ETE

3321

Linear

Integrated Circuits
and Applications
Integrated Circuit Packaging Technology

UNIT I.
Introduction
Integrated circuits - Classification
IC Manufacturing process
o Thin and thick film techniques
o Monolithic techniques
Epitaxial
Photolithography
Metallization
Diffusion systems
Surface passivation and isolation

Unit 1Introduction
In the early 1960s, a new field of microelectronics was born primarily to meet the
requirements of the Military which wanted to reduce the size of its electronic
equipment to approximately one-tenth of its then existing volume. This drive for
extreme reduction in the size of electronic circuits has led to the development of
microelectronic circuits called integrated circuits (ICs) which are so small that
their actual construction is done by technicians using high powered microscopes.

1.1 What is an Integrated Circuit?

To put it very briefly, an integrated circuit (IC) is just a packaged electronic circuit.
An IC is a complete electronic circuit in which both the active and passive
components are fabricated on a tiny single chip of silicon. Active components are
those which have the ability to produce gain.
Examples are : transistors and FETs.
Passive components or devices are those which do not have this ability. Examples
are : resistors, capacitors and inductors.

ICs are produced by the same processes as are used for manufacturing individual
transistors and diodes etc. In such circuits, different components are isolated from
each other by isolation diffusion within the crystal chip and are interconnected by
an aluminum layer that serves as wires.
A discrete circuit, on the other hand, is one that is built by connecting separate
components. In this case, each component is produced separately and then all are
assembled together to make the electronic circuit

J.S. Kilby of Texas Instruments was the first person to develop (in 1959) an
integrated circuit a single monolithic silicon chip in which active and passive
components were fabricated by successive deposition, etching and diffusions. He
was soon followed by Robert Noyce of Fairchild who successfully fabricated a
complete IC including the interconnections on a single silicon chip. Since then the
evolution of this technology is fast-paced.

1.2 Advantages of ICs

As compared to standard printed circuits which use discrete components, ICs
have the following advantages :

1 Extremely small physical size

Often the size is thousands of times smaller than a discrete circuit. The various
components and their interconnections are distinguishable only under a powerful
microscope.
2. Very small weight
Since many circuit functions can be packed into a small space, complex electronic
equipment can be employed in many applications where weight and space are
critical, such as in aircraft or space-vehicles.
3. Reduced cost
The reduction in cost per unit is due to the fact that many identical circuits can be
built simultaneously on a single wafer this process is called batch fabrication.
Although the processing steps for the wafer are complex and expensive, the large
number of resulting integrated circuits make the ultimate cost of each IC fairly low.
4. Extremely high reliability
It is perhaps the most important advantage of an IC and is due to many factors.
Most significant factor is the absence of soldered connections. Another is the need
for fewer interconnections the major cause of circuit failures. Small temperature
rise due to low power consumptions of ICs also improves their reliability. In fact,
an IC logic gate has been found to be 100,000 times more reliable than a vacuum
tube logic gate and 100 times more reliable than a transistor logic gate.
Obviously, higher reliability means that ICs will work for longer periods without
giving any trouble something most desirable from both military and consumer
application point of view.
5. Increased response time and speed
Since various components of an IC are located close to each other in or on a silicon
wafer, the time delay of signals is reduced. Moreover, because of the short
distances, the chance of stray electrical pickup (called parasitic capacitance) is
practically nil. Hence it makes them very suitable for small signal operation and

