Bristow Montney 2013 Aeolian11

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Bristow C., and Mountney N.P. (2013) Aeolian Stratigraphy. In: John F. Shroder (ed.) Treatise on
Geomorphology, Volume 11, pp. 246-268. San Diego: Academic Press.
2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
11.13 Aeolian Stratigraphy
C Bristow, University of London, London, UK
NP Mountney, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
11.13.1
Introduction
247
11.13.1.1
Wind Ripple Lamination
247
11.13.1.2
Airfall Lamination
247
11.13.1.3
Grainflow/Avalanche Cross-Strata
248
11.13.1.4
Aeolian Plane-Bed Lamination
249
11.13.1.5
Adhesion Ripples
249
11.13.1.6
Aeolian Deflation Lags
249
11.13.1.7
Physically Deformed Strata
249
11.13.1.8
Chemically Deformed Strata
249
11.13.1.9
Pedoturbation and Paleosols in Aeolian Strata
250
11.13.1.10
Bioturbation in Aeolian Strata
250
11.13.2
Bounding Surfaces
250
11.13.2.1
Reactivation Surfaces
250
11.13.2.2
Superposition Surfaces
251
11.13.2.3
Interdune Surfaces
251
11.13.2.4
Super Surfaces
252
11.13.3
Sedimentary Models for Dunes, Interdune, and Sandsheet Strata
252
11.13.3.1
Barchan Dunes
252
11.13.3.2
Transverse Dunes
253
11.13.3.3
Linear Dunes
253
11.13.3.4
Star Dunes
254
11.13.3.5
Parabolic Dunes
254
11.13.3.6
Lunettes
255
11.13.3.7
Nebkhas
256
11.13.3.8
Zibar
256
11.13.3.9
Sand-Sheets
256
11.13.3.10
Interdunes (Wet, Damp, Dry)
256
11.13.3.11
Megadunes
257
11.13.3.12
Compound Dunes
257
11.13.3.13
Complex Dunes
257
11.13.3.14
Computer Simulations of Dune Strata
257
11.13.3.15
Natural Variation
257
11.13.3.16
The Nature of the Aeolian Record
258
11.13.4
Aeolian Stratigraphic Models
258
11.13.4.1
Sequence Stratigraphy in Aeolian Sediments
258
11.13.4.2
Aeolian System Construction
259
11.13.4.3
Aeolian System Accumulation
259
11.13.4.4
Aeolian System Bypass, Destruction, Deflation and Super Surface Generation
261
11.13.4.5
Aeolian System Preservation
263
11.13.4.6
Dynamic Models for the Generation of Aeolian Successions
263
11.13.5
Conclusion
266
References
266
Abstract
Aeolian strata include wind-ripple lamination, airfall lamination, aeolian plane-bed laminae, as well as grainflow (ava-lanche) cross-strata. These small scale
sedimentary structures and their bounding surfaces can be used to reconstruct dune
Bristow, C., Mountney, N.P., 2013. Aeolian stratigraphy. In: Shroder, J. (Editor in Chief), Lancaster, N., Sherman, D.J., Baas, A.C.W. (Eds.), Treatise on Geomorphology. Academic
Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 11, Aeolian Geomorphology, pp. 246268.
246
Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 11
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00306-7
Author's personal copy

Aeolian Stratigraphy
247
morphology and style of accumulation. Dunes respond rapidly to changes in wind conditions and the resulting changes in dune morphology are
represented by bounding surfaces that are common in aeolian sandstones. After deposition, aeolian strata may undergo deformation or be reworked
by bioturbation, which disturbs primary lamination and creates its own suite of sedimentary structures. The preservation of aeolian strata within
sedimentary systems is discussed.
Introduction
Aeolian strata include wind ripple lamination, airfall lamin-ation,

aeolian plane-bed lamination as well as grainflow (avalanche)
cross-strata. These different small-scale sedi-mentary structures
are indicative of sediment transport and deposition on sand dunes
and sand sheets. Within aeolian deposits (sandstones when
lithified) the arrangement of these small-scale sedimentary
structures and their bounding surfaces can be used to reconstruct
original dune morphology and style of accumulation. After
deposition, aeolian strata may undergo deformation or be
reworked by bioturbation, which disturbs primary lamination and
creates its own suite of sedimentary structures. Dunes, which are
piles of unconsolidated sand shaped by the wind to form bedforms,
respond rapidly to changes in wind conditions and the resulting
changes in sur-face dune morphology are represented internally by
bounding surfaces that are a common feature of aeolian
sandstones. Finally, the preservation of aeolian strata within
sedimentary systems is discussed.
Wind Ripple Lamination
Wind ripples are very common on the surface of dunes and aeolian
sand sheets, their deposits are widespread and they produce the
most abundant type of aeolian strata. Wind ripple lamination
generally comprises thin (110 mm) parallel laminae defined by
slight changes in grain size. Wind ripples commonly have coarser
grains on their crests and this is re-flected within wind ripple

laminae which show inverse grad-ing, coarsening upward slightly
within laminae. The change in grain size within wind ripple
lamination is generally picked out in the field by changes in color.
In general the finer grained laminae tend to be slightly darker and
the coarser grained laminae a little paler. The repeated pattern of
wind ripple laminae has been termed pin-stripe lamination
(Fryberger and Schenk, 1988) because the color changes and
parallel nature of the laminae resemble the stripes found in some
suit cloth (Figure 1(a)). The parallel pin-stripe lamin-ation is due
to a lack of cross-lamination from the lee side of the ripples. The
absence of lee-side cross-lamination can be attributed to a
combination of three factors. First, wind ripples have a lower
ripple index than current ripples formed in water, which means
that they have a longer wavelength relative to their amplitude. The
stoss (upwind) and lee side (downwind) slopes are lower angle
than those of current ripples formed in water. Second, air has a
lower density than water and wind is more selective in grain size
entrainment than water so that aeolian sands are generally better
sorted and the laminae are less apparent in the better sorted sands
due to the lack of contrast in grain size within relatively well
sorted aeolian sands. The third factor is caused by the horizontal
migration of wind ripples with low angles of climb so that very
little of
the lee-side of the ripple form is preserved. However, with a high

