

130

Typical stress-strain
behavior for a metal
showing elastic and
plastic deformations,
the proportional limit P
and the yield strength
y, as determined
using the 0.002 strain
offset method (where there
is noticeable plastic deformation).

P is the gradual elastic

to plastic transition.
131

Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

F
Atomic bonds are broken and new
bonds
are created.
.
Plastic means permanent.

linear
elastic

linear
elastic

plastic

132

Permanent Deformation
Permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called
slip, which involves the motion of
dislocations.
Most structures are designed to ensure that
only elastic deformation results when stress
is applied.
A structure that has plastically deformed, or
experienced a permanent change in shape,
may not be capable of functioning as
133
intended.

Tensile Strength, TS
After yielding, the stress necessary to
continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum point (M) and
then decreases to the eventual fracture
point (F).
All deformation up to the maximum
stress is uniform throughout the tensile
sample.
However, at max stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form.
Subsequent deformation will be confined
to this neck area.
Fracture strength corresponds to the
stress at fracture.
Region between M and F:
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.
134

In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned locally.
The neck continues to
grow until the chains
in the entire gage
length have aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased

135

Tensile Strength: Comparison

Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.

a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
136

Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, :

Shear stress, t:

Ft

Ao
original area
before loading
Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2

137

VMSE
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/index.htm
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/strstr.htm

138

Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the plastic
deformation that has been sustained at
fracture:

A material that
suffers very
little plastic
deformation is
brittle.

Another ductility measure:

% EL

l f lo
lo

x100

% AR

Ao Af
Ao

x100

Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (% plastic strain at fracture)

or percent reduction in area.
%AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck.
139

Toughness is
the ability to
absorb
energy up to
fracture (energy

Toughness
Lower toughness: ceramics
Higher toughness: metals

per unit volume of

material).

A tough
material has
strength and
ductility.
Approximated
by the area
under the
stress-strain
curve.

140

Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress,

smaller toughness (ceramics)

larger toughness
(metals, PMCs)
smaller toughnessunreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain,

21

Linear Elastic Properties

Hooke's Law:
Poisson's ratio:

=E
n x/y

metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~0.25
polymers: n ~0.40

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless

142

Engineering Strain

Strain is dimensionless.
143

Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x and y) contractions (negative strains) in
response to an imposed tensile stress.

144

True Stress and True Strain

True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional
area of the specimen at that load.

True strain The strain calculated using actual and not

original dimensions, given by t ln(l/l0).

The relation between the true stress-true

strain diagram and engineering stressengineering strain diagram.
The curves are identical to the yield point.

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials compared with

that of more ductile materials

Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastomers

3 different responses:
A brittle failure
B plastic failure
C - highly elastic (elastomer)

--brittle response (aligned chain, cross linked & networked case)

--plastic response (semi-crystalline case)
147

Stress-Strain Results for Steel

Sample

148

FRACTURE MECHANISM OF METALS

Metals can fail by brittle or ductile fracture.
Ductile fracture is better than brittle fracture because :
Ductile fracture occurs over a period of time, where as brittle fracture is fast
and can occur (with flaws) at lower stress levels than a ductile fracture.

Figure : Stress strain curve for brittle and ductile material

149

Ductile Vs Brittle Fracture

Ductile Fracture

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a

necked region.
The image shows necked region in a fractured sample

QUESTION : FINAL EXAM [April 2011]

1c] Ductility is one of the important mechanical properties.

i] Define the ductility of a metal.

ii] With the aid of schematic diagrams, describe elastic and plastic deformations.

[6 marks]

152

ANSWER : FINAL EXAM [April 2011]

1c] Ductility is one of the important mechanical properties.
i] Define the ductility of a metal.

ii] With the aid of schematic diagrams, describe elastic and plastic deformations.
[6 marks]
Ductility is an ability of a material to have large plastic deformation before fracture
or area under plastic deformation in stress strain diagram

Elastic deformation

The deformation is non permanent or reversible.

In terms of atomic level, the bonding between atoms are stretched and it will return
back to its original shape after force is released.
bonds
stretch

1
return to
initial

1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

153

Plastic deformation
The deformation is permanent.
In terms of atomic level, the bonding between atoms will break and the atom
bonded with new atom. As a result, permanent deformation will occur.

1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

What are the differences between

ductile fracture & brittle fracture?
Ductile fracture

Brittle fracture

Plastic deformation

Small/ no plastic deformation

High energy absorption before fracture

Low energy absorption before fracture

Characterized by slow crack propagation

Characterized by rapid crack propagation

Detectable failure

Unexpected failure

Eg: Metals, polymers

Eg: Ceramics, polymers

Hardness of Materials
Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material to
penetration by a sharp object.
Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials
measured using loads >2 N.
Microhardness Hardness of materials typically measured
using loads less than 2 N using such test as Knoop
(HK).
Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 1
10 nm length scale using extremely small (~100 N)
forces.

Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance
to localized plastic deformation (a small dent or
scratch).
Quantitative hardness techniques have been
developed where a small indenter is forced into
the surface of a material.
The depth or size of the indentation is measured,
and corresponds to a hardness number.
The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation (and lower hardness number).
157

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:

--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in

compression.
--better wear properties.

158

Hardness Testers

159

Hardness Testers

Indentation Geometry for Brinnel

Testing
Figure Indentation geometry in
Brinell hardness testing: (a)
annealed metal; (b) workhardened metal; (c) deformation
of mild steel under a spherical
indenter. Note that the depth of
the permanently deformed zone
is about one order of magnitude
larger that the depth of
indentation. For a hardness test
to be valid, this zone should be
developed fully in the material.

Hardness
Scale
Conversions
Figure Chart for converting
various hardness scales. Note
the limited range of most scales.
Because of the many factors
involved, these conversions are
approximate.

Conversion of
Hardness Scales

Also see: ASTM E140 - 07

Volume 03.01
Standard Hardness Conversion
Tables for Metals Relationship
Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers
Hardness, Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness, Knoop
Hardness, and Scleroscope
Hardness
164

Correlation
between
Hardness and
Tensile
Strength
Both hardness and tensile
strength are indicators of
a metals resistance to
plastic deformation.
For cast iron, steel and
brass, the two are roughly
proportional.
Tensile strength (psi) =
500*BHR

165

QUESTION : FINAL EXAM [Oct 2012]

1c] Hardness is one of the important mechanical properties

in engineering. Describe FOUR [4] types of hardness
measurement method in terms of name and types of
indenter.

[ 4 marks]

166

ANSWER: FINAL EXAM [Oct 2012]

1c] Hardness is one of the important mechanical properties in engineering. Describe
FOUR [4] types of hardness measurement method in terms of name and types of
indenter.
[ 4 marks]
Rockwell

Indenter type : Diamond [cone] [120 angle and 0.2mm tip radius] or steel sphere

Brinell

Indenter type : 10mm sphere of steel / tungsten carbide

Vickers

Indenter type : Diagonal pyramid diamond

Knoop

Indenter type : Elongated pyramid diamond

167

Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

168