high frequency operation. As a result, the response time or the operating speed of
the system is improved.
6. Low power consumption
Because of their small size, ICs are more suitable for low power operation than
bulky discrete circuits.
7. Easy replacement
ICs are hardly ever repaired because in case of failure, it is more economical to
replace them than to repair them.
8. Higher yield
The yield is the percentage of usable devices. Because of the batch fabrication, the
yield is very high. Faulty devices usually occur because of some defect in the
silicon wafer or in the fabrication steps. Defects in silicon wafer can occur because
of lattice imperfection and strains introduced in crystal growth, cutting and
handling of the wafers. Usually such defects are extremely small, but their
presence can ruin devices built on or around. Reducing the size of each device
greatly increases the chance for a given device to be free of such defects. The same
is true for fabrication defects such as the presence of a dust particle on the
photolithographic mask.
1.3 Drawbacks of ICs
The integrated circuits suffer from the following drawbacks :
1. ICs function at fairly low voltages,
2. They handle only limited amount of power,
3. They are quite delicate and cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat.
However, the advantages of ICs far outweigh their disadvantages or drawbacks.
1.4 Level of Integration
Level of integration in ICs has been increasing ever since they were developed The
number of electronic circuits or components that can be fitted into a standard size

IC has been dramatically increasing with each passing year. In fact, whole
electronic systems rather than just a circuit are incorporated in one package.

1.4.1 Classification of ICs by Structure

Structurally speaking, ICs can be classified into the following three types :

1.4.1.1 Monolithic Integrated Circuits

The word monolithic means single stone or more appropriately a single-solid
structure. In this IC, all circuit components (both active and passive) are
fabricated inseparably within a single continuous piece of silicon crystalline
material called wafer (or substrate). All components are atomically part of the
same chip. Transistors, diodes and other passive components are fabricated at
appropriate spots in the substrate using epitaxial diffusion technique.
Component interconnections are provided on the surface of the structure and
external connecting wires are taken out to the terminals. It is a complete circuit
requiring no add ons.
Despite some of its distinct disadvantages, monolithic ICs are in wide use because
for mass production, monolithic process has been found to be the most economical.
1.4.1.2 Thick and Thin-Film ICs
The essential difference between thick-film and thin-film ICs is not their relative
thickness but the method of depositing the film. Both have similar appearance,
properties and general characteristics though they both differ in many respects
from monolithic ICs.
These ICs are not formed within a silicon wafer but on the surface of an insulating
substrate such as glass or a ceramic material.

Moreover, only passive components (resistors, capacitors) are formed through

thick or thin-film techniques on the insulating surface. The active elements
(transistors, diodes) are added externally as discrete elements to complete a
functional circuit. These discrete active components are frequently produced by
using the monolithic process.
As stated above, the primary difference between the thick and thin film techniques
is the process used for forming passive components and the metallic conduction
pattern.
( a ) Thin-film ICs
Such circuits are constructed by depositing films (typically 0.1 to 0.5 m) of
conducting material through a mask on the surface of a substrate made of glass or
ceramic.
Resistors and conductors are formed by varying the width and thickness of the film
and by using materials of different resistivity.
Capacitors are produced by sandwiching an insulating oxide film between two
conducting films. Small inductors can be made by depositing a spiral formation of
film.
The active components like transistors and diodes etc. are externally added and
interconnected by wire bonds
Following two methods are used to produce thin films :
( i ) vacuum evaporation
In this method, the vaporized material is deposited through a set of masks on the
glass or ceramic substrate contained in vacuum.
( ii ) cathode sputtering
In this method, atoms from a cathode made of the desired film material are
deposited on the substrate which is located between the cathode and the anode.

( b ) Thick-film ICs

Such type of integrated circuits are sometimes referred to as printed thin-film

circuits. They are so called because silk-screen printing techniques are employed
to create the desired circuit pattern on the surface of the substrate. The screens are
made of fine stainless steel wire mesh and the inks are pastes (of pulverized glass
and aluminium) which have conductive, resistive or dielectric properties.
After printing, the circuits are high-temperature fired in a furnace to fuse the films
to the insulating substrate. As with thin-film ICs, active elements are added
externally as discrete components.