angle of climb, wind-ripple cross-lamination can be preserved.
Different types of wind-ripple lamination were described by
Hunter (1977) including, subcritically climbing, critically
climbing, and super-critically climbing translatent strata where
translatent strata is synonymous with ripple laminae. If a ripple
migrates horizontally across a surface with no sediment
accumulation then the passage of the ripple will not be recorded in
the sedimentary record. Some sediment accumulation has to occur
as the ripple migrates in order for the ripple laminae to
accumulate. Ripples that migrate downwind while sediment is
accumulating are said to climb and the angle of climb is
determined by the ratio between the rate of sediment accumulation
and the rate of ripple migration where the critical angle of climb is
the angle of the stoss slope. Subcritically climbing ripples do not
preserve any of the stoss-slope because the angle of climb is too
low. Critically climbing ripples climb at an angle equal to that of
the stoss slope and thus preserve the entire lee slope of the ripple.
Supercritically climbing ripples have an angle of climb greater
than the stoss slope thereby preserving both the stoss side and the
lee side of the ripple form (Figure 1(b)).
Airfall Lamination
Airfall laminae are formed of grains of sand and silt or clay sized
particles deposited from suspension and via a process of modified
saltation. Suspension describes grains that are transported in the air
where the grains are kept in motion by turbulence within the flow.
Grains transported in suspension are generally fine grained like

dust. The term saltation is de-rived from the latin saltare to leap,
and during saltation sand grains move over the surface in a series
of jumps (see Chapter 11.6). Each saltating grain follows a
different ballistic trajec-tory and impacts the bed where it will
send further grains into the air creating a saltation cloud with
grains leaping to a height that ranges from millimeters to a few
tens of centi-meters above the surface. The grains that are
displaced to a small distance are said to reptate (hop), whereas
others are jostled along the surface as surface creep. The reptating
and saltating grains are believed to form wind ripples (Anderson,
1987). Modified saltation occurs where particles set in motion as
saltating grains are carried farther by sus-pension. Particles
transported over the crest of a dune by suspension, saltation, or
modified saltation fall out in the lee of the dune. Immediately
downwind from the brink of the dune, grainfall from saltation
dominates. Sand grains accu-mulate on the upper lee-side slipface
until it reaches the angle of repose at which point slope failure and
avalanching occurs down the dune slipface (see below). Finer
grained particles are transported farther downwind and may be
deposited a con-siderable distance downwind of the dune. Where
the fine-grained particles are deposited they form air-fall laminae
that

248
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
Figure 1 Photographs of sedimentary structures in dune sands: (a) Pinstripe lamination from wind ripples in Quaternary dune sands, Tunisia.
Wind-ripple lamination exposed in a horizontal section in Quaternary dune sands in Tunisia. The ripples are migrating from left to right and the angle of
climb, which is a function of the rate of ripple migration and the rate of sediment deposition, determines the preservation of the ripple laminae where the
critical angle of climb is the angle of the ripple stoss-slope. Steeper angles of climb that preserve the stoss-slope are said to be super-critical, whereas
lower angles that truncate the lee-side laminae are said to be subcritical. Terminology after Hunter (1977).
Airfall lamination picked out as thin pale-colored laminae draping wind ripple laminated sandstone, Navajo Sandstone, Jurassic, Utah, USA.
Coarse tongues of avalanche/grainflow strata stand out from the enclosing wind-ripple laminated sandstones, viewed in planform looking down on dune
foresets, Miocene, Shuwaihat Formation, Abu Dhabi, UAE. (e) Aeolian planebed on the left passing into wind-rippled sand (lower right) on a modern
dune surface Namibia. (f) Adhesion ripples that accreted upwind, right to left, recent sediments, Tunisia. (g) Lag surface on a sand and gravel covered
interdune in Namibia. (h) Deformation in aeolian strata, Jurassic, Navajo Sandstone, Arizona, USA. (i) Evaporite and dissolution deformation of wet
interdune inland sabkha sediments overlain by aeolian cross-strata, Miocene Shuwaihat Formation, Abu Dhabi, UAE. (j) Rhizoliths preserved in
Miocene aeolian sandstone, Shuwaihat Formation, UAE. (k) Trace fossils with a meniscate backfill attributed to the ichnogenus Taenidium attributed to
burrowing by beetle larvae or termites in Quaternary dune sand, Khomabes, Namibia.
mixture of sand grains in air where interaction be-tween the

grains keeps the mass of sand moving downslope
can be very thin, in some places less than 1 mm in thickness. The

airfall laminae drape existing topography and cover wind ripple
or avalanche strata (Figure 1(c)). In modern dune sands, airfall
laminae tend to stand out in a trenched section because the fine
particles are more cohesive and retain water by capillary pressure.
Within aeolian sandstones airfall lam-inae can be differentiated
by their fine grain size, which is often enhanced by diagenetic
changes in color.
Grainflow/Avalanche Cross-Strata
When a pile of sand reaches a critical angle known as the angle of

repose, usually between 321 and 341, its slope will fail and the
sand will move downslope as an avalanche, which is a dense
(Figure 2). The avalanche is also known as a grainflow (or

sandflow) and the terms avalanche and grainflow strata are used
interchangeably. During transport, dispersive pressure generated
by particle collisions within the avalanche can move coarser
grains to the surface of the avalanche creating a slight coarsening
upward within avalanche deposits. Avalanche (grainflow) strata
form discrete tongues or broad sheets of strata inclined close to
the angle of repose on the lee-side of sand dunes (Figure 1(d)).
Reported thicknesses of strata resulting from individual
avalanches are typically between 2 and 5 cm. In addition,
avalanche strata wedge out toward the base of the dune. Although
the steep, upper lee-side, slopes of sand dunes, and their
avalanche strata are a characteristic feature of modern dunes they
are not always preserved within aeolian strata in the rock record
because subcritical climbing of dune bedforms at low angles
means that commonly only the lowermost toesets of dunes are
preserved. These slopes

249
Figure 2 Avalanche sequence, frame grab from digital video at

10 s intervals, height of slipface 2.5 m; an avalanche like this
will produce a discrete tongue of cross-strata dipping at the
angle of repose, generally between 321 and 341.
have inclinations less than the angle of repose and are there-fore
more likely to be dominated by wind ripple and airfall strata. As a
consequence, the sediments deposited at the toe of the dunes have
a higher preservation potential than the ava-lanche strata.
Aeolian Plane-Bed Lamination
Aeolian plane-bed lamination is sub-horizontally laminated sand

(Figure 1(e)) believed to form at wind velocities too fast for ripple
formation (Hunter, 1977). However, the mechanism is not well
understood but may be due to large-scale turbulent bursts and
sweeps that generate saltation clouds that sweep across dunes and
sand sheets. The lack of wind ripples may indicate that saltation is
dominant over reptation or that there is insufficient time for
aeolian ripples to become organized on the dune surface.
Adhesion Ripples
Adhesion ripples are low relief, sub-horizontal structures, a few

millimeters in height with an irregular surface that have been
described as wart-like (Reineck, 1955). They are formed when dry
sand is blown across a wet sediment surface and some of the sand
sticks to the wet surface on impact. The structures accrete upwind
as more blown sand adheres to the damp sand forming small
ridges transverse to the wind (Figure 1(f)). Ca-pillary rise of water
keeps the surface moist. Adhesion ripples form on wet sand
surfaces on beaches and on damp interdune surfaces. Adhesion
structures can sometimes form irregular warty surfaces, possibly
where the wind direction is more variable, and can form more
continuous layers termed ad-hesion plane bedforms (Kocurek and
Fielder, 1982).
common source of cohesion in aeolian sands is the presence of

water, and a water-table forms a downward limit to scour through
the cohesion of damp or wet sand, as well as precipitation of
evaporate minerals as water evaporates from the sediments.
Deflation of unconsolidated sand down to a near horizontal planar
surface at the water-table is called a Stokes surface (Stokes, 1968),
preserved examples of which may commonly be of regional
extent.
Physically Deformed Strata
In addition to the primary sedimentary structures formed at the

time of deposition there are numerous penecontempora-neous
structures formed by deformation of strata during or immediately
after deposition on sand dunes. Physical de-formation structures in
dune sands include folds, faults, and breccias; McKee et al. (1971)
developed a classification scheme based upon field observations
and experiments. Most of the structures they identified are
associated with slope failure on avalanche slipfaces with
extensional structures close to the top of slipfaces and
compressional structures near to the base of dune foresets (Figure
1(h)). The response to stresses and the structures produced during
deformation are controlled largely by the amount of moisture
present in the sand because it controls the cohesion of sand
particles. In sand that is dry, cohesion is low, and the chief
deformation structures are fadeout laminae, drag folds, and
flames, as well as warps or gentle folds (McKee et al., 1971). In
sands that are wet, co-hesion is much greater and common
deformation structures are break-aparts and breccias, rotated
plates and blocks, and high-angle asymmetrical folds.
Aeolian Deflation Lags
The primary sedimentary structures described so far involve

deposition of sand-sized particles. However, in order to deposit
sand it first has to be entrained and transported. In areas where
sand is entrained, loose surface sediments may be deflated leaving
a lag of coarser grained sand or gravel (Figure 1(g)). The limits of
deflation can also be determined by cohesion between grains. A
Chemically Deformed Strata
The growth of evaporate minerals within aeolian sands on inland

sabkhas can displace sand grains and deform the

250
depositional laminae. Most of the evaporite minerals are

climate controls on desert sand dune activity into the
subsequently dissolved which results in further disruption of
Paleozoic and beyond.
laminae that then become irregular, crinkled and discontinu-
ous with small folds (Figure 1(i)).
11.13.1.10 Bioturbation in Aeolian Strata
Loose, unconsolidated sand readily deforms under the pres-
sure of a foot and can retain a footprint. Modern dunes are
Pedoturbation and Paleosols in Aeolian Strata commonly covered in trails from organisms that inhabit desert
Soil formation involves a range of physical, chemical, and

biological processes that create vertical horizons within the near
surface. This includes the dissolution of elements during
weathering as well as the addition of biological material, finegrained minerals, dust, and salts. At any one location, soil
formation is influenced by the mineralogy of the dune sands, the
topography and local hydrology, climate and vegetation that result
in various paleosols. The formation of soils in sand dunes
generally follows the stabilization of dunes by vegetation. Plant
roots and organic crusts help to bind sand together increasing the
threshold for sand entrainment. In addition, plant foliage reduces
wind shear stress at the surface which also increases the threshold
for entrainment but in addition aids deposition of fine-grained
particles, or dust, by creating a low velocity zone close to the
ground (Lancaster and Baas, 1998). Vegetation introduces organic
carbon into the sand dunes and encourages the deposition and
accumulation of fine-grained, clay- and silt-sized dust particles on
the surface of the dune. This fine-grained sediment can then be
washed down into the dune sands through the process of
illuviation. The increase in silt, clay, and organic matter in dune
sand causes a physical change in the dunes. It is commonly accompanied by an increase in the rubification (or reddening) of the
sand, and the development of clay coatings, cutans, on quartz
grains. In addition, carbonate and gypsum cements may
precipitate. In some parts of the worlds deserts, such as the
Simpson and Strezeleki deserts of Australia, the dunes are largely

vegetated with extensive soil development and silt and clay
content has been found to increase with dune age (Bristow et al.,
2007b). The formation of soils in dune sands is accompanied by
bioturbation (see below). Extensive pedo-genesis can result in the
destruction of primary sedimentary structures. Although plants
play a major role in the stabiliza-tion of sand dunes at the present
day, this might not always have been the case. Fossil roots,
rhizoliths, are recorded in Pennsylvanian, Permian, and Jurassic
aeolian sandstones (Loope, 1988), with rhizoliths in Paleozoic
successions pre-dominantly restricted to deposits from coastal
areas with on-shore winds. At the present day, many coastal dunes
are vegetated. Inland, modern desert dune vegetation is commonly dominated by grasses with strong creeping root systems
that help to bind the dune sand together, for example, Stipa-grostis
amabilis in southern Africa, Spinifex in Australia, and prairie
grasses in North America. It appears that grasses evolved in the
Cretaceous (Prasad et al., 2010) and this may have had an impact
on the vegetation and mobility of sand dunes from the late
Cretaceous onward, with increased oc-currence of rhizoliths and
pedoturbation of dunes in the Tertiary, for example, Glennie and
Evamy (1968) and Kocurek et al. (1999) (Figure 1(j)). Thus
stabilization of sand dunes by grasses may not have been possible
prior to the late Mesozoic, which has implications for
extrapolating humid and arid
environments, especially beetles, and lizards, but also birds, as

well as mammals whose tracks and trails are temporarily recorded in the sand until the surface is reworked by the wind.
However, some of the tracks can survive, including early hominid
trackways from the Langerbaan coastal dunes in South Africa
(Roberts and Berger, 1997). Flora and fauna have become
specially adapted to desert environments and there are food webs
based around detritivores (e.g., Seely, 2004). Animals burrow into
sand dunes in search of food from plant roots to insect larvae, to
seek shelter, or create a home. The burrows of modern insects,
mammals, reptiles, and amphib-ians are common in modern sand
dunes but less commonly reported from ancient aeolian
sandstones even though the various groups of arthropods that
burrow into sand dunes have existed for 300 my (Ahlbrandt et al.,
1978). The burrows of arthropods and their larvae may be
preserved because they are backfilled or reinforced, leaving a
distinct record rather than a vaguely disrupted zone (Figure 1(k)).
There are many species of burrowing insects and ants and termites
in par-ticular can create elaborate burrow systems in dune and
interdune sediments (e.g., Tschinkel, 2003). Some examples of
tracks, trails, and burrows from desert-adapted organisms are
shown in Figure 3 which is modified from Ahlbrandt et al. (1978)
with the addition of termite nests reported from ae-olian
sandstones and interdune deposits in Namibia (Seely and Mitchell,
1986). Insect burrows are widely reported in soils from the
Cretaceous onward (see reviews in Genise et al., 2000; Genise,
2004).
Bounding Surfaces
In dune sands, a bounding surface is an erosion surface within or

between sets of cross-strata. A hierarchy of bounding sur-faces
was identified by Brookfield (1977) but his terminology and
definitions have been superseded by those of Fryberger (1993) and
Kocurek (1996), with the latter defining four types of bounding
surfaces: reactivation surfaces, superposition surfaces, interdune
surfaces, and super surfaces (Figure 4).
Reactivation Surfaces
Reactivation surfaces are formed when a sand dune is re-shaped

by a change in the wind direction or wind velocity that reshapes a
dune by eroding sand from one part and depositing it on another.
In most parts of the world, the wind changes repeatedly with the
passage of depressions or high-pressure cells. Sand transport
across dunes responds accordingly, so that reactivation surfaces
are very common if not ubiquitous. If the wind direction reverses,
then the crest of the dune can be flipped. Strata on the lee-side
become truncated and the stoss-side buried until the wind switches
back again and the dune morphology is reestablished (e.g.,
Bristow et al., 2010b). If

251
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
F
K
J
G
E
H
N
O
I
M
Dry interdune
Dune
Wet interdune
Figure 3 Biotubation and selected secondary sedimentary structures in aeolian dunes. (a) Crane fly larva burrow; (b) termite burrow; (c) burrowing and
disruption of sediment by ants; (d) rabbit track; (e) plant roots; (f) lizard trail; (g) sand-treader cricket burrow; (h) gopher burrow;
(i) wolf spider burrow; (j) sand wasp burrow; (k) beetle trail; (l) toad burrow; (m) aestivating gastropods; (n) desiccation cracks; (o)
evaporate minerals; (p) antelope tracks. Modified from Ahlbrandt, T.S., Andrews, S., Gwynne, D.T., 1978, Bioturbation in aeolian
deposits. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 48, 839848.
Superposition Surfaces
Superposition surfaces are formed where one dune migrates over

another dune. This is most likely to occur where small, fastmoving dunes migrate over larger, slower dunes, or where they are
superimposed on the flanks of larger dunes. This occurs, for
example, where transverse dunes migrate across
Cross-strata
Interdune surface
Reactivation surface
Super surface
larger dune bedforms (called megadunes or draa) within the Grand

Erg Occidental in Algeria or along the flanks of linear dunes in
Namibia. In both cases, the superimposed dunes truncate the
underlying strata of earlier dunes. The resulting bounding surfaces
and sets of cross-strata have been imaged using ground
penetrating radar (GPR) (Bristow et al., 2007a, Bristow, 2009) and
revealed by trenching (McKee, 1966) (Figures 57). In the
Namibian example the superimposed dune is migrating
perpendicular to the trend of the linear dune and there is a distinct
change in dip direction between the two sets of cross-strata.
However, in the example from Algeria there is little difference
between the orientation of the two bedforms, the sets of crossstrata and superposition sur-faces. Within the rock record it is
difficult to distinguish be-tween reactivation surfaces and
superposition surfaces where both have similar orientations
(Kocurek, 1996).
Superposition surface
Interdune Surfaces
Figure 4 Bounding surfaces in aeolian sand dune deposits include
reactivation surfaces formed by reshaping of the dune, superposition
surfaces formed by dunes migrating over larger dune forms, interdune
surfaces and super-surfaces (see text for explanation).
changes in the wind regime are regular or seasonal then the

reactivation surfaces may be cyclic, as observed in the Jurassic
Navajo Sandstone in Utah (Loope et al., 2001).
Interdune surfaces are formed by the migration of dunes and

sediment aggradation, resulting in the preservation of sections of
interdune sediments between sets or cosets of dune cross-strata.
The interdune deposits may be dry, for example, near horizontal
wind-ripple-dominated sand sheet, or wet, for ex-ample, inland
sabkha. The interdune surfaces may be inclined at very low angles
(typically no more than a few tenths of a degree), with climb in a
downwind direction only evident over distances of many hundreds
of meters or even kilometers: such surfaces generally appear
horizontal where they outcrop. Interdune surfaces may be
constrained by a paleowater

252
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(
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Figure 5 GPR profile across a compound dune in the Grand Erg Occidental, Algeria, interpreted
to show reactivation surfaces within dunes and superposition surfaces where smaller dunes are
superimposed on the larger bedform, which could be termed a megadune. The stacking pattern
of cross-strata and bounding surfaces shows that the larger dune is essentially a pile of smaller
dune strata with no clear distinction between an older dune core and younger superimposed
dunes.
super surfaces may be correlated into adjacent

non-aeolian, fluvial, or coastal sediments
table which formed a downward limit to

aeolian scour through the increased cohesion of
damp or wet sand and through early
cementation by evaporates precipitated in the
sediments as water evaporates at or close to the
sand air interface, as discussed by Fryberger
et al. (1988).
to the destructive use of trenches (e.g., Bristow,

2009; Bristow et al., 2000).
Barchan Dunes
Super Surfaces
Super surfaces are generated when aeolian

accumulation cea-ses, possibly as a result of
changes in climate or sea-level rise
accompanied by a rise in the inland water table.
They are of great lateral extent and continuity
and typically bound entire aeolian
accumulations or large parts thereof. Some
Barchan dunes are crescentic dunes with a

slipface and two horns that point downwind
(see Chapter 11.11). They are associated with
areas where there is a single dominant winddirection and limited sand supply. Barchans are
the simplest type of sand dune and they were
one of the first forms to be investigated. McKee
(1957) excavated five shallow trenches into the
stoss side of a 3.5 m-high barchan dune in
Arizona. These trenches revealed strata dipping
at 31321 in the downwind direction overlain
by a 5 cm-thick veneer of laminae dipping in

the upwind direction at 571. A trench in one of
the barchans horns revealed strata dipping at
351 truncated and overlain by strata dipping at
161. In the other horn the strata dipped at 81.

Trenching of a more complete section through
a barchanoid ridge at White Sands
Sedimentary Models for Dunes, Interdune, National Monument (McKee, 1966)

revealed a greater degree
and Sandsheet Strata
Our knowledge of the internal structure of sand

dunes owes much to the pioneering work of Ed
McKee who excavated pits and trenches in
sand dunes in order to photograph and sketch
the sedimentary structures that were exposed in
the trench walls (McKee, 1957, 1966; McKee
and Bigarella, 1979; McKee and Tibbits, 1964).
The next major advance came through
modeling strata conceptually and using
computer simulations of migrating bedforms
(Rubin, 1987). The use of GPR now allows
researchers to image dune structure without
resorting
of complexity with sets of cross-strata dipping

in the down-wind direction at 26341 between
low-angle bounding sur-faces that would today
be interpreted as reactivation surfaces. In a
section cut parallel to the dominant wind the
bounding surfaces changed from nearly
horizontal to steeply dipping (24281) in the
downwind direction (Figure 7(a)). In a sec-tion
cut perpendicular to the dominant wind the
bounding surfaces dipped gently toward the
dune flanks with sets of cross-strata forming
wedges that taper toward the dune mar-gins
(McKee, 1966) (Figure 7(b)). As well as the
downwind-dipping cross-strata and reactivation
surfaces, McKee also

253
10
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8 m Depth
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Sands National Monument revealed strata that are similar to those

of the barchan dune section (Figure 7) with sets of cross-strata and
bounding surfaces dipping in a downwind direction. However,
some of the sets of cross-strata were thicker, up to 8 m thick,
commensurate with the greater height of the dune. Reactivation
surfaces were common toward the crest of the transverse dune
indicating that it was subject to reworking at the crest. However,
there appear to be fewer reactivation surfaces recorded within the
main body of the dune. This might be because the main slipface of
the transverse dune was less prone to reworking. This might also
be a function of the dune size because the smaller 8 m-high
barchanoid dune would be more easily re-worked than the larger
12 m-high transverse dune. Another significant difference between
barchanoid and transverse dunes is revealed in the sections
perpendicular to the dom-inant wind. The transverse dune strata
are more continuous and sub-horizontal when viewed normal to
the dune migra-tion direction (Mckee, 1966).
5
(c)
Figure 6 3-DGPR image of superposition surfaces from a

transverse dune superimposed on the flanks of a linear dune in
the Namib Sand Sea.
observed localized scour and fill structures attributed to shifting

winds.
Transverse Dunes
Transverse dunes resemble barchan dunes in cross-section with a

low-angle stoss slope and a steeper lee side. They also
appear to be formed where there is a single dominant wind

direction and may result from the coalescence of barchan dunes, as
sand supply increases, to form a barchanoid ridge and then a
transverse dune. Conversely, transverse dunes have also been
observed to break down, in the downwind direction, transitioning
through barchanoid ridges and into barchan dunes. A trench
excavated by McKee (1966) through a 12 m-high, straight-crested
transverse dune parallel to the dominant wind direction at White
Linear Dunes
Linear dunes are widespread and are the most common dune form
on Earth. Linear dunes are formed in areas with two wind
directions with the dune crestlines aligned close to the resultant
wind direction, satisfying the gross bedform-normal rule of Rubin
and Hunter (1987). Although sand is trans-ported back and forth
across the crest of linear dunes by opposing winds, the bedforms
appear to propagate by de-position at the end of the dune, thus
advancing across the desert while possibly migrating laterally or
back and forth in a sinuous manner.
Several models for the structure of linear dunes have been

proposed, starting with Bagnold (1941) who suggested that linear
dunes that formed under equal and opposing winds would build up
by vertical aggradation with strata dipping in opposite directions
on either side of the dune in a tent-like structure. McKee and
Tibbits (1964) dug shallow trenches in a linear dune in Libya and
used their observations to support Bagnolds model. However, this
interpretation was criticized by Rubin and Hunter (1985) who
argued that in nature winds are almost never equal and opposite
and that as a result there should be net lateral migration of linear
dunes. In addition, Tsoar (1982) noted that some linear dunes have
sinuous crestlines and this would influence the sedimentary
structures if strata are preserved inside of the sinous curves of
linear dunes. GPR was used to test the models for linear dune development (Bristow et al., 2000). The results shown in Figure 8
confirm that linear dunes can migrate laterally, forming unimodal
cross-strata that could be mistaken for transverse dune deposits as
suggested by Rubin and Hunter

254
rl
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Explanation
Feet
set
Figure 7 Line drawings of cross-strata and bounding surfaces exposed in a trench excavated through a
barchanoid dune at White Sands National Monument from McKee, E.D., 1966. Structures of dunes at
White Sands National Monument, New Mexico (and a comparison with structures of dunes from other
selected areas). Sedimentology 7, 369. Section (a) is parallel to the dominant wind direction whereas
Section (b) is perpendicular to the dominant wind direction. Both sections show sets of cross-strata
bounded by abundant reactivation surfaces.
(1985). With a sinuous crest-line, sand is

deposited on the outside of the bends rather
than the inside and this can result in bimodal
dips where sinuous curves propagate along the
crest of the dune. Furthermore, superimposed
dunes form trough cross-strata on the flanks of
larger dunes (Figure 6). Thus linear dunes can
show a variety of patterns of aggradation.
Star Dunes
Star dunes have a pyramidal form and three or

more radi-ating arms (Lancaster, 1989). They
appear to be formed in areas with a variable
wind regime and decreasing sand transport
potential where sand accumulates. This forms
some of the biggest and tallest dunes on Earth.
Published studies of star dune structure
(McKee, 1966; Nielson and Kocurek, 1987;
Wang et al., 2005) are based on shallow pits
and to date there is a lack of published data on
the deeper structure of star dunes. McKee
(1966) described the struc-tures exposed in a 1
m-deep trench at the crest of a 2530 m high
star dunes in Saudi Arabia as complex whereby
high angle laminae (26341) in various sets
show three principle directions of dipnorthwest, northeast, and southeast (McKee,
1966: p. 68). These structures are interpreted to

represent the deposits of local winds described
as north-erly (summer monsoon), westerly
(winter prevailing wind), and southerly
(shammal) (McKee, 1966: p. 65) that do not
appear to correspond with the orientations of
the strata. Nielson and Kocurek (1987) dug
trenches in incipient star dunes and inferred the
structure of larger star dunes based on field
observations of bedforms at Dumont dune field
in California. Wang et al. (2005) investigated
star dune
structure by digging 37 trenches (0.5 0.5 0.8 m)

into a 21 m-high star dune after a rain storm.
Both Nielson and Kocurek (1987) and Wang et
al. (2005) reported that ava-lanche deposits are
confined to a small part of the crestal area of
the dunes. Wang et al. (2005) reported
moderate to low-angle wind ripple lamination
with grainfall strata and apparently
structureless sand on the dune flanks. A paleocurrent rose diagram constructed from data in
Wang et al. (2005) shows a broad spread of
dips with a bimodal pat-tern. However, as
Nielson and Kocurek noted, the most
characteristic feature of star dunes multiple
slipfaces of differing orientations is the least
likely portion of the dune to be preserved. They
suggested that star-dune deposits are
represented largely or exclusively by low- to

moderate-angle, wind ripple lamination, and
that this might explain why so few star dune
deposits are recognized in the rock record.
Parabolic Dunes
Parabolic dunes are distinctive U or V shaped

dunes aligned parallel to the dominant wind
direction with the nose of the dune pointing
downwind and two arms trailing in the upwind
direction. The hollow between the arms is
generally a zone of scour and can deflate down
to the interdune surface or the water table. Sand
deflated from the interlimb corridor is blown
out over the crest of the dune and the dune
arms. A key feature of parabolic dunes is the
presence of vegetation which helps anchor the
dune arms and trap wind-blown sand. Parabolic
dunes commonly occur around the margins of
desert dune fields or in coastal dune fields with
a single dominant wind direction. Trenches
through parabolic dunes at White Sands
National Monument (McKee, 1966), and at
255
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Figure 8 GPR profiles across a sinuous linear dune from Bristow, C.S., Bailey, S.D., Lancaster, N., 2000. The sedimentary structure of
linear sand dunes. Nature 406, 5659. Profile 1 crosses the distal end of the dune and contains wind-ripple laminated sand that is not
resolved by the radar. Profiles 2 and 3 image strata dipping from left to right indicating lateral migration of the dune toward the east
(right). Profile 4 across a bend in the dune shows a set of strata dipping from left to right, truncated and overlain by strata that dip
from right to left on the outside of the bend. Profile 5 shows increased complexity with strata dipping to left and right as a second
bend propagates along the dune. Profile 6 shows sets of strata dipping from left to right, consistent with the lateral migration shown in
profiles 2 and 3 but truncated and overlain by a superimposed dune on the left side.
Lagoa dune field Brazil (McKee and Bigarella, 1979) show a wide
range of dip directions. Trenches through the nose of parabolic
dunes reveal convex-up strata possibly due to crosswinds undercutting and steepening the dune nose (McKee and Bigarella,
1979). Another key feature of parabolic dunes is the presence of
plant material, roots and gently warped or hummocky strata where
sand is trapped in clumps of vegetation, and/or scoured from
between vegetation stands. Strata within the arms of parabolic
dunes dip away from the interlimb corridor and as a result there is
a wide range of dip directions. At White Sands, 73 readings of true
dip in foresets showed a spread of 2001, and 161 readings of
truncated foresets in adjacent interdune areas showed a spread of
2101; these values compare with spreads of 601401 for
barchanoid ridge and transverse dunes at White Sands (McKee and
Bigarella, 1979). Three-dimensional GPR surveys of parabolic
dunes by Giradi and Davis (2010) image strata that is convex in
planform as well as in section.
Lunettes
Lunettes are crescentic dunes generally formed downwind of dry

lake beds or salt pans. They are aligned perpendicular to the
dominant wind direction with the nose of the dune pointing
downwind and two arms trailing in the upwind direction. They are
formed from sand-sized aggregates, derived from the mechanical
disintegration of mud curls, evaporate crusts, and efflorescence of
salts, and have been called clay dunes (Bowler, 1973). Sand-sized
aggregates are transported downwind from desiccated lakes
forming wind ripples and sand-sheets composed of clay pellets.
Accumulation of sand-sized particles is commonly aided by
alternating wet and dry seasons, where sediment production and
transport is active in the dry season, but during the wet season the
dunes become stabilized by rainfall. Vegetation can also help to
trap sand-sized clay pellets and aid accumulation on lunettes. The
structure of lunettes is generally dominated by low-angle

256
bedding, which can dip upwind, toward the

sediment source, as well as downwind. Lunette
dunes are commonly steeper on the windward
side than the downwind side. Primary sedimentary structures include ripple lamination
and hummocky bedding around clumps of
vegetation. Lunettes are rarely mobile. Steep,
lee-side slipfaces are rare and thus avalanche
cross-strata are generally absent. Repeated
wetting and drying of the clay pellets can
disrupt primary sedimentary structures leaving
only vague bedding.
Nebkhas
Nebkha dunes are sometimes called shrub or

coppice dunes because they are formed around
clumps of vegetation, such as small bushes or
shrubs. Sand accumulates around the vegetation, and depending on the variability of the
wind, nebkha dunes may be elongated if there
is a single dominant wind, or rounded where
the winds are more variable. Nebkha dunes can
accumulate on interdune surfaces or on the
flanks of larger dunes. Structures in Nebkha
dunes have been described in Saudi Arabia by
Gunatilaka and Mwango (1987) and in Ice-land
by Mountney and Russell (2006, 2009).
zibar lower lee face are preserved. The lowangle inter-zibar deposits are overlain
tangentially by finer grained wind-ripple
laminae of the zibar lee face dipping at less
than 151. An unpublished GPR profile across a
zibar in the Sabkha Matti, Abu Dhabi, showed
low angle reflections parallel to the dune
surface, confirming the expectation that they
contain conformable low-angle strata. Similar
low-angle strata have been recorded in a
coarse-grained, elongate whaleback dune in
Antarctica (Bristow et al., 2010a).
Sand-Sheets
Sand-sheets are defined as areas of aeolian sand

where dunes with slipfaces are generally absent
(Kocurek and Nielsen, 1986). Sand-sheets are
widely distributed and commonly occur around
the margins of sand-seas. Sand-sheet surfaces
can be rippled or unrippled, and range from flat
to regularly undulatory or irregular. Common
bedforms include zibar, nebkha dunes, and
large granule ripples. Grain size is variable and
includes fine to very coarse sand, although mud
and gravel may be present. Sand-sheet deposits
are dominated by low-angle to sub-horizontal
lamination with wind ripple lamination. Thin
layers of coarse sand or granules and bioturbation are common. Mobile dunes with
slipfaces are gen-erally absent although isolated
barchan dunes may rarely
Zibar
Zibar dunes are coarse-grained, low-relief,

slipfaceless ridges that are widespread in desert
areas (Warren, 1971; Nielson and Kocurek,
1986). Nielson and Kocurek (1986) described
zibar deposits from the Algodones dune field.
Depending on the angle of climb they
recognized two characteristic types of strata
preserved by the migration of zibar. For low
angles of climb, a sequence of stacked
amalgamated inter-zibar deposits are preserved
that consist of low-angle wind-ripple laminae
of medium to coarse sand. Given higher angles
of climb, deposits of both the inter-zibar and
be present. Kocurek and Nielson (1986)

suggested that the development of sand sheets
is favored by: (1) a high water-table, (2) surface
cementation or binding, (3) periodic flood-ing,
(4) a significant coarse-grained sand
population, and (5) vegetation. The presence of
a high water-table may prevent deflation, and
encourage near-surface cementation. Periodic
flooding can cause erosion and introduce
coarser grained de-posits or layers of mud via
flash floods. Desiccation after flood events can
produce desiccation cracks in muds or mud
curls. Mud deposits can be subject to
reworking, breaking down to form mud pellets.
Scour surfaces and truncation are common
within the low-angle to sub-horizontal sand-
sheet strata. Sand-sheet deposits form extensive

sheet sandstones, com-monly truncating or
overlain by sets of aeolian dune strata.
Interdunes (Wet, Damp, Dry)
Modern interdune surfaces vary considerably

from polished bedrock surfaces, through gravel
plains to clay-rich soils, evaporate pans, or
swamps. They may be the areas of deflation or
sediment accumulation. In areas of deflation,
sand-sized sediments are eroded revealing
underling strata. Bedrock sur-faces can be
polished by saltating sand grains and dune
strata might be picked out by differential
erosion. As a consequence, interdune deposits
will also be very variable. In areas of deflation, interdune surfaces may be marked by a
sharp erosion surface or a lag of coarse grained
sand or gravel. Wet interdune deposits are
formed where the water-table rises above the
ground surface. They can include thin layers of
freshwater limestones, with fossils of
freshwater gastropods, plant impressions,
rhizoliths, and bioturbation. Wet interdune deposits commonly occur within Quaternary
desert-dune sys-tems due to the extreme and
rapid fluctuations of climate and consequent
changes in the water-table. Within warm
deserts the preservation of plant remains is rare
because the organic carbon is oxidized and
decays in succeeding hot, dry periods although

plant root-casts may be preserved by carbonate
or gypsum cements (Figure 1(j)). In cooler or
more humid cli-mates a high water-table may
help to preserve organic matter forming
interdune peat horizons. The preservation of
inter-dune peat is a feature of some coastal
dune systems that have accumulated during the
Holocene transgression (e.g., Clemmensen et
al., 2001).
Damp interdunes occur where the water-table is

close to the interdune surface. Damp interdune
sediments are generally composed of sands but
evaporation of water at/or close to the surface
can produce evaporate deposits. In addition,
around the margins of sand seas, flash floods
may invade sand dune sys-tems with resulting
erosion of some dune bedforms and de-position
of fluvial deposits. Flash flood deposits
generally have a sharp erosive base, possibly
with extra-formational pebble-grade clasts, or
reworked mudstones, overlain by plane-bed
laminated sands, capped by current ripple
lamination and mud drapes with desiccation
cracks. Where the water table is close to the
surface plants can colonize interdune surfaces
and the sediments may be subject to
bioturbation.
Dry interdunes occur well above the watertable. Some deep-rooted plants may be able to
establish themselves in these areas and
xerophytic species become temporarily

257
established after rainfall events. But in general, there is a lack of

vegetation and bioturbation within dry interdunes. Flash floods are
unlikely to penetrate far into dry interdune areas because of
infiltration of flood waters into the sandy interdune sediments.
Thus dry interdune areas will be characterized by the presence of
aeolian bedforms, wind ripples and granule ripples. As a
consequence, primary sedimentary structures such as wind-ripple
lamination or granule-ripple layers are more likely to be preserved.
Megadunes
Very large dunes, known as megadunes or draa, are almost always

compound or complex bedforms characterized by the development
of superimposed dunes. The strata include multiple superposition
and reactivation surfaces.
Complex Dunes
Complex dunes consist of two or more different types of dunes

that are superimposed or coalesced. These dunes are very common
in the major sand seas and the presence of different types of dunes
with different orientations has been used to suggest that they were
produced under different wind regimes (e.g., Kocurek et al., 1991;
or Chapter 11.12). In the Gran Desierto dune field, Mexico,
different dune types have been shown to have been generated at
different times (Beveridge et al., 2006). The use of GPR to image
the stratig-raphy within megadunes, combined with optical dating
to determine the time of sand deposition and burial it is now
possible to test the LGM relict-dune hypothesis. Large linear
Compound Dunes
Compound dunes consist of two or more of the same type of dunes

that are combined by overlapping or through super-imposition
(McKee, 1979). Compound dune forms are com-mon in most sand
seas and include small barchan dunes superimposed on larger
barchans, or small transverse dunes superimposed on larger
transverse dunes. It has been sug-gested that compound dunes are
a consequence of climate change, with larger dunes attributed to
the last glacial max-imum (LGM) when the desert areas were more
extensive, with increased sediment supply, and stronger winds able
to build bigger dunes. The smaller, superimposed dunes were
regarded as modern active dunes decorating the surface of the
larger, partially stabilized, subfossil dune ridges (e.g., Callot, 1998;
Glennie, 1970). However, recent research into the physics of dune
formation and especially the initiation of small dunes as a product
of the sediment transport saturation length (Claudin and Andreotti,
2006) indicates that superimposed dunes should be the norm rather
than the exception. In addition, GPR profiles across large linear
dune ridges 12 km wide and 80 m high with superimposed
transverse dunes in the Grand Erg Occidental show that the large
dune ridges are essentially piles of smaller superimposed dunes
(Figure 5) and lack a distinct unconformity between the dune core
and the superimposed dunes which would be expected in the relict
LGM dune hypothesis.
dunes in Namibia that were once thought to be LGM relics have

turned out to be Holocene in age (Bristow et al., 2007a). In this
example, the oldest part of the dune that is preserved has an age of
5000 years. On the west side of the dune there is a sharp
unconformity between the large linear dune and superimposed
dunes on the dune flank that are all less than 50 years old. On the
east side the dune continues to accrete and the dune decreases in
age from west to east, indicating lateral migration in that direction.
There is an absence of older (LGM) ages from this dune.
However, the absence of dune sand with an LGM age does not
mean that there were no dunes at that time, nor that dunes were
not active in Namibia at that time, merely that LGM dunes are not
preserved at this locality. It is highly likely that large dunes were
active during the LGM but they have since migrated, the sand has
been reworked and the LGM dunes are not preserved. The aeolian
dune-sand record is biased by dune preservation and does not
necessarily record the peak of dune activity, but more likely the
end of dune activity as dunes become stabilized (Stokes and Bray,
2005).
Computer Simulations of Dune Strata
Major advances in the simulation of sets of cross-strata produced

by the migration of dune bedforms have been made through
computer simulation models such as those developed by David
Rubin (Rubin, 1987; Rubin and Carter, 2006) where a computer
program uses modified sine curves to create surfaces that approximate the shape of dune bedforms. Adjustments to the
wavelength, height, sinuosity, steepness, asymmetry, phase, as
well as the addition of secondary, superimposed bedforms allow a
wide variety of bedforms and resulting strata to be simulated
(Rubin, 1987). Progressive displacement of the sine curves over a
series of increments simulates the migration of dune bedforms.
The rates of migration, as well as rates and cycles of deposition
can be adjusted to produce sets of simulated cross-stratification
produced by migrating dune bedforms. The Bedforms program
(Rubin, 1987; Rubin and Carter, 2006) produces block diagrams
that can be rotated to view cross-stratification in vertical section as
well as horizontal section. In addition, the program can plot rose
diagrams and dip-plots of cross-strata and bounding sur-faces. The
visual outputs of the models, dip-plots and the rose diagrams can
be compared with outcrop field sketches, photo-graphs, and

paleocurrent data to help reconstruct the dune bedforms that
produced the preserved sets of cross-strata ex-posed in ancient
aeolian sandstones. Examples of the model outputs together with
bedform animations and outcrop photo-graphs can be viewed on
the USGS website http://walrus.
wr.usgs.gov/seds/bedforms/animations.html.
Natural Variation
Models for dune structure produced by computer simulation are

based upon idealized dune morphologies and simplified migration
paths. In practice, recent studies (El belrhiti and Douady, 2011)
show that few dunes have the idealized form and most have some
perturbation. Even in an area such as the Moroccan Atlantic
Sahara, described as having some of the most stable wind
conditions on Earth (El belrhiti and Douady,

258
Distance (m)
Intercept BB
T
wt
(n
s)
(a
)
T
wt
(n
s)
100 m
0
2 80
0
1
0
0
4
0
6
0
1
0
B
A
B
5
0
100
150
Elevation
In
te
rc
e
pt
A
(
m
)
40
60
80
100
120
is
ta
n
c
e
(
m
)
Dune location
0
2
0
1
0
J
a
n
u
ar
y
2
0
1
1
G
P
R
pr
o
fil
e
5
0
Reactivation
s
ur
fa
c
e
1
0
0
Base of dune
Elevation
1
5
0
(
m
)
(b)
Figure 9 GPR profiles along and across a simple barchan dune in southern Morocco which has
been migrating from north to south and slightly toward the west. The northsouth profile shows
inclined reflections attributed to reactivation surfaces.
be highly variable, relating to changes in

weather, for example,
2011), barchan dunes have been observed to
reverse and change shape in response to
temporal changes in the wind regime. The
morphological changes in dunes are recorded
by the sedimentary structures within the dunes
imaged by GPR profiles (Figure 9). The
longitudinal profile aa (Figure 9) shows strata
dipping in the downwind direction with
multiple bounding surfaces formed during wind
reversals. The trans-verse profile bb shows
undulating bounding surfaces due to the
preservation of the horns, attributed to oblique
migration, as well as truncation of strata due to
the changes in dune morphology that are
attributed to a combination of effects including:
the presence of superimposed dunes, reshaping
of the dune during reversing winds, and oblique
winds. Thus even a simple barchan in an area
that is supposed to have some of the most
stable wind conditions on Earth shows complex
structure because the fluctuation of the wind is
suf-ficient to perturb the shape of the dunes.
These changes in dune morphology are
preserved as reactivation surfaces. In addition,
if the dune migration is not directly downwind
but veers slightly sideways then one of the
horns will be preserved beneath the dune.
changes in wind direction and velocity

associated with a passing weather front that
may occur over a period of a few hours or days
and form a reactivation surface. In some cases
they have been attributed to seasonal changes
in wind regime. Migration of superimposed
dunes may erode and scour out as much
sediment as they deposit, resulting in
superposition surfaces that represent tens or
hundreds of years. Interdune surfaces and
super-surfaces, which may result from orbital
forcing of climate that cause wider synoptic
changes in wind regime or hydrology with
consequent changes in the water table, may
represent changes over tens of thousands of
years. It is likely that the time represented by
bounding surfaces is at least equivalent to or
even greater than the time represented by the
preserved sediments.
Aeolian Stratigraphic Models
The Nature of the Aeolian Record
Multiple reactivation surfaces dipping

downwind and bounding downwind dipping
sets of cross-strata are a com-mon feature of
almost all dunes. As stated above, bounding
surfaces are erosion surfaces, and as such they
represent breaks in deposition and time gaps
showing that the aeolian record is incomplete.
The time represented by bounding surfaces will
Sequence Stratigraphy in Aeolian

Sediments
Within the stratigraphic record, many aeolian

successions are divided into a series of separate
aeolian sequences, each de-lineated by a
regionally extensive bounding surface (a socalled super surface), indicative of regional
and, in many cases, long-lived cessations of
aeolian activity. Thus many ae-olian
successions are characterized by multiple
episodes of aeolian dune-field construction and
accumulation but these were likely punctuated

by episodes when the dune fields be-came
inactive, were stabilized (e.g., by vegetation)
and, in some cases, were partially deflated
(eroded). The aeolian stratigraphic record is

therefore fragmentary, such that sig-nificant
episodes of time are represented by aeolian
bypass or

259
erosion. Indeed, for many aeolian successions, it is likely that the

preserved stratigraphic record represents only a minor fraction of
the total duration over which aeolian processes operated. Aeolian
system preservation into the long-term rock record should be
considered the exception rather than the norm. For this reason,
care must be taken in interpreting paleoenvironmental conditions
from the aeolian stratigraphic record because the preserved
deposits may not be represen-tative of the conditions that prevailed
over the entire time interval, or even the majority of time,
represented by the succession. The interpretation of the origin and
environmental significance of aeolian sequences and their
bounding super surfaces is undertaken through a sequence
stratigraphic an-alysis, the basis for which is outlined below.
Aeolian System Construction
Aeolian dune-field construction involves the initiation and growth

of aeolian bedforms, generally in response to a spatial, downwind
deceleration of an airflow that is fully laden with sediment with
respect to its potential carrying capacity. Airflow deceleration
results in a reduction in carrying capacity, thereby inducing
deposition and enabling the growth of aeolian bedforms. However,
the construction of aeolian dunes alone does not necessarily
generate an accumulation. Indeed, ae-olian dunes undergoing
construction and migration techni-cally constitute sediment bodies
that are in transport. These bedforms are constructed on an
accumulation surface that itself need not necessarily be rising
(accumulating) over time (Figure 10).
Aeolian System Accumulation
In dry aeolian systems, where the water table or its capillary fringe
does not interact with the sediment surface, dune con-struction
must typically progress to a point where intervening interdune

flats have been reduced to isolated depressions be-fore bedforms
will commence climbing over one another. This causes the
isolated interdune depressions that define the level of the
accumulation surface to rise over time (Kocurek and
Havholm, 1993). For dry aeolian systems, the gross-scale,

stratigraphic architecture of the resulting accumulation is dictated
partly by the size (downwind wavelength) of the bedforms and
partly by the ratio between the rate of bedform migration and the
rate of rise of the accumulation surface, which defines the angle of
bedform climb (Figure 11). Changes in any of these variables over
space or time will change the stratigraