Published: April 28, 2015

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Topics: Foundations of Physics, Ontology, Discrete Physics, Discrete Mathematics, The Fundamental Forces of Nature.
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arXiv: v1 [physics.gen-ph] 28 Apr 2015

On the Mathematical Structure of the Fundamental Forces of

Nature

By: Ramin Zahedi

Logic Research Group, Hokkaido University, Japan.
Email: zahedi@let.hokudai.ac.jp,
(zahedi.r@gmail.com)
28 Jan 2015
The main idea of this article is based on my previous articles (references [1], [2], [3]). In this work by
introducing a new mathematical approach based on the algebraic structure of integers (the domain of
integers), and assuming the discreteness of physical quantities such as the components of the relativistic

n-momentum, we derive all the mathematical laws governing the fundamental forces of nature. These
obtained laws that are unique, distinct and in the form of the complex tensor equations, represent the force
of gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the (strong) nuclear force (and only these three kinds of forces,
for all dimensions D 2). Each tensor equation contains the term of the mass m0 (as the invariant mass of
the supposed force carrier particle), as well as the term of the external current (as the external source of
the force field). In some special cases, these tensor equations are turned into the wave equations that are
similar to the Pauli and Dirac equations. In fact, the mathematical laws obtained in this paper, are the
corrected and generalized forms of the current field equations including Maxwell equations, Yang-Mils
equations and Einstein equations, as well as (in some special conditions) Pauli equation, Dirac equation,
and so on. A direct proof of the absence of magnetic monopoles in nature is one of the outcomes of this
research, according to the unique formulations of the laws of the fundamental forces that we have derived.

1. Introduction
One of the biggest ontological questions might be that: Why the universe and the fundamental forces that
are acting in it, are in the way and form, which we realize them?; the forces that are the causers and the
governors of all of the movements, the actions and reactions in the physical world. In this article, we are
going to consider this question by a logical approach.
This paper is based on my previous articles ([1], [2], [3]), as well as my thesis work, (1997) [4], (but in a
new expanded framework). Here by representing a new axiomatic mathematical approach, as well as
assuming the discreteness of the components of the relativistic n-momentum, the basic laws governing
the fundamental forces of nature will be derived. These laws are unique and in the form of tensor
equations. The main results of this paper include:

1-1. The mathematical laws governing the fundamental forces of nature (for all dimensions):

D[ R ] 0,

(1-1)

(G )
D* R J

(1-2)

D[ Z ] 0,

(2-1)

D* Z J( N )

(2-2)

D[ F ] 0,

(3-1)

D* F J( E )

(3-2)

where F is the field tensor of the electromagnetic force, Z is the field tensor of the nuclear (strong)
force, and R is the Riemann tensor of the gravitational field, and

im0
im
k , D* 0 k

0 : k

1
g 00

(4)

,
(5)

0 : k 0,
where m0 is the invariant mass of the (supposed) force carrier particle.
As we will show in the section 3., equations (1-1) (1-2) (representing the gravitational fields), also could
be written as follows,
for two dimensional case (D = 2) we have

R 8T
2

(6)

R 1 2 (8T ) g 1 2 g

(7)

im0
K 1 2 (8T ) g

(8)

8T

and for higher dimensions (D > 2) we have

R 1 2 Rg 8T

im0
K g

(9)

where K k .

1-2. According to the unique structure of the tensor equations (3-1) and (3-2) that in fact, are the
corrected and generalized form of the Maxwell equations, we will conclude that there are not any
magnetic monopole in nature.

In the next section, we describe the bases of the linearization theory, and in the section 3. we show its
applications in physics.

2. Theory of Linearization in the Domain of Integers: As a New Axiomatic

Mathematical Approach
The algebraic axioms of the domain of integers , with binary operations (,), usually are defined as
follows [5]:
- a1 , a2 , a3 ,... ,

ak al , ak al

(10)

ak (al ar ) (ak al ) ar , ak (al ar ) (ak al ) ar

(11)

- Closer:
- Associativity:
- Commutativity:

ak al al ak , ak al al ak

(12)

ak 0 a1 , ak 1 ak

(13)

- Existence of an identity element:

- Existence of inverse element (for addition): ak (ak ) 0

(14)

ak (al ar ) (ak al ) (ak ar ),

- Distributivity:

- No zero divisors:

(ak al ) ar (ak ar ) (al ar )

(15)

(ak 0 al 0) ak al 0,

(16-1)

equivalently, the axiom (16-1) could be defined as:

[(a1 m1 0, m1 0) (a2 m2 0, m2 0) ...

(ar mr 0, mr 0)] a1 a2 a3 ... ar 0.

(16-2)

If we just suppose [a]11 ( a), [b]11 ( b), [c]11 ( c),... 11 ( Z ), then equivalently, the axioms
(10) (15) could also be written by quadratic matrices (with integer components) as follows:
- M k [mkij ] , mkij , n : i, j 1,2,3,..., n , M1 , M 2 , M 3 ,... nn ,

M k M l nn , M k M l nn

- Closer:
- Associativity:

(17)

M k (M l M r ) (M k M l ) M r , M k (M l M r ) (M k M l ) M r
M k Ml Ml M k

- Commutativity (for addition):

(18)

(19-1)

- Property of the transpose for matrix multiplication:

(M k M l )T M l M k
T

(19-2)

where M k is the transpose of matrix M k .

- Existence of an identity element:

M k 0 M k , M k I nn M k

- Existence of the inverse element (for addition):

- Distributivity:

M k ( M k ) 0

(20)
(21)

M k (M l M r ) (M k M l ) (M k M r ),
(M k M l ) M r (M k M r ) (M l M r );

(22)

From the axioms (10) (15), we can obtain the axioms (17) (22) and vice versa.
In this article, we introduce the following algebraic axiom as a new property of integers, and we add it to
the axioms (17) (22) (this new axiom is someway the generalized form of the axiom (16-2), and in fact,
the axiom (16-2) will be replaced with the axiom (23)):
4

 If we assume the algebraic form F (bpq )

b
q 1 p 1

pq

and the n n quadratic matrices Ak [ak ij ] ,

where H kij pq are some coefficients, and

s

akij H kij pqb pq ,

q 1 p 1

bpq , H kij pq ( Z11 ), i, j 1,2,3,..., n , k 1,2,3,..., r ,

p 1,2,3,..., r , q 1,2,3,..., s ,
then we have the following axiom:

M k nn , [[( A1 M1 0, M1 0) ( A2 M 2 0, M 2 0) ... ( Ar M r 0, M r 0)]

( A1 A2 A3 ... Ar F (bpq ) I nn )] F (bpq ) 0 .

(23)

Remark 1. In (23), according to the arbitrariness of all of the components of the n n matrix M k ,
without loss of generality, we may replace the n n matrix M k with a n 1 matrix M k , in each of the
equations Ak M k 0 (with the same condition
components) .

M k 0, but only with the n number of arbitrary

Note that the integer elements akij are the linear forms of the integer elements b pq .
We can obtain the axiom (16-1) (or its equivalent, the axiom (16-2)) from the axiom (23), but not vice
versa. Only for the special case n 1 , the set of axioms (17) (23) becomes equivalent to the set of
axioms (10) (16-2). Definitely, the axiom (23) is a new axiom and in this section and the next section
well demonstrate some of its outcomes and applications.
Generally, there are standard and specific methods, approaches and procedures for considering and
solving the linear equations in the set of integers [7]. Since the necessary and sufficient condition for an
equation of the rth order such as F (bpq ) 0 (in the domain of integers) is the transforming (or
converting or in fact, linearizing) it into a system of linear equations of the type

Ak M k 0

(according to the axiom (23), where M k 0, M k : n 1 matrix ), naturally, the main application of the
axiom (23) will be the transforming the higher order equations into the corresponding systems of linear
equations. In this section, based on (23), essentially, well obtain the systems of linear equations that
correspond to the second order equation of the form: F (bpq ) 0, and also some of the higher order
equations. In the methodological point of view, firstly, for obtaining and specifying a system of linear
equations that corresponds to a given equation of the type F (bpq ) 0 (defined in (23)), we assume and
consider the minimum value for

n (the size number of n n

matrices Ak ). Secondly, by replacing the

components of the matrices Ak with the linear forms ak H k pqbpq , we calculate the product
ij

ij

q 1 p 1

k 1

, and then we put it equal to the matrix F (bpq ) I n n . Then using this (obtained) equation, we can

calculate the coefficients

H kij pq (which are independent of elements b pq ). Through this, easily, the

coefficients H kij pq are calculated and obtained by routine and standard methods of solving the equations
(in the set of integers). Thirdly, the algebraic forms
r

F (b pq ) b pq

(24)

q 1 p 1

via some certain rules and linear transformations, could be transformed into the algebraic forms of the
type

G(c1 , c2 , c3 ,..., cs )

i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,...,ir 1

Bi1i2i3 ...ir ci p

(25)

p 1

In continuation, by some examples we will show how the forms F (bpq )

b
q 1 p 1

pq

could be

transformed into the forms G(c1 , c2 , c3 ,..., cs ) (trough some linear transformations). Furthermore, as
well show that, exceptionally, the second order forms of (24) could be transformed into the following
quadratic forms (by similar linear transformation)

G(c1 , c2 , c3 ,..., cs , d1 , d 2 , d3 ,..., d s )

i1 ,i2 1

Bi1i2 ci p
p 1

i1 ,i2 1

Bi1i2 di p

(26)

p 1

Remark 2. Concerning the formula (24), it is easy to show that

s

( bpqc( r 1) q 0,
q 1 p 1

bpqd(r 1)q 0)
q 1 p 1

b
q 1 p 1

pq

(c( r 1) q d ( r 1) q ) 0 ,

(24-1)
s

and

bpqc(r 1)q 0
q 1 p 1

b
q 1 p 1

pq

(tc( r 1) q ) 0.