1.4.1.3 Hybrid or Multichip ICs

As the name implies, such circuits are formed either by inter-connecting a number
of individual chips or by a combination of film and monolithic IC techniques. In
such ICs , active components are first formed within a silicon wafer (using
monolithic technique) which is subsequently covered with an insulating layer such
as SiO2 Film techniques are then employed to form passive components on the
SiO2 surface.
Connections are made from the film to the monolithic structure through windows
cut in the SiO2 layer

1.4.2 Classification of ICs By Function

The earlier classification of ICs was based on their method of construction.
However, the integrated circuits can also be classified according to their general
function. The two most important categories are :
1. linear and
2. Digital

Classification Based on Circuits Function

Integrated Circuits

Linear / Analogue ICs

Digital ICs

Integrated circuits that operate with

analogue signals at the input and output.

Integrated circuits that operate with

digital signals at the input and output.

Examples:
i. Op-Amp
ii. Power Amplifier
iii. Multiplier
iv. Comparator
v. Voltage Regulator

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Examples:
Logic gates
Flip-flop
Counter
Calculator chips
Memory
Microprocessor

1.4.2.1 Linear Integrated Circuits (LICs)

LICs are also referred to as analog ICs because their inputs and outputs can take
on a continuous range of values and the outputs are generally proportional to the
inputs. As compared to digital ICs, LICs are used much less. But LICs are quickly
displacing their discrete circuit counterparts in many applications as their cost
becomes competitive.
They also possess much higher reliability because so many external connections
(major source of circuit failure) are eliminated. LICs find wide use in military and
industrial applications as well as in consumer products.
They are frequently used in
1. Operational amplifiers,

2. Small-signal amplifiers,

3. Power amplifiers,

4. RF and IF amplifiers,

5. Microwave amplifiers,

6. Multipliers,

7. Voltage comparators,

8.voltage regulators etc.

Operational amplifier is by far the most versatile form for an LIC and is discussed
separately.
Examples of linear ICs are :
1. BEL CA-3020used as multipurpose wide-band power amplifier.
2. BEL CA-3065it is a monolithic IC which combines a multistage IF amplifier,
limiter, an FM detector, an electronic attenuator, a Zener diode regulated power
supply and an audio amplifier. In fact, this IC provides a high performance
multistage sub-system of a TV receiver. It is available in 14-pin dual-in-line
package.

1.4.2.2 Digital Integrated Circuits

About 80 per cent of the IC market has been captured by digital ICs which are
mostly utilized by the computer industry. Digital ICs lend themselves easily to
monolithic integration because a computer uses a large number of identical circuits.
Moreover, such circuits employ relatively few capacitors and values of resistances,
voltages and currents are low.
Digital ICs contain circuits whose input and output voltages are limited to two
possible levels low or high.
It is so because digital signals are usually binary. Sometimes, digital circuits are
referred to as switching circuits. Digital ICs include circuits such as:
1. Logic gates

2. Flip-flops 3. Counters 4. Clock-chips

5. Calculator chips 6. Memory chips 7. Microprocessors (P) etc.

Main Applications of IC
Most electronic equipment today use integrated circuit, for
example:
Computer / Server / workstation
TV / Radio / Video
Cell Phones
Digital Clock
Robotic Systems
Telecommunication System
Automotive
Medical Equipment
Aerospace
Children's Toys
Military Field
Missile System
etc.

1.5 How ICs are Made ?

ICs are manufactured in four distinct stages
These are (1) material preparation, (2) crystal growing and wafer preparation, (3)
wafer fabrication and (4) testing, bonding and packaging.

1.5.1 Material Preparation

Silicon, as an element is not found in nature. However, it is found abundantly in
nature in the form of silicon dioxide, which constitutes about 20% of earths crust.

Silicon is commonly found as quartz or sand. A number of processes are required

to convert sand into pure silicon with a polycrystalline structure.

1.5.2 Crystal Growing and Wafer Preparation

To grow crystals, the polycrystalline silicon is placed in the crucible. The furnace
is heated to a temperature of 1690 K which is slightly greater than the melting
point (1685 K) of silicon. A precisely controlled amount of dopant (boron or
phosphorus) is added to the melt to make the silicon as P-type or N-type

1.5.3 Wafer Fabrication

Following is the category of the processes that are used in the fabrication of ICs :
i) Oxidation ii) Etching iii) Diffusion iv) Ion implantation
v) Photolithography vi) Epitaxy vii) Metallization and interconnections.

1.5.3 i) Oxidation
The process of oxidation consists of growing a thin film of silicon dioxide (SiO 2)
on the surface of a silicon wafer. Silicon dioxide has several uses:
1. To serve as a mask against implant or diffusion of dopant into silicon,
2. To provide surface passivation, (oxide layer serves as a protection for the
semiconductor surface.
3. To isolate one device from another,
4. To act as a component in MOS structures.

Oxide layer grown on the surface of silicon substrate

Formation of Insulating Films
The favored insulator is pure silicon dioxide (SiO 2). A SiO2 film can be formed by
one of two methods:
1. Oxidation of Si at high temperature in O 2 or steam ambient
2. Deposition of a silicon dioxide film

Several techniques have been developed for forming oxide layers. Some of these
are:
1) Thermal oxidation,

Temperature range: 700oC to 1100oC

Process: O2 or H2O diffuses through SiO 2 and reacts with Si at the interface to
form more SiO2
2) Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of (SiO2)

Gases dissociate on surfaces at high temperature, typically done at low pressure

(LPCVD) rather than atmospheric (APCVD)
LPCVD pressures around 300mT (0.05% atmosphere)
Temperature range: Moderate Temperatures (450 SiO2)
Very dangerous gases
Silane: SiH4
Arsine, phosphine, diborane: AsH3, PH3, B2H6

3) Plasma oxidation (Physical Vapor Deposition (Sputtering)).

It is used to deposit Al films
Highly energetic argon ions hit the surface of a metal target, knocking atoms loose,
which then land on the surface of the wafer

1.5.3 ii) Etching

Etching is the process of selective removal of regions of a semiconductor, metal or
silicon dioxide. There are two types of etching: wet and dry.
In wet etching, the wafers are immersed in a chemical solution at a predetermined
temperature.
In dry (or plasma) etching, the wafers are immersed in gaseous plasma created by a
radio-frequency electric field applied to a gas such as argon
1.5.3 iii) Diffusion
This process consists of the introduction of impurities into selected regions of a
wafer to form junctions. Diffusion occurs in two steps : the pre-deposition and
the drive-in diffusion. In the pre-deposition step, a high concentration of dopant
atoms is introduced at the silicon surface by a vapour that contains the dopant at a
temperature of 1000C. More recently, a more accurate method of pre-deposition
known as ion implantation is used.
Pre-deposition tends to produce, a superficial but heavily doped layer, near the
silicon surface. Drive-in is used to drive the impurity atoms deeper into the surface,
without adding any more impurities.

Impurity concentration versus depth into the substrate) during the pre-deposition
and the drive-in steps of diffusion.

1.5.3 .iv) Ion Implantation

This is a process of introducing dopants into selected areas of the surface of the
wafer by bombarding the surface with high-energy ions of the particular dopant.
The ions are then accelerated in an electric field so that they acquire energy of
about 20 keV and are passed through a strong magnetic field. The ions are further
accelerated so that their energy reaches several hundred keV or MeV, at which
point they are focused on and strike the surface of the silicon wafer.
As is the case with diffusion, the ion beam is made to penetrate only into selected
regions of the wafer by a process of masking (discussed later). On entering the
wafer, the ions collide with silicon atoms and lose their energy. The depth of
penetration of ions in ion implantation is about 0.1 to 1 m.
The higher the energy of ions and the smaller their mass, the greater is the depth of
penetration
Some of the advantage of ion implantation over diffusion
1- Doping levels can be precisely controlled since the incident ion beam can be
accurately measured as an electric current.
2- The depth of the dopant can be easily regulated by control of the incident ion
velocity. It is capable of very shallow penetrations.

1.5.3 .v) Photomask Generation

The whole process of IC fabrication consists of identifying selected regions of each
circuit of the wafer surface into which identical dopant or metallic interconnections
are made, while protecting other regions of the wafer surface. To carry out one of
the many fabrication processes, a separate mask is required for each operation
whose function is to expose the selected regions and protect the others. There may
be hundreds of identical dies (or ICs ) on a wafer with each circuit containing
hundreds of thousands or millions of devices. Identical steps are carried out
simultaneously for each process. For each process, separate mask is needed.

The mask production starts with a drawing using a computer-assisted graphics

system with all the information about the drawing stored in digital form.
A logic circuit diagram is drawn to determine the electronic circuit required for the
requested function.
Once the logic circuit diagram is complete, simulations are performed multiple
times to test the circuits operation.

1.5.3.vi) Photolithography is a process in which the geometrical pattern on the

glass plate (called reticle) is transferred to the surface of the wafer. This is done to
open identical windows to enable the selective impurity diffusion or ion
implantation into silicon wafer and which enables to achieve a definite pattern of
Aluminum interconnections according to the circuit requirement
The process may take place in all identical regions of the same IC and for all ICs
on the wafer.

1.5.3.vii) Epitaxy or Epitaxial growth is the process of the controlled growth of

a crystalline doped layer of silicon on a single crystal substrate..
1.5.3.viii) Metallization and Interconnections
After all the fabrication steps of an IC are completed, it becomes necessary to
provide metallic interconnections for the IC and for external connections to the IC.
The requirement that must be met by the interconnections is that they have low

resistance to minimize both the voltage drops on the lines as well as the
capacitances between the lines so as to reduce delay times

1.5.3.ix) Inspection & Testing

Each IC on the completed wafer is electronically tested by the tester.
After this inspection, the front-end processing is complete

1.5.3.x) Dicing
In back end processing, a wafer completed in front end processing is cut into
individual IC chips and encapsulated into packages

1.5.3.xi) Mounting
After the IC chips are cut apart, they are sealed into packages. The IC chips must
first be attached to a platform called the "lead frame.

1.5.3.xii) Wire bonding

The mounted IC chips are connected to the lead frames.

1.5.3.xiii) Packaging
The final step in IC fabrication is packaging the device in a suitable medium that
can protect it from environment of its intended application. In most cases this
means the surface of the device must be isolated from the moisture and
contaminants and the bonds and other elements must be protected from corrosion

and mechanical shocks. (The IC chips and the lead frame islands are encapsulated
with molding resin for protection).

Unit 2 Operational Amplifiers

UNIT II. Operational amplifiers

Basic concepts
differential amplifiers
ideal op-amp
o parameters of op-amp
o Basic op-amp applications
Scale changer
Inverting and non-inverting amplifier
summer and subtractor
multiplier and divider
differentiator
integrator
instrumentation amplifier

2.1 Introduction
An operational amplifier, in general, is a three-stage circuit, and is fabricated as an
integrated circuit. The first stage is a differential amplifier, the second stage
provides additional voltage gain, and the third stage provides current gain and low
output impedance
Operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a very high-gain, high- rin directly-coupled
negative-feedback amplifier which can amplify signals having frequency ranging
from 0 Hz to a little beyond 1 MHz. They are made with different internal
configurations in linear ICs. An OP-AMP is so named because it was originally
designed to perform mathematical operations like summation, subtraction,
multiplication, differentiation and integration etc. in analog computers. Present
day usage is much wider in scope but the popular name OP-AMP continues.
Typical uses of OP-AMP are : scale changing, analog computer operations, in
instrumentation and control systems and a great variety of phase-shift and
oscillator circuits.

Equivalent circuit (internal architecture) of 741 IC Op-amp

741 IC Op-amp pin configuration

(Often called single-ended amplifiers) The +V (+Vcc) and -V(+Vee) connections

denote the positive and negative sides of the DC power supply, respectively. The
input and output voltage connections are shown as single conductors, because it is
assumed that all signal voltages are referenced to a common connection in the
circuit called ground. Often (but not always!), one pole of the DC power supply,
either positive or negative, is that ground reference point. A practical amplifier
circuit (showing the input voltage source, load resistance, and power supply) might
look like as below:

Circuit function: to take an input signal (Vin), amplify it, and drive a load resistance
(Rload).
If it is necessary for an amplifier to be able to output true AC voltage (reversing
polarity) to the load, a split DC power supply may be used, whereby the ground
point is electrically "centered" between +V and -V. Sometimes the split power
supply configuration is referred to as a dual power supply

The output voltage across the load resistor can now swing from a theoretical
maximum of +15 volts to -15 volts, instead of +30 volts to 0 volts. This is an easy
way to get true alternating current (AC) output from an amplifier without resorting
to capacitive or inductive (transformer) coupling on the output. The peak-to-peak
amplitude of this amplifier's output between cutoff and saturation remains
unchanged.

Unlike normal amplifiers, which amplify a single input signal (often called singleended amplifiers), differential amplifiers amplify the voltage difference between
two input signals.
Notice: The two input leads can be seen on the left-hand side of the triangular
amplifier symbol, the output lead on the right-hand side, and the +V and -V power
supply leads on top and bottom.

Notice that one input lead is marked with a (-) Inverting and the other is marked
with a (+) Non-inverting terminal.
The voltage output of a differential amplifier is determined by the following
equation: Vout = AV(Vnoninv - Vinv) or Vout = AV(V1 V2)
Consider the following table of input/output voltages for a differential amplifier
with a voltage gain of 4:

Same as

VO = AOLVd = AOL(V1 V2)

Most amplifiers have one input and one output. Differential amplifiers have two
inputs and one output, the output signal being proportional to the difference in
signals between the two inputs.
Since the ideal op-amp responds only to the difference between the two input
signals V1 and V2 , the ideal op-amp maintains a zero output signal for V1 = V2
When V1 = V2 0, there is what is called a common-mode input signal. For the
ideal op-amp, the common-mode output signal is zero. This characteristic is
referred to as common-mode rejection because if used properly you can reject
signals you dont want while simultaneously amplifying signals you do want. This
process is called Common Mode Rejection Ratio or CMRR and it is used to
eliminate noise and hum which can be common to a signal

2.1.2 Ideal Operational Amplifier

When an OP- AMP is operated without connecting any resistor or capacitor from
its output to any one of its inputs (i.e without feedback), it is said to be in the openloop condition. The word open loop means that feedback path or loop is open.
The specifications of OP- AMP under such condition are called open-loop
specifications.
An ideal OP- AMP
It has the following characteristics :

1- Infinite voltage gain AOL

2- Infinite input impedance Rin
This ensure no current can flow into ideal opamp
3- Zero output impedance Ro
This ensures Vo remains no matter load resistance
4- Zero offset voltage
Offset voltage is that small Vo even though V1 = V2
This ensures Vo = 0 when Vi = 0
5- Infinite Bandwidth
BW is range of frequency opamp performs satisfactorily
Ideal opamp operating frequency range = 0 inf
It can amplify dc (0 freq.) as well as ac signals
6- Infinite CMRR
CMRR is the ratio of diff gain and common mode gain
Infinite to ensure zero common mode gain in ideal opamp

7- Infinite slew rate

Is the maximum rate of change of the output voltage
Infinite to ensure that when Vi changes, immediately Vo changes too
8- No effect to temperature
Ideal opamp characteristics do not change with temperature

2.1.2 Practical op-amp characteristics

1. Open Loop Gain
Voltage gain when no feedback is applied is Practically in thousand
In case of typical practical op amp like IC 741 it is of the order of 10 5 i.e. about
100 dB
2. Input Impedance
Typically greater than 1M
In case of IC 741 it is 2 M
3. Output Resistance
Typically a few hundred ohms but can be reduced to 1 or 2 using
negative feedback
In case of IC 741 it is 75
4. Bandwidth
Very small in open loop configuration
Apply negative feedback to increase to desired value

5. Output Offset Voltage

The output dc offset voltage is the measured open-loop output voltage when the
input voltage is zero. This configuration is shown in Figure (a).

a. Under common mode operation, output voltage should be zero, but

due to mismatch in devices it is non-zero
b. Voos is the voltage at the output when both input terminals are
grounded
c. (Can be corrected by applying voltage between Pins 1 and 5 of IC 741)

6. Input Offset Voltage

With V1 and V2 grounded, Vo should be zero, BUT IT IS NOT
So a small dc voltage needed to be applied that must be applied to the open-loop
op-amp at one of the inputs with the other grounded so as to get a zero output
voltage is the input offset voltage , Vios
7. Input Bias Current
The input currents to an ideal op-amp are zero
No current should flow through the input terminals but small currents of 10E6A to 10E-14A do exist practically.
In actual operational amplifiers, however, the input bias currents are not zero (IB1
and IB2),the input bias current is then defined as the average of the two input
currents flowing into each of the two input terminals.

IB = |IB1+IB2|/2
8. Input Offset Current
The difference between the two input currents is called the input offset current
Iios = |IB1-IB2|
Following additional points are worth noting :
1. Infinite input resistance means that input current i = 0 . It means that an ideal
OP- AMP is a voltage-controlled device.
2. R0 = 0 means that V0 is not dependent on the load resistance connected across
the output.
3. Though for an ideal OP- AMP AOL = , for an actual one, it is extremely high
i.e., about 106
However, it does not mean that 1 V signal will be amplified to 106 V at the output.
Actually, the maximum value of V0 is limited by the basis supply voltage,
typically 15V. With AOL = 106 and V0 = 15V the maximum value of input
voltage is limited to

= 15V. Though 1V in the OP- AMP, can certainly

become 1 V.

Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve

Plot of Vo and Vd
Output proportional to difference between input voltages up to saturation
voltages of the opamp specified by manufacturer then stays constant
Opamp Vo <= Vsat slightly less than Vcc & Vee

Derivation of Practical op-amp Output Voltage

CMRR is the ability of a differential amplifier to reject the signal (of

same voltage) which is present at its both inputs simultaneously i.e. the
common mode signal
CMRR = = Ad / AC
Ideally Ac is zero so Ideally CMRR is infinite
Practically Ad is large & Ac small hence CMRR is also very large
Vo = Ad Vd [1 + 1/(CMRR).(Vc/Vd)]
So with CMRR large Vo ~ Ad Vd
The common mode component is largely rejected

Exercise: Determine the output voltage of a differential amplifier for the

input voltages 300uV and 240uV, given that the differential gain is 5000,
and the CMRR is (i) 100
(ii) 100000
Ideal Op Amp with Negative Feedback

vo

Network

2.1.3 Golden Rules of Op Amps:

1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage
difference between the inputs zero
2. The inputs draw no current

These two conditions give rise to VIRTUAL GROUND, where the voltages
at both the inputs are maintained at exactly same level.
- Virtual ground means that the differential input voltage is essentially zero
- VO = AOLVd = AOL(V1 V2)
- Vd = VO /AOL = VO / inf = 0
- V1 = V2
Voltage at one terminal can be assumed same as that at another
- A virtual short-circuit therefore exists between the inputs

- No current flows from the terminals to the ground

Principle of virtual Ground states that:
If the non-inverting terminal of an op-amp is grounded then the inverting one is
also at ground even if there is no physical connection between them
To achieve this condition, a feedback circuit between the output and the inverting
input terminal of the op amp is necessary.
This results into many applications of op amp, which qualify it to be
OPERATIONAL: adder, subtractor, multiplier, divider etc.
Closed Loop Advantages

It transforms the open-loop gain into a controllable closed loop gain via the
negative feedback resistor
Reduces distortion possibilities
Increases bandwidth or frequency range
Increases input resistance
Decreases output resistance
Decreases effects of temperature and power supply on the gain of the circuit
2.1.4 Op-amp Applications
Although an OP-AMP is a complete amplifier, it is so designed that external
components (resistors, capacitors etc.) can be connected to its terminals to change
its external characteristics. Hence, it is relatively easy to tailor this amplifier to fit
a particular application and it is, in fact, due to this versatility that OP-AMPs have
become so popular in industry.
An OP-AMP IC may contain two dozen transistors, a dozen resistors and one or
two capacitor
Typical uses of OP-AMP are :

Scale changing, analog computer operations, in instrumentation and control

systems and a great variety of phase-shift and oscillator circuits. The OP-AMP is
available in three different packages ( i) standard dual-in-line package ( DIL) ( ii )
TO-5 case and ( iii ) the flat-pack
Polarity Conventions
The input terminals have been marked with minus () and plus (+) signs. These
are meant to indicate the inverting and non-inverting terminals only.
It simply means that a signal applied at negative input terminal will appear
amplified but phase-inverted at the output terminal. Similarly, signal applied at the
positive input terminal will appear amplified and in phase at the output. Obviously,
these plus and minus polarities indicate phase reversal only.
Additionally, it also does not imply that a positive input voltage has to be
connected to the plus-marked non inverting terminal and negative input voltage to
the negative-marked inverting terminal.
In fact, the amplifier can be used either way up so to speak. It may also be noted
that all input and output voltages are referred to a common reference usually the
ground.

2.1.4.1 Inverting Amplifier or Negative Scale

Non-inverting terminal has been grounded, whereas R 1connects the input signal 1
to the inverting input. A feed-back resistor Rf has been connected from the output
to the inverting input
Gain of inverting amplifier

It is seen from above, that closed-loop gain of the inverting amplifier depends on
the ratio of the two external resistors R1 and Rf and is independent of the
amplifier parameters.
It is also seen that the OP- AMP works as a negative scaler. It scales the input i.e ,
it multiplies the input by a minus constant factor K .
If Rf > Rin multiplier Rf < Rin divider

2.1.4.2 Non-inverting Amplifier or Positive Scaler

Such a positive scaler circuit which uses negative feedback but provides an output
that equals the input multiplied by a positive constant is shown in Figure above
Since input voltage 2 is applied to the non-inverting terminal, the circuits is also
called non-inverting amplifier. Here, polarity of 0 is the same as that 2 i.e .,
both are positive.
Gain of non-inverting amplifier

>>Applying KCL to junction A , we have

2.1.4.3 Unit follower

It provides a gain of unity without any phase reversal. Its gain is very much close
to being exactly unity.
This circuit is useful as a buffer or isolation amplifier because it allows, input
voltage in to be transferred as output voltage 0 while at the same time preventing
load resistance RL from loading down the input source. It is due to the fact that its
Ri = and R0 = 0.
In fact, its circuit can be obtained from that of non-inverter by putting R1=Rf =0
2.1.4.4 Adder / Summer
The adder circuit provides an output voltage proportional to or equal to the
algebraic sum of two or more input voltages each multiplied by a constant gain
factor. It is basically similar to a scaler(-) except that it has more than one input,
the output voltage is phase-inverted

Calculation

2.1.4.5 Op amp integrator

Iin= Vin / Ri n= If = Cf ( dVout / dt )

Vout = (1 / Rin Cf ) Vindt

2.1.4.6 Opamp Differentator

For a capacitor, Q = CV, so Icap = dQ/dt = CdV/dt

Thus Vout = IcapR = RCdV/dt
So we have a differentiator, or high-pass filter
if signal is V0sint, Vout = V0RCcost