(24-2)

where the parameter t is an arbitrary integer, with condition t 0 . Below we write the systems of linear
equations that correspond with some special cases of the following equation (that according to the axiom
(23), one system for each case is enough):

F (b pq ) b pq 0

(24-3)

q 1 p 1

that has been indicated in (23). Some special cases of (24-3), which we will consider below, in particular
include the second order equations with the different number of the elements, as well as some of the
other higher order equations.
For s 1,2,3,... , r 2, equation (24-3) becomes as follows, respectively,
2

b
q 1 p 1

b
q 1 p 1

q 1 p 1

pq

b11b21 b12b22 0,

(28)

b11b21 b12b22 b13b23 b14b24 0,

(30)

b11b21 b12b22 b13b23 b14b24 b15b25 0;

(31)

(27)

(29)

q 1 p 1

b11b21 0,

b11b21 b12b22 b13b23 0,

q 1 p 1

pq

pq

pq

pq

.
.
Now, a matrix equation (here we mean a system of linear equations) corresponding to (27) (according to
(23)) is

e0
0

0 m1
0
f 0 m2

(32)

where e0 b11, f 0 b21 ;

Similarly, for (28) we have the following matrix equation

0 e0
0
0
0 e1

f 0 f1 0

e1 e0 0
7

f1 m1
f 0 m2
0
0 m3

0 m4

(33)

where e0 b11, f 0 b21, e1 b12 , f1 b22 ;

Using (33) we may get equivalently, the following matrix equation for (28)

e0
e
1

f1 m1
0
f 0 m2

(34)

where e0 b11, f 0 b21, e1 b12 , f1 b22 ;

A system of linear equations corresponding to (29) is

0
0

0
f 0

0
e
2
f1

0
0
0
0
0
f0
e1
f2

0
0
0
0
f2
f1
e0
0

0
0
0
0
e1
e2
0
e0

e0 0 e2
0 e0 e1
f 2 f1 f 0
e1 e2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

f1 m1
f 2 m2
0 m3

f 0 m4
0
0 m5

0 m6
0 m7

0 m8

(35)

where e0 b11, f 0 b21, e1 b12 , f1 b22 , e2 b13, f 2 b23 ;

from (35) we can obtain the following matrix equation for equation (29)

0 e2
e0
0 e e
0
1

f 2 f1 f 0

0
e1 e2

f1 m1
f 2 m2
0
0 m3

f 0 m4

(36)

where e0 b11, f 0 b21, e1 b12 , f1 b22 , e2 b13, f 2 b23 ;

Similarly, how we obtained the matrix equations (35) and (36) for equations (28) and (29), the matrix
equations corresponding to (30) and (31) are obtained as follows,
for (30) we get

 e0
0

0
0

f3
f
2
e1

0
e0
0
0
f3
0
f1
e2

0
0
0
0
e0
0
0 e0
f 2 e1
f1 e2
0 e3
e3 0

0
e3
e3
0
e2 e1
f1 f 2
f0
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0

e2
e1
0
f3
0
0
f0
0

f1 m1
f 2 m2
f 3 m3

0 m4
0
0 m5

0 m6
0 m7

f 0 m8

(37)

where e0 b11, f 0 b21, e1 b12 , f1 b22 , e2 b13, f 2 b23, e3 b14 , f 3 b24 ;

and for (31) we obtain

e0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
f4

0
f
3
f2
e
1

0
e0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
f3
0
f1
e2

0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
0
f2
f1
0
e3

0
0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
0
0
e1
e2
e3
0

0
0
0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
f3
f2
f1
0
0
0
e4

0
0
0
0
0
e0
0
0
f3
0
e1
e2
0
0
e4
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
e0
0
f2
e1
0
e3
0
e4
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e0
f1
e2
e3
0
e4
0
0
0

0
0
0
e4
0
e3
e2
e1
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
e4
e4
0
0
0
e3 e2
0
f1
f1
0
f2
f3
0
0
f0
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

e4
0
0
0
e1
f2
f3
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0

0
e3
e2
f1
0
0
0
f4
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0
0

e3
0
e1
f2
0
0
f4
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0

e2
e1
0
f3
0
f4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0

f1 m1
f 2 m2
f 3 m3

0 m4
f 4 m5

0 m6
0 m7

0 m8
0
0 m9

0 m10

0 m11
0 m12

0 m13
0 m14

0 m15
f 0 m16
(38)

where e0 b11, f 0 b21, e1 b12 , f1 b22 , e2 b13, f 2 b23, e3 b14 , f 3 b24 , e4 b15 , f 4 b25 ;

Similarly, systems of linear equations with larger sizes could be obtained for the equation (24-3)

( where s 1,2,3,... , r 2).

In general, the size of the quadratic matrices of these matrix equations (corresponding with the second
s
s
order equations of the type (24-3), i.e. for r 2 ) is 2 2 . But exceptionally, this size is reducible to
2s1 2s1 (only for the case of the second order equations), as it was for equations (29) (31).
Generally, the size of the quadratic matrices of the matrix equations (corresponding with the general cases
s
s
of the equation (24-3)) is r r . For all values of s , r , these matrix equations (according to (23), and
corresponding to the general cases of the equation (24-3)) are derivable and calculable.

Meanwhile, as we previously noted, any of quadratic matrices (i.e. the matrices Ak in (23)) in equations
(32) (38) and so on, is just one of the possible matrices, from which we may obtain. Definitely, there are
other matrices (different ones, but with the same size and similar structure) which we may obtain for
constructing other equivalent cases (based on (23)) of the equations (31) (38); we just selected those
individual matrices (in (32) (38)) because of their particular structures, as well as their particular
applications that will be in the next section.

As some examples of the third order cases of equation (24-3), the systems of linear equations
corresponding with two equations
3

b11b21b31,

(39)

b11b21b31 b12b22b32 ;

(40)

q 1 p 1

b
q 1 p 1

pq

pq

respectively, are

e0
0

0
f0
0

0 m1
0 m2 0,
g 0 m3

10

(41)

0
0

0
f0

0
e
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
g0
0
f1
0

0
0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
g1

e1
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0

0
f1
0
0
0
0
0
0
g0

0
0
g1
0
0
0
e0
0
0

0
f0
0
e1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
g0
0
f1
0
0
0
0

e0 m1
0 m2
0 m3

0 m4
0 m5 0

g1 m6
0 m7

0 m8
0 m9

(42)

where e0 b11, f 0 b21, g0 b31, e1 b12 , f1 b22 , g1 b32 .

The size of the quadratic matrix in the matrix equation, corresponding to the next 3rd order equation, i.e.
3

b
q 1 p 1

pq

0, is 27 27.

Concerning the fourth order cases of equation (24-3), such as

b11b21b31b41,

(43)

b11b21b31b41 b12b22b32b42 ;

(44)

q 1 p 1

b
q 1 p 1

pq

pq

respectively, the systems of linear equations corresponding to them are

e0
0

0
f0
0
0

0
0
g0
0

11

0 m1
0 m2
0,
0 m3

h0 m4

(45)

 0
0

0
0

f0
0

0
0

0
0

e1
0

0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
g0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f1
0
0

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 e0
0 0
0 0
h0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
g1 0
0 h1

e1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
f1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
g0
0
0
0
0
0

0 0
0 0
g1 0
0 h1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 e0
0 0
0 0
h0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

0
0
0
0
e1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
f1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
g0
0

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
g1 0
0 h1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 e0
0 0
0 0
h0 0

0
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
g0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0 e0 m1
0 0 m2
0 0 m3

h0 0 m4
0 0 m5

0 0 m6
0 0 m7

0 0 m8
0
0 0 m9

0 0 m10

g1 0 m11
0 h1 m12

0 0 m13
0 0 m14

0 0 m15
(46)
0 0 m16

where e0 b11, f 0 b21, g 0 b31, h0 b41, e1 b12 , f1 b22 , g1 b32 , h1 b42.

Similarly, as we noted above, for the fifth and the higher order cases of (24-3), with the larger number of
s
s
unknown elements, we get the matrix equations including the quadratic matrices with the size r r .

Meanwhile, we can use the following linear relations (as the general rules) for transforming the second,
the third, the forth and the higher order cases of the form (24) into the form (25); e.g. for the second order
s

i1 ,i2 1

p 1

Bi1i2 cip bpq ,

(47)

q 1 p 1

we have
s

i2 1

i2 1

i2 1

b11 c1 , b21 B1i2 ci2 , b12 c2 , b22 B2i2 ci2 , ..., b1s cs , b2 s Bsi2 ci2 ;

and for the third order:

12

(48)

i1 ,i2 ,i3 1

Bi1i2i3 ci p b pq ,

(49)

q 1 p 1

p 1

we have
s

i3 1

i3 1

b11 c1 , b21 c1 , b31 B11i3 ci3 , b12 c1 , b22 c2 , b23 B12i3 ci3 ,
s

i3 1

i3 1

,..., b1s c1 , b2 s cs , b3s B1si3 ci3 ,..., b1( s2 s1) cs , b2( s2 s1) c1 , b3( s2 s1) Bs1i3 ci3 ,
s

,..., b1( s 2 ) cs , b2( s 2 ) cs , b3( s 2 ) Bssi3 ci3 .

i3 1

(50)

Similarly, for transforming the forth order and the higher order cases of equation (24) into (25), we can
define some linear transformations such as (48) and (50). However, if necessary, it is possible for
transforming (24) into (25), we define other linear transformations, as well.
According to the particular applications of the second order cases of the equation (24-3) in the next
section (the section 3.), here we do consider and introduce some of the properties of the matrix equations
(34), (36), (37), (38).
First, we consider the following equation (which its left part is a special case of (26)):
n

B (c c

i , j 0

ij

di d j ) 0

(51)

Where Bij B ji . Now using the matrix equations (34) (for n 1 ), (36) (for n 2 ), (37) (for n 3 ) and
(38) (for n 4 ) and so on, as well as the linear transformations of the type ei

f i ci di , or

13

B (c
j 0

ij

d j ),

 f 0 c0 d 0
f c d
1 1 1
f 3 c2 d 2

. . ,
. .

. .
f c d
n
n n
e0 B00
e B
1 10
e3 B20

. .
. .

. .
e B
n n0

B01
B11
B21

Bn1

B02
B12
B22

Bn 2

.
.
.

.
.
.

(52-1)

.
.
.

B0 n c0 d 0
B1n c1 d1
B2 n c2 d 2

. ;
.

.
Bnn cn d n

(52-2)

we obtain the following matrix equations that correspond to equation (51), respectively

B00 (c0 d0 )m1 0,

(53)

B0 j (c j d j ) c1 d1 m
j 01
1 0,
B (c d ) c d m2
1j
j
j
0
0

j 0

2
B0 j (c j d j )
j 0

2 c2 d 2
B (c d )
1j
j
j

j 0

0
2

B
j 0

0j

j 0
2

B1 j (c j d j )
j 0

c1 d1

B
j 0

(c j d j )

B2 j (c j d j )

2j

(c j d j )

c0 d 0
0

14

(54)

c1 d1
m1

(c2 d 2 ) m2

0,
m3
0
m
4
c0 d 0

(55)

 e0
0

0
0

f3
f
2
e1

0
e0
0
0
f3
0
f1
e2

0
0
0
0
e0
0
0 e0
f 2 e1
f1 e2
0 e3
e3 0

0
e3
e2
f1
f0
0
0
0

e3
0
e1
f2
0
f0
0
0

e2
e1
0
f3
0
0
f0
0

f1 m1
f 2 m2
f 3 m3

0 m4
0,
0 m5

0 m6
0 m7

f 0 m8

(56)

where
3

e0 B0 j (c j d j ), f 0 c0 d 0 ,
j 0
3

e1 B1 j (c j d j ), f1 c1 d1 ,
j 0
3

e2 B2 j (c j d j ), f 2 c2 d 2 ,
j 0
3

e3 B3 j (c j d j ), f 3 c3 d 3 .
j 0

15

(56-1)

 e0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
f4

0
f
3
f2
e
1

0
e0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
f3
0
f1
e2

0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
0
f2
f1
0
e3

0
0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
0
0
e1
e2
e3
0

0
0
0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
f3
f2
f1
0
0
0
e4

0
0
0
0
0
e0
0
0
f3
0
e1
e2
0
0
e4
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
e0
0
f2
e1
0
e3
0
e4
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e0
f1
e2
e3
0
e4
0
0
0

0
0
0
e4
0
e3
e2
e1
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
e4
0
e3
0
f1
f2
0
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
e4
0
0
e2
f1
0
f3
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0
0

e4
0
0
0
e1
f2
f3
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0

0
e3
e2
f1
0
0
0
f4
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0
0

e3
0
e1
f2
0
0
f4
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0

e2
e1
0
f3
0
f4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0

f1 m1
f 2 m2
f 3 m3

0 m4
f 4 m5

0 m6
0 m7

0 m8
0
0 m9

0 m10

0 m11
0 m12

0 m13
0 m14

0 m15
f 0 m16
(57)

where
4

e0 B0 j (c j d j ), f 0 c0 d 0 ,
j 0
4

e1 B1 j (c j d j ), f1 c1 d1 ,
j 0
4

e2 B2 j (c j d j ), f 2 c2 d 2 ,

(57-1)

j 0
4

e3 B3 j (c j d j ), f 3 c3 d 3 ,
j 0
4

e4 B4 j (c j d j ), f 4 c4 d 4 .
j 0

We must note that there are not the same linear transformations such as (51-1) - (51-2) (as exceptionally,
they exist for (51)), for the third and the higher order equations of the form
n

i , j , k 0

ijk

(ci c j ck d i d j d k ) 0 ,

i , j ,k ,l 0

ijkl

Now, by the following choices,

16

(ci c j ck cl d i d j d k dl ) 0 , .

(58)

 B00
B
10
B20

B .
.

.
B
n0

B01
B11
B21

B02
B12
B22

.
.
.

.
.
.

.
.
.

Bn1

Bn 2

B0 n
B1n
B2 n

Bnn

c0
d 0
e0
f0
c
d
e
f
1
1
1
1
c2
d 2
e3
f3




C . , D . , E . , F . ;
.
.
.
.




.
.
.
.
c
d
e
f
n
n
n
n

(59)

we can rewrite the transformations (52-1) and (52-2) as follows

E B(C D), F C D,

(60)

from (60) we also get

( B 1 E F ), D

( B 1 E F ).

(61)

Where B is the inverse of B ; according to equation (51), B is a symmetric matrix; also we assume
that det B 0 . The relations (60) and (61) indicate that there is an one to one correspondence between
the components of C, D and the components of E, F ; using this property, as well as the relations (60)
and (61), we will determine the solutions of the system of linear equations (54) (57), on the basis of the
solutions of equations (34), (36), (37) and (38).
Utilizing the standard and specific methods of solving the systems of linear equations in the set of
integers [7], respectively, we obtain the following sets of the solutions for equations (34), (36), (37) and
(38), (for unknowns ei and f i ).
Firstly, we must emphasize that the general and standard solution of the equation of the type

17

a x
i 1

i i

(62)

in the set of integers, is as follows [7, 8]:

n1

xi an ki , (i 1,2,3,..., n 1), xn ai ki

(63)

i 1

where the parameters k i are arbitrary integers, and where we supposed an 0 .

Now, for the equations (34) we get the following solutions (where we supposed m2 0 ):

e0 k2 m2 , f 0 k1m1 , e1 k1m2 , f1 k2 m1

(64)

where the parameters k1 , k2 ; m1 , m2 are arbitrary integers.

For the equations (36) we have (where we supposed m4 0 ):

e0 k3m4 , f 0 k 2 m1 k1m2 , e1 k 2 m4 ,
(65)

f1 k1m3 k3m1 , e2 k1m4 , f 2 k3m2 k 2 m3 .

where the parameters k1 , k2 , k3 ; m1 , m2 , m3 , m4 are arbitrary integers.
Using Remark 2., we can also get the following general solutions for the system of linear equations (36)
(where we supposed m4 0, k4 0 ):

e0 k3m4 k 4 m3 , f 0 k 2 m1 k1m2 , e1 k 2 m4 k 4 m2 ,
(66)

f1 k1m3 k3m1 , e2 k1m4 k 4 m1 , f 2 k3m2 k 2 m3 .

where the parameters k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 ; m1 , m2 , m3 , m4 are arbitrary integers.
For the equations (37), the following solutions are obtained (where we supposed m8 0 , and there is
also a condition for the parameters mi (see below)):

18

e0 k 4 m8 , f 0 k3m1 k 2 m2 k1m3 , e1 k3m8 , f1 k 4 m1 k1m6 k 2 m7 ,

(67)

e2 k 2 m8 , f 2 k 4 m2 k1m5 k3m7 , e3 k1m8 , f 3 k 4 m3 k 2 m5 k3m6 .

where the parameters k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 are arbitrary integers and the parameters mi should satisfy the
following equation (as a necessary condition for the parameters mi that exist in the parametric solutions
(67)):

m4 m8 m1m5 m2 m6 m3m7

(68)

Since the parameter m4 does not exist in the solutions (67), the condition (68), easily, could be solved by
the following choices:

m8 1, m4 u1u5 u 2u6 u3u7 ,

m1 u1 , m2 u2 , m3 u3 ,

(69)

m5 u5 , m6 u6 , m7 u7 .
Now using Remark 2. and the relations (69) and (67), the solutions of (37) are determined as follows

e0 k 4t , f 0 k3u1 k 2u2 k1u3 , e1 k3t , f1 k 4u1 k1u6 k 2u7 ,

(70)

e2 k 2t , f 2 k 4u2 k1u5 k3u7 , e3 k1t , f 3 k 4u3 k 2u5 k3u6 .

where the parameters t , k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 ; u1 , u2 , u3 , u5 , u6 , u7 are arbitrary integers, and (t 0) .
Similarly, we obtain the following solutions for the matrix equation (38) (where we supposed m16 0 ,
and there are also five conditions for the parameters mi (see below)):

e0 k5 m16 , f 0 k 4 m1 k3m2 k 2 m3 k1m5 , e1 k 4 m16 , f1 k5 m1 k1m12 k 2 m14 k3m15 ,

e2 k3m16 , f 2 k5 m2 k1m11 k 2 m13 k 4 m15 , e3 k 2 m16 , f 3 k5 m3 k1m10 k3m13 k 4 m14 , (71)
e4 k1m16 , f 4 k5 m5 k 2 m10 k3m11 k 4 m12.

19

where the parameters k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 , k5 are arbitrary integers and the parameters mi should satisfy the
following equations (as the necessary conditions for the parameters mi that exist in the parametric
solutions (71)):

m4 m16 m1m13 m2 m14 m3 m15 ,

m6 m16 m1m11 m2 m12 m5 m15 ,
m7 m16 m1m10 m3 m12 m5 m14 ,

(72)

m8 m16 m2 m10 m3 m11 m5 m13 ,

m9 m16 m10m15 m11m14 m12m13.

In like manner, since the parameters m4 , m6 , m7 , m8 , m9 do not exist in the solutions (71), the conditions
(72), will be solved by the following choices:

m16 1,
m4 u1u13 u 2u14 u3u15 ,
m6 u1u11 u 2u12 u5u15 ,
m7 u1u10 u3u12 u5u14 ,
m8 u 2u10 u3u11 u5u13 ,
m9 u10u15 u11u14 u12u13 ,

(73)

m1 u1 , m2 u 2 , m3 u3 ,
m5 u5 , m10 u10 , m11 u11,
m12 u12 , m13 u13 , m14 u14 ,
m15 u15.

Using the relations (71) and (73), as well as Remark 2., the solutions of (38) become as follows

e0 k5t , f 0 ku1 k3u2 k 2u3 k1u5 , e1 k 4t , f1 k5u1 k1u12 k 2u14 k3u15 ,

e2 k3t , f 2 k5u2 k1u11 k 2u13 k 4u15 , e3 k 2t , f 3 k5u3 k1u10 k3u13 k 4u14 , (71-1)
e4 k1t , f 4 k5u5 k 2u10 k3u11 k 4u12.
where the parameters t , k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 , k5 ; u1 , u2 , u3 , u5 , u10 , u11, u12 , u13, u14 , u15 are arbitrary integers, and

(t 0) .
20

Similarly, the parametric solution of the matrix equation (with the size 32 32 ) corresponding to
equation,
5

e f
i 0

i i

0,

(74)

similar to (64), (65), (70), (71-1), will be gotten, but with sixteen additional conditions for parameters mi ,
(these conditions include sixteen homogenous second order equations, that each equation contains only
four terms, similar to (68) and (72)). These conditions could be solved, easily, with some specific choices
for parameters mi , similar to (69) and (73). In general, the parametric solution of the matrix equation (i.e.
the system of linear equations) corresponding to the second order equation of the form
n

e f
i 0

will lead to (2 n

i i

(75)

n(n 1)
1) number of conditions for parameters mi (including the four terms
2

homogenous second order equations), that these conditions will be solved by some specific choices for
parameters mi , similar to the above choices (the choices (69) and (73)), and ultimately, the general
solution of (75) will be obtained.
Meanwhile, the solutions (64), (65), (70), (71-1) could also be represented as follows, respectively

e0 k 2t
e k t ,
1 1
f 0 0 u1 k 2
f u 0 k ;
1 1
1

(76)

where we just supposed ( m2 t ) and ( m1 u1 ).

e0 k3t
e k t ,
1 2
e2 k12t
u1
f0 0
f u
0
1 1
f 2 u 2 u3

u 2 k3
u3 k 2 ;
0 k1

where we just supposed ( m4 t ) and ( m1 u1 , m2 u2 , m3 u3 ).

21

(77)

e0 k 4t
e k t
1 3 ,
e2 k 2t

e3 k1t
u1
f0 o
f u
0
1 1
f 2 u 2 u7

f 3 u3 u 6

u2
u7
0
u5

(78)

u3 k 4
u6 k3
;
u5 k 2

0 k1

e0 k5t
e k t
1 4
e2 k3t ,

e3 k 2t
e4 k1t
u1
u2
u3
u5 k 5
f0 0
f u
0
u15 u14 u12 k 4
1 1
f 2 u 2 u15
0
u13 u11 k3 .


u13
0
u10 k 2
f 3 u3 u14
f 4 u5 u12 u11 u10
0 k1

(79)

Corollary 1. If we define the matrix K as

k n
.

.

K .
k3

k 2
k
1

(80)

where we suppose K 0 , then using (60) and (61) we get the following sets of the relations

22

(tB 1 U ) K ,
(tB 1 U ) K ,
(81)

E tK , F UK ,
K 0, det B 0;

D (tB 1 U )(tB 1 U ) 1 C ,
E 2t (tB 1 U ) 1 C ,
F 2 M (tB 1 U ) 1 C , ,

(82)

K 2(tB 1 U ) 1 C ,
C 0, det B 0;

C (tB 1 U )(tB 1 U ) 1 D,
E 2t (tB 1 U ) 1 D,
F 2 M (tB 1 U ) 1 D,

(83)

K 2(tB 1 U ) 1 D,
D 0, det B 0.
In point of fact, the formulas (81) are the (integer) parametric solution of equation (51), where the
matrices B, C, D, K , U have been defined by the relations (59) and (76) (80), and the parameter t is an
arbitrary integer ( t 0 ). On the other hand, the formulas (82) and (83) show that, if we suppose that the

23

values ci (or d i ), (where i 1,2,3,..., n ) are given values, then we can calculate the values d i (or ci )
in terms of them and the matrices B, U .
Remark 3. The condition (68) (of the parameters mi ) concerning the parametric solutions (67), and the
conditions (72) (of the parameters mi ) concerning the parametric solutions (71), could be solved by other
methods as well.
Since the parameter m4 does not exist in the solutions (67), the condition (68), easily will be solved by
the following choices (for the parameters mi ):

m4 0,

(84-1)

m8 : a free Integer parameter (m8 0),

(84-2)

m1m5 m2 m6 m3m7 0.

(84-3)

where equation (84-3), according to the solutions (65) and (66), also could be solved
(including two sorts of the solutions):

as follows

m1 u3v4 , m2 u 2 v4 , m3 u1v4 ,
m5 u 2 v1 u1v2 , m6 u1v3 u3v1 , m7 u3v2 u 2 v3 ;

(85)

m4 0, m8 : a free Integer parameter (m8 0);

and

m1 u3v4 u4 v3 , m2 u2 v4 u4 v2 , m3 u1v4 u4 v1 ,
m5 u2 v1 u1v2 , m6 u1v3 u3v1 , m7 u3v2 u2 v3 , m4 0,
m8 : a free Integer parameter (m8 0).

24

(86)

where the parameters u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ; v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 are arbitrary integers. By replacing the values of mi ,

(from the relations (85) or (86)) in formulas (67), as well as taking into account formulas (84-1) and (842), we get a new general parametric solution for the matrix equation (37).
As another similar case, since the parameters m4 , m6 , m7 , m8 , m9 do not exist in the parametric solutions
(71), the conditions (72) (for the parameters mi , existed in the solutions (71) of the matrix equation (38))
could be solved by the following choices, as well

m4 m6 m7 m8 m9 0,
m16 : a free Integer parameter (m16 0),

(87-1)

(87-2)

m1m10 m3m12 m5m14 0,

(88-1)

m1m11 m2 m12 m5m15 0,

(88-2)

m1m13 m2 m14 m3m15 0,

(88-3)

m2 m10 m5m13 m3m11 0,

(88-4)

m10m15 m12m13 m11m14 0.

(88-5)

As the equation (88-5) could be derived from (88-1), (88-2), (88-3) and (88-4), we will not consider it in
the next relevant calculations.
Referring to the solutions (65) and (66) (for equation (36) that corresponds to the quadratic equation
(29)), respectively, the equations (88-1), (88-2), (88-3) and (88-4) are solved as follows,
first, using the solutions (65) we get:

m1 u4 v5 , m13 u3v2 u2 v3 ,
(88-1)

m2 u3v5 , m14 u2 v4 u4 v2 ,
m3 u2 v5 , m15 u4 v3 u3v4 ;

25

(89-1)

m1 u4 v5 , m11 u3v1 u1v3 ,

(88-2)

m2 u3v5 , m12 u1v4 u4 v1 ,

(89-2)

m5 u1v5 , m15 u4 v3 u3v4 ;

m1 u 4 v5 , m10 (u 2 )v1 u1v2 ,

(88-3)

m3 u 2 v5 , m12 u1v4 u 4 v1 ,

(89-3)

m5 u1v5 , m14 u 4 v2 (u 2 )v4 ;

m2 u3v5 , m10 u2 v1 (u1 )v2 ,

(88-4)

m3 u2 v5 , m11 (u1 )v3 u3v1,

(89-4)

m5 u1v5 , m13 u3v2 u2 v3 .

By the definitions of the type v1 v1 , v2 v2 , the solutions (89-1) (89-4) could be simplified, for
instance.
Now using the solutions (66), we get the other type (more expanded one than (89-1) (89-4)) of the
solutions for equations (88-1) (884), respectively,

m1 u4 v5 u5v4 , m13 u3v2 u2 v3 ,

(88-1)

m2 u3v5 u5v3 , m14 u2 v4 u4 v2 ,

m3 u2 v5 u5v2 , m15 u4 v3 u3v4 ;

26

(90)

m1 u4 v5 u5v4 , m11 u3v1 u1v3 ,

(88-2)

m2 u3v5 u5v3 , m12 u1v4 u4 v1 ,

(91)

m5 u1v5 u5v1 , m15 u4 v3 u3v4 ;

m1 u4 v5 u5v4 , m10 (u2 )v1 u1 (v2 ),

(88-3)

m3 (u2 v5 u5v2 ), m12 u1v4 u4 v1 ,

(92)

m5 u1v5 u5v1 , m14 u4 (v2 ) (u2 )v4 ;

m2 u3v5 u5v3 , m10 u2 (v1 ) (u1 )v2 ,

(88-4)

m3 u2 v5 u5v2 , m11 (u1 )v3 u3 (v1 ),

(93)

m5 (u1v5 u5v1 ), m13 u3v2 u2 v3 .

By simplifying the relations (90) (93), ultimately we get the following set of the general solutions for
equations (88-1) (88-4):

27

m1 u4 v5 u5v4 , m2 u3v5 u5v3 ,

m3 u5v2 u 2 v5 , m4 0,
m5 u5v1 u1v5 , m6 0,
m7 0, m8 0, m9 0,
m10 u1v2 u 2 v1 , m11 u3v1 u1v3 ,
m12 u1v4 u 4 v1 , m13 u3v2 u 2 v3 ,
m14 u 2 v4 u 4 v2 , m15 u 4 v3 u3v4 ,
m16 : a free Integer parameter (m16 0).

(94)

where the parameters u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , u5 ; v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 are arbitrary integers. By replacing the values of

mi (from the relations (94), in formulas (71)), as well as taking into account formulas (87-1) and (87-2),
we get another form of the general parametric solution for the matrix equation (38).
Similarly, for the systems of linear equations corresponding to (75), with more variable elements (i.e.
larger values of n in (75)), the similar conditions and relations to (84-1) (84-3) and (87-1) (87-2) and
(88-1) (88-5) and so on, could be chosen, ultimately. Then, based on them, we can determine the
solution for the system of linear equations corresponding to each specific case of the quadratic equation
(75).

3. Deriving the General (and Unique) Structure of the Laws Governing the
Fundamental Forces of Nature.
If we assume that in the special relativity condition, the components of the n -momentum are discrete, i.e.
have integer values in the invariant and the energy-momentum relations

g p p g p p ,
28

(95)

g p p (m0c) 2 g 00 (
where g

m0c
g

00

)2

(96)

are some constant coefficients, and p , p are the components of the momentum vector in

two reference frames, then the relations (95) and (96) are the special cases of the relation (51). Hence,
using the matrix relations (53) (57), we get the following systems, respectively, where they correspond
to (95) and (96) ( si are the integer parameters similar to the parameters mi ),
for (95) we have:

00

( p0 p0 ) s1 0

g 0 ( p p )
1
g ( p p )

(97)

p1 p1 s1
0
p0 p0 s2

(98)

where 0,1 ;

g 0 ( p p )
0
g 2 ( p p )
p1 p1 s1

0
g 0 ( p p ) g 1 ( p p ) ( p2 p2 ) s2

s3
p2 p2
p1 p1
p0 p0
0
1

2
0
p0 p0 s4
g ( p p ) g ( p p )

(99)

where 0,1,2 ;

e0
0

0
0

f3
f
2
e1

0
e0
0
0
f3
0
f1
e2

0
0
0
0
e0
0
0 e0
f 2 e1
f1 e2
0 e3
e3 0

0
e3
e3
0
e2
e1
f1 f 2
f0
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0

e2
e1
0
f3
0
0
f0
0

f1 s1
f 2 s2
f 3 s3

0 s4
0
0 s5

0 s6
0 s7

f 0 s8

(100)

where we have

s4 s8 s1s5 s2 s6 s3 s7 0,
29

(100-1)

e0 g 0 ( p p ), f 0 p0 p0 ,
e1 g 1 ( p p ), f1 p1 p1,
(100-2)
2

e2 g ( p p ), f 2 p2 p2 ,
e3 g 3 ( p p ), f 3 p3 p3 .

e0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
f4

0
f
3
f2
e
1

0
e0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
f3
0
f1
e2

0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
0
f2
f1
0
e3

0
0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
0
0
e1
e2
e3
0

0
0
0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
f3
f2
f1
0
0
0
e4

0
0
0
0
0
e0
0
0
f3
0
e1
e2
0
0
e4
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
e0
0
f2
e1
0
e3
0
e4
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e0
f1
e2
e3
0
e4
0
0
0

0
0
0
e4
0
e3
e2
e1
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
e4
0
e3
0
f1
f2
0
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
e4
0
0
e2
f1
0
f3
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0
0

e4
0
0
0
e1
f2
f3
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0

0
e3
e2
f1
0
0
0
f4
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0
0

e3
0
e1
f2
0
0
f4
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0

e2
e1
0
f3
0
f4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0

f1 s1
f 2 s2
f 3 s3

0 s4
f 4 s5

0 s6
0 s7

0 s8
0
0 s9

0 s10

0 s11
0 s12

0 s13
0 s14

0 s15
f 0 s16
(101)

where we have

s4 s16 s1s13 s2 s14 s3 s15 ,

(101-1)

s6 s16 s1s11 s2 s12 s5 s15 ,

(101-2)

s7 s16 s1s10 s3 s12 s5 s14 ,

(101-3)

30

s8 s16 s2 s10 s3 s11 s5 s13,

(101-4)

s9 s16 s10s15 s11s14 s12s13;

(101-5)

e0 g 0 ( p p ), f 0 p0 p0 ,
e1 g 1 ( p p ), f1 p1 p1,
e2 g 2 ( p p ), f 2 p2 p2 ,

(101-6)

e3 g 3 ( p p ), f 3 p3 p3 ,
e4 g 4 ( p p ), f 4 p4 p4 .

And for (96) we get (where we suppose 0 : p 0, p0

m0 c
g 00

), respectively

00
mc
g ( p0 000 )s1 0
g

0
00 m0 c
g p g ( 00 )
g

g 1 p

s
1 0
mc
p0 ( 0 ) s2
g 00

(102)

p1

where 0,1 ;

31

(103)

 0
00 m0 c
0
g p g ( 00 )
g

0
00 m0 c
0
g
p

g
(
)

00
g

p2
p1

g 1 p
g 2 p

g 2 p
g 1 p
p0 (

m0 c
g 00

s1
p2
s
2 0
s3
0

s4
m0 c
p0 (
)
g 00
p1

(104)

where 0,1,2 ;

e0
0

0
0

f3
f
2
e1

0
e0
0
0
f3
0
f1
e2

0
0
0
0
e0
0
0 e0
f 2 e1
f1 e2
0 e3
e3 0

0
e3
e3
0
e2
e1
f1 f 2
f0
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0

e2
e1
0
f3
0
0
f0
0

f1 s1
f 2 s2
f 3 s3

0 s4
0
0 s5

0 s6
0 s7

f 0 s8

(105)

where we have

s4 s8 s1s5 s2 s6 s3 s7 0

e0 g 0 p g 00 (

m0 c
g

00

), f 0 p0 (

(105-1)

m0 c
g 00

),

e1 g 1 p , f1 p1 ,
(105-2)
2

e2 g p , f 2 p2 ,
e3 g 3 p , f 3 p3 .

32

 e0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
f4

0
f
3
f2
e
1

0
e0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
f3
0
f1
e2

0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
0
f2
f1
0
e3

0
0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
f4
0
0
0
e1
e2
e3
0

0
0
0
0
e0
0
0
0
0
f3
f2
f1
0
0
0
e4

0
0
0
0
0
e0
0
0
f3
0
e1
e2
0
0
e4
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
e0
0
f2
e1
0
e3
0
e4
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e0
f1
e2
e3
0
e4
0
0
0

0
0
0
e4
0
e3
e2
e1
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
e4
0
e3
0
f1
f2
0
f0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
e4
0
0
e2
f1
0
f3
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0
0

e4
0
0
0
e1
f2
f3
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0
0
0

0
e3
e2
f1
0
0
0
f4
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0
0

e3
0
e1
f2
0
0
f4
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0
0

e2
e1
0
f3
0
f4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
f0
0

f1 s1
f 2 s2
f 3 s3

0 s4
f 4 s5

0 s6
0 s7

0 s8
0
0 s9

0 s10

0 s11
0 s12

0 s13
0 s14

0 s15
f 0 s16
(106)

where we have

s4 s16 s1s13 s2 s14 s3 s15 ,

(106-1)

s6 s16 s1s11 s2 s12 s5 s15 ,

(106-2)

s7 s16 s1s10 s3 s12 s5 s14 ,

(106-3)

s8 s16 s2 s10 s3 s11 s5 s13,

(106-4)

s9 s16 s10s15 s11s14 s12s13;

(106-5)

33

e0 g 0 p g 00 (

m0 c
g

00

), f 0 p0 g 00 (

m0 c
g 00

),

e1 g 1 p , f1 p1 ,
e2 g 2 p , f 2 p2 ,

(106-6)

e3 g 3 p , f 3 p3 ,
e4 g 4 p , f 4 p4 .
Remark 4. In this section we will use the geometrized unites [9], Einstein notation, as well as the
following conventions:
-Metric sign convention:

(,,,...,),
R ,

-Riemann and Ricci tensors:

-Einstein tensor:

R R ,

( R 1 2 Rg ) 8T ... .

(107)

Corollary 2. It is worth to note that concerning the relations (97) (101) for the components p and p
, we can use the relations (81) (83) and the solutions (76) (79), to determine the linear transformations
between two reference frames. In other word, the general forms of the linear transformations between two
reference frames, directly and immediately, are determined from the relations (97) (101) for all
dimensions.
Now, we use equations (102) (106) for deriving the equations governing the fundamental forces of
physics.
First, we consider the following definitions for the canonical operators:

p i
g (const.) g (components of the metric tensor )
si si F , Z , ... (components of the field tensor )

34

(108)
(109)
(110)

We do substitute the operators (108) (109) with the corresponding quantities in equations (102) (106).
According to the structures, the compositions and the number of equations of the systems (102) (106),
we do conclude that there exist only three kinds of anti-symmetric tensors that their components could be
substituted with the parameters si (except in the equation (102), which is a special and trivial case), and
transform the systems (102) (106) to the tensor equations. These tensors are a 2nd order tensor, a 3rd
order tensor and a 4th order tensor. The 4th order tensor of these tensors just matches the Riemann tensor
R (which at the same time, it is necessary for calculating and specifying the components of the
metric tensor g

), the other two tensors could be written as Z and F , that should be anti-

symmetric with respect to the indices

, such as: Z Z , F F .

Thus firstly, corresponding to equations (102) (104) (that they dont contain any condition for
parameters si ), we get the following tensor equations, respectively
(the tensor equation corresponding to relation (102) is a special and trivial case, that Riemann tensor also

vanished there; in any case we just write it down, assuming a tensor such as F substituting with s1 and
where we assume g
(102)

00

1)

D* F 0

(111-1)

00
where 0 , and g 1, s1 s1 F0 .

(103)

D[ F ] 0,

(112-1)

D* F J( E )

(112-2)

(E)
(E)
(E)
where , , 0,1 ,and s1 s1 F10 , s2 s2 , J Dv .

(103)

D[ Z ] 0,

(112-3)

D* Z J( N )

(112-4)

(N )
(N)
(N)
where , , , 0,1 , and s1 s1 Z10 , s2 s2 , J Dv .

35

(103)

D[ R ] 0,

(112-5)

(G )
D* R J

(112-6)

(G )
(G )
(G )
where , , , , 0,1, and s1 s1 R10 , s2 s2 , J Dv .

D[ F ] 0,

(113-1)

D* F J( E )

(113-2)

(104)

where , , 0,1,2 , and

s1 s1 F10 , s2 s2 F02 , s3 s3 F21, s4 s4 ( E ) , J( E ) Dv ( E ) .

D[ Z ] 0,

(113-3)

D* Z J( N )

(113-4)

(104)

where

, , , 0,1,2 , and

(N)
s1 s1 Z10 , s2 s2 Z 02 , s3 s3 Z 21 , s4 s4 ( N ) , J
Dv ( N ) .

D[ R ] 0,

(113-5)

(G )
D* R J

(113-6)

(104)

where , , , , 0,1,2 , and

36

(G )
(G )
(G )
s1 s1 R10 , s2 s2 R02 , s3 s3 R21 , s4 s4
, J
Dv
.

where in equations (111-1) (113-6) we have

im0
k ,

(114-1)

D*

im0
k .

(114-2)

0 : k

1
g 00

,
(115-1)

0 : k 0,
I ( E ) 0, I( E ) J( E )

im0
k F ,

(116-1)

I ( N ) 0, I( N ) J( N )

im0
k Z ,

(116-2)

(G )
(G )
I (G) 0, I
J

im0
k R , D* J (G) 0.

(116-3)

In principle, we suppose and conclude that the unique tensor equations (112-1) (113-6) (including the
definitions and relations (114-1) (116-3)) are the laws governing the fundamental forces of nature,
respectively in the dimensions D 2,3 .
In the system of linear equations (102) (104), the parameters si were just arbitrary integer parameters,
that we substituted the components of tensors F , Z , R with them (based on the principal
operator definitions (108) (110)).
Before writing the tensor equations corresponding to the relations (105) and (106), which are similar to
the tensor equations (112-1) (113-6) (as we will show), let at first mention the following remark and
corollary.

Remark 5. For the next systems of linear equations, i.e. (105) and (106) (and so on), the situation for the
parameters si is a bit different. There are some conditions for the parameters si (including the quadratic
37

equations (105-1) and (106-1) (106-5)), that should be considered and solved. In the previous section,
we dealt with this situation in two different ways. We had two types of the general solutions for these
conditions; one includes the solutions of the form (69) and (73) (that simply, they respectively become the
solutions of the conditions (105-1) and (106-1) (106-5), by mi si ). The other one includes the
solutions of the forms (85) and (86) (that simply, they become the solutions of the condition (105-1), by
mi si ), and the solutions of the forms (89-1) (89-4) and (94) (that simply, they become the
solutions of the conditions (106-1) (106-5), by mi si ). In all these solutions for the conditions
(105-1) and (106-1) (106-5), the parameters si , necessarily, are written in terms of the new parameters

ui and vi , which we may represent them as the general form

si H i (u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., um ; v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn )

(117)

where the parameters ui and vi are arbitrary integers. Now, for dealing with this situation, in principle,
we accept that:
Due to the tensor components (corresponding to the operators si , according to the definitions (108)
(110)) substitute with the parameters si , and at the same time the parameters si are not arbitrary
parameters and they defined by (117) (where ui and vi are arbitrary parameters), then we conclude that
the operators si should have the following form, as well

si H i (u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., um ; v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn )

(118)

where ui and vi are some operators that substitute with the parameters ui and vi , and they should be
specified for the tensor components corresponding to the operators si . So, from the above conditions and
arguments, in principle, we accept and conclude that

[si H i (u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., um ; v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn )] [si H i (u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., um ; v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn )]. (119)

Meanwhile, according to the parametric solutions (69), (73), (85), (86), (89-1) (89-4) and (94), the form
H i is not a unique form. In Corollary 3. by using (119), the form H i , as well as ui and vi could be
specified (in fact, beforehand, we will clarify that which form(s) of H i are acceptable), such that they

38

will be consistent with the operators si (that correspond to the components of the tensors

F , Z , R ).
Corollary 3. Concerning Remark 5. and the relations (118) and (119), for specifying the form H i , and
the operators ui and vi

in the structures of the tensors F , Z , R , basically, we will use the

Riemann tensor as the base, as on one hand it is necessary for specifying the components of the metric
tensor g

, and on other hand it is a basal tensor with a specific structure.

Thus, on this basis, concerning the form H i in (117), (118) and (119), only the parametric solutions of
the type (86) (with respect to mi si ):

s1 u3v4 u 4 v3 , s2 u 2 v4 u 4 v2 ,
s3 u1v4 u 4 v1 , s5 u 2 v1 u1v2 ,
(117-1)

s6 u1v3 u3v1 , s7 u3v2 u 2 v3 , s4 0,

s8 : a free Integer parameter ( s8 0).
for equation (105-1), as well as only the parametric solutions of the type (94) (with respect to mi si ):

s1 u 4 v5 u5 v4 , s2 u3v5 u5 v3 ,
s3 u5 v2 u 2 v5 , s4 0,
s5 u5 v1 u1v5 , s6 0,
s7 0, s8 0, s9 0,
s10 u1v2 u 2 v1 , s11 u3v1 u1v3 ,
s12 u1v4 u 4 v1 , s13 u3v2 u 2 v3 ,
s14 u 2 v4 u 4 v2 , s15 u 4 v3 u3v4 ,
s16 : a free Integer parameter ( s16 0).
39

(117-2)

for equation (106-1) (106-5), are acceptable; furthermore, by starting from the Riemann tensor and its
specific structure in (107) and using the relation g , we get

R ( ) ( )

(120)

If we define the operator C , operating on a second order tensor Y as follows

CY a( Y Y Y )

(121)

where a is a non-zero constant, then we may rewrite (120) such as

R 1 [( C C ) g ( C C ) g ]
a

(122)

Now, we define the operator D as well

D ( C C )

(123)

Then the relation (122) for the Riemann tensor could be written as follows

R 1 ( D g D g )
a

(124)

th
Meanwhile, the natural generalization of the operator C , operating on an arbitrary n order tensor

A123 ...n , is
C A123 ...n a([ 1 A234 ...n ] A123 ...n )

(125)

According to (122) and (124), the only and the most general form representing the structure of the
Riemann tensor, is

R R 1 ( A B A B )
a

40

(126)

A D , B g .

where

(127)

Now, as stated in Corollary 3., and Remark 5., we use and apply the relation (126) (as a basal and
principal criterion), as well as the relations (117) (119), for determining the general formulation of the
operators si (that substitute with the parameters si in the systems (103) (106)), which correspond to
the components of the Riemann tensor. That is, respectively

(G )
(103) : {(as1 aR10 A 0 B 1 A 1 B 0 , s2
),

(as1 A0 B1 A1 B0 ,

(128)

s2 : a free Integer parameter ( s2 0))};

(104) : {(as1 aR10 A 0 B 1 A 1 B 0 , as2 aR02 A 2 B 0 A 0 B 2 ,

(G )
as3 aR21 A 1 B 2 A 2 B 1 , s4
), (as1 A0 B1 A1 B0 ,

(129)

as2 A2 B0 A0 B2 , as3 A1 B2 A2 B1 ,
s4 : a free Integer parameter ( s4 0))};

(105) : {(as1 aR10 A 0 B 1 A 1 B 0 , as2 aR20 A 0 B 2 A 2 B 0 ,

as3 aR30 A 0 B 3 A 3 B 0 , s4 0, as5 aR23 A 3 B 2 A 2 B 3 ,
(G )
as6 aR31 A 1 B 3 A 3 B 1 , as7 aR12 A 2 B 1 A 1 B 2 , s8
),

(as1 A0 B1 A1 B0 , as2 A0 B2 A2 B0 , as3 A0 B3 A3 B0 , s4 0,

as5 A3 B2 A2 B3 , as6 A1 B3 A3 B1 , as7 A2 B1 A1 B2 ,
s8 : a free Integer parameter ( s8 0))};
41

(130)

(106) : {(as1 aR10 A 0 B 1 A 1 B 0 , as2 aR02 A 2 B 0 A 0 B 2 ,

as3 aR30 A 0 B 3 A 3 B 0 , s4 0, as5 aR04 A 4 B 0 A 0 B 4 ,
s6 0, s7 0, s8 0 s9 0, as10 aR34 A 4 B 3 A 3 B 4 ,
as11 aR42 A 2 B 4 A 4 B 2 , as12 aR41 A 1 B 4 A 4 B 1 ,
as13 aR23 A 3 B 2 A 2 B 3 , as14 aR13 A 3 B 1 A 1 B 3 ,
(G )
as15 aR21 A 1 B 2 A 2 B 1 , s16
),

(as1 A0 B1 A1 B0 , as2 A2 B0 A0 B2 , as3 A0 B3 A3 B0 ,

s4 0, as5 A4 B0 A0 B4 , s6 0, s7 0, s8 0, s9 0,
as10 A4 B3 A3 B4 , as11 A2 B4 A4 B2 , as12 A1 B4 A4 B1 ,
(131)

as13 A3 B2 A2 B3 , as14 A3 B1 A1 B3 , as15 A1 B2 A2 B1 ,

s16 : a free Integer parameter ( s16 0))}.

where the parameters Ai and Bi are arbitrary. In the above formulas for si , the element a is just an
arbitrary parameter ( a 0 ). But in the above formulas representing si , the element a will be specified
later (that is a i ).
As we stated in Corollary 3., as well as according to formulas (128) (131), it is clear that for the form
H i in (117), (118) and (119), only the relations (117-1) and (117-2) are acceptable, which are consistent
with the formulas (126) and (128) (131). Firstly, it is easy to show that the algebraic formulas
representing si in (128) and (129), are also consistent with previous algebraic conditions of the
parameters si in the systems (103) and (104) (where they just were arbitrary integers). For example,
regarding the algebraic formulas representing si in (129), by the following choices

42

A0 (k1s2 k 2 s1 ), B0 (k1s2 k 2 s1 ), a (k1k 2 k 2 k1) s3 ,

(132)

A1 k1s3 , B1 k1s3 , A2 k 2 s3 , B2 k 2 s3 .
where the parameters ki , ki, si are arbitrary integers, directly we can show that the parameters si are also
arbitrary and each could take any integer value.

Secondly, concerning the formulas (130) and (131), directly we could show that by the following choices,
respectively,

A0 av4 , B0 u 4 , A1 av3 , B1 u3 ,
A2 av2 , B2 u 2 , A3 av1 , B3 u1 ,

(133)

s4 0, s8 : a free Integer parameter ( s8 0);

A0 av5 , B0 u5 , A1 av4 , B1 u 4 , A2 av3 ,

B2 u3 , A3 av2 , B3 u 2 , A4 av1 , B4 u1 ,

(134)

s4 0, s6 0, s7 0, s8 0, s9 0,
s16 : a free Integer parameter ( s16 0)

the formulas (130) and (131) completely accord with formulas (117-1) and (117-2) (and only with them,
as it should be).
Now, according to the above suppositions and approaches, such as Remark 5. and Corollary 3. and the
relations (130) and (133), we derive the following unique field equations as the laws governing the
fundamental forces of nature in the fourth dimension, respectively

D[ F ] 0,

(135-1)

(105)
D* F J( E )
43

(135-2)

where , , 0,1,2,3 and

s1 s1 F10 , s2 s2 F20 , s3 s3 F30 ,

s4 s4 0, s5 s5 F23 , s6 s6 F31,
s7 s7 F12 , s8 s8 ( E ) , J( E ) Dv ( E ) .

D[ Z ] 0,

(135-3)

D* Z J( N )

(135-4)

(105)

where

, , , 0,1,2,3 and

s1 s1 Z10 , s2 s2 Z 20 , s3 s3 Z 30 ,
s4 s4 0, s5 s5 Z 23 , s6 s6 Z 31 ,
s7 s1 Z12 , s8 s8 ( N ) , J( N ) Dv ( N ) .

D[ R ] 0,

(135-5)

(G )
D* R J

(135-6)

(105)

Where , , , , 0,1,2,3 and

44

s1 s1 R10 , s2 s2 R20 , s3 s3 R30 ,

s4 s4 0, s5 s5 R23 , s6 s6 R31 ,
(G )
(G )
(G )
s7 s7 R12 , s8 s8
, J
Dv
.

Where the definitions and relations (114-1) (116-3) are applied to the equations (135-1) (135-6) as
well1.
Corollary 4. Now, as stated in Corollary 3. and Remark 5., according to the relations (117) (119) and
(123), (125), (127) and (128) (131), as well as (126) (as a basal and principal criterions for the
specifying the structures of the quantities si , that correspond to the components of the field tensors), the
following relations regarding the structures of the field tensors F (the representer of the
electromagnetic field) and Z (the representer of the strong nuclear field, as it should be) in all
equations (112-1) (113-6) and (135-1) (135-6), are necessary, respectively

1
( D Q D Q)
a

Z S

1
( D H D H )
a

(136)

(137)

where Q and H are a scalar field and a vector field, and where we have a i , as well as the
following gauge operators that ultimately, are obtained for the fields F and Z (or S ) :

F :

ig ( E )
A ,

(138-1)

A C Q Q,

F A A
where g

(E )

ig ( E )
[ A , A ].

(138-2)

is the coupling constant;

.......................
1. Similarly, using the relations (131), (134) and (108) (110), we may obtain the tensor equations corresponding to the system
(106). However, there might be appeared some limitations for the higher dimensions if we suppose the discreteness of the other quantities such
as space-time coordinates and so on.

45

and

Z :

ig ( N )
H ,

ig ( N )
H H
[ H , H ],

Z S L L
where g

(N)

ig ( N )
[ H L H L ].

(139-1)

(139-2)

is the coupling constant.

Corollary 5. According to the unique structures of equations (135-1) (135-4), we can conclude that
magnetic monopoles do not exist in nature.
Remark 6. The Generalized form of Einstein field equations could be obtained from equations (112-6),
(113-6), (135-6). Using the (second) Bianchi identity and the conventions (107) we get

R R R

(140)

Now from (140) and equations (112-6), (113-6), (135-6) and the assumption

J 8 ( T T ) 8B( Tg Tg )

(141)

where T is the stress-energy tensor ( T T ), and g is the metric tensor and B is a constant, we get

R 8 (T BTg )

im0
K qg

(142)

where q is a constant (that appears naturally, when we obtain equation (142)), and K k (where

k has been defined in (115-1)), and K K , K 0 (due to its complex coefficient); Equation
(142) for (112-6) (two dimensional case), specially, takes the following form

46

8T

im0
K

(8T ) g ,

(143-1)

R 1 2 (8T ) g 1 2 g ;

(143-2)

R 8T

(144)

where 2q, B 0 and is the cosmological constant.

Regarding equation (113-6) (three dimensional case), the specific form of the field equation (142) is as
follow

R 1 2 Rg 8T
where

im0
K g

(145)

q, B 1 and is the cosmological constant.

And concerning equation (135-6) (four dimensional case), the field equation (142) takes the following
specific form, as well

R 1 2 Rg 8T

im0
K g

(146)

where q, B 1 and is the cosmological constant.

In equations (142) (146) we may have the (total) conservation law as follows1

(T

im0
Z )0

(147)

1.

Meanwhile,

according

to

the

second

Bianchi

identity,

from

the

equations

(113-5)

and

(135-5)

we

may

have

im0
a, b 0 :
Rab 0 ; that in the case m0 0 (as the invariant mass of a supposed gravitational force carrier particle), there may

appear some additional conditions for the components of the Riemann tensor.

47

Remark 7. In the special relativity conditions, equations (112-1) (112-4), (113-1) (113-4) and (135-1)
(135-4) also could be written as follows

(i Im0 )[ F ] 0,

(148)

(i Im0 )[Z ] 0.

(149)

where I is the identity matrix; and where for equations (112-1) (112-4) (i.e. two dimensional case) we
have

0
, 1

,
0 1
1 0
F
[ F ] (10E ) ,

(150)

Z10
[ Z ] ( N ) .

and for equations (113-1) (113-4) (i.e. three dimensional case) we have

1
0
0

0

0 0 0
0 0

0 0
1 0 0
1
,
0 1
0 1 0

0 0 1
1 0

0
1
0
0

1
0

0
0
2
,
1
0

0
0

Z10
F10
Z
F
02
02

[F ]
, [Z ]
.

Z 21
F21
(N )
(E)

and for equations (135-1) (135-4) (i.e. four dimensional case) we have

48

0
0
0
1

1 0
0 1
,
0 0

0 0

(151)

1
0

0
0

0

0
0

0
0
0

0
2

0

0
1

0 0
0
0
0
0

0
0 0
0
0
0

0
0 0
0
0
0

1 0
0
0
0
0
1
,
0
0 1 0
0
0

0 0 1 0
0
0
0
0 0
0 1 0

0 0
0
0 1
1
0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0

0
0
0 0 0 0
0 1

0
0
0 0 1 0
0 0

0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0
3
,
0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0

0
0 1 0 0
0 0
1
0
0
0 0 0 0
0 0

1 0 0 0 0
0 0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 0
0 0
0 1

0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0
0

0
,
0

0
0

1 0
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

0
0
1

0
,
0

0
0

0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 0

Z10
F10
Z
F
20
20
Z 30
F30

0
0

[F ]
, [F ]
.
Z 23
F23

Z 31
F31
Z
F

12

(12E )
(N )

(152)

All these matrices (including previous matrices) correspond to Clifford algebras [10].
(E)
(N)
Corollary 5. In some special cases such as: ( m0 0 ) and ( 0, 0 ), the equations (148) and

(149) (as well as the equations (112-1) (113-6) and (135-1) (135-6)) are turned into some (wave)
equations similar to Pauli and Dirac equations. Which we can suppose that they are the corrected and
generalized forms of Pauli equation (in two dimensional case), and Dirac equation (in three dimensional
case) and so on.

49

4. Conclusion
In the section 2., since the set of algebraic axioms (17) (23) for integers, have been formulated in terms
of the quadratic (n n) matrices (with arbitrary n), we may conclude that for complete representing
the algebraic property of integers, necessarily and sufficiently, the quadratic matrices (n n) :
( [aij ]nn ,[bij ]nn ,[cij ]nn ,... nn ) should be applied. The (old) algebraic axioms (10) (16-2) that had
been formulated in terms of the elements: a1 , a2 , a3 ,... , (that in fact, we can assume that these
elements are 1 1 matrices such as: [a]11 ( a), [b]11 ( b), [c]11 ( c),... 11 ( Z )) are not sufficient
for complete introducing the algebraic properties of integers.
In the section 3. of this article we derive the general and unique forms of all field equations governing the
fundamental forces of nature, including equations (112-1) (113-6) and (135-1) (135-6). This
derivation was based on a new mathematical approach (represented in the section 2., concerning the
algebraic properties of the domain of integers), as well as the assumption of discreteness of the
components of the relativistic n-momentum. The obtained laws include three separate types of the field
tensor equations (and only three), representing the force of gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the
(strong) nuclear force (for dimensions D 2). In some special conditions, these equations could be turned
into the (wave) equations that are similar to Pauli and Dirac equations. In actual fact, they are the
corrected and generalized forms of the current field equations including Maxwell equations, Yang-Mils
equations and Einstein equations, as well as (in some special conditions) Pauli equation, Dirac equation,
and so on. In addition, according to obtained laws, we also showed that magnetic monopoles could not
exist in nature. The results obtained in the section 3. demonstrate the efficiency of the theory of
linearization (and its algebra) and a wide range of its possible applications. The proposed mathematical
structure in the section 2., doubtless can be useful in many fields where the discreteness of the relevant
quantities are supposed and applied.

Acknowledgment
Special thanks are extended to Prof. and Academician Vitaly L. Ginzburg (Russia), Prof. and
Academician Dmitry V. Shirkov (Russia), Prof. Leonid A . Shelepin (Russia), Prof. Vladimir Ya.
Fainberg (Russia), Prof. Wolfgang Rindler (USA), Prof. Roman W. Jackiw (USA), Prof. Roger Penrose
(UK), Prof. Steven Weinberg (USA), Prof. Ezra T. Newman (USA), Prof. Graham Jameson (UK), Prof.
Maurice H.P.M. van Putten (USA), Prof. Sergey A. Reshetnjak (Russia), for their support and valuable
guidance during my studies and research.

50

References
[1]- Ramin A. Zahedi, "Linearization Method in the Ring Theory," Bulletin of the Lebedev Physics
Institute, Springer-Verlag, No. 5-6, 1997.
[2]- Ramin A. Zahedi, "On Applied Aspects of the Ring Theory", Bulletin of the Lebedev Physics
Institute, Springer-Verlag, No. 3-4, 1997.
[3]- Ramin A. Zahedi, "On the Connection Between Methods of the Ring Theory and the Group
Approach", Bulletin of the Lebedev Physics Institute, Springer-Verlag, No. 7-8,1997.
[4]- Ramin A. Zahedi, "The Linearization Method Based on the Theory of Rings and its Applications in
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http://dlib.rsl.ru/viewer/01000049410#?page=1 )
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T.S. Blyth and E.F. Robertson, "Groups, rings and fields: Algebra through practice," Book 3. Cambridge
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[6]- Leonard Eugene Dickson, "History of the Theory of Numbers," Volume II: Diophantine Analysis,
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[8]- K. Ireland, M. Rosen, "A Classical Introduction to Modern Number Theory," 2nd ed., New York,
Springer-Verlag, 1998.
[9]- M. W. Guidry, "Gauge Field Theories: An Introduction with Applications," John Wiley and Sons,
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[10]- Nicolas Bourbaki, "Algebra," Berlin, New York, Springer-Verlag, 1988.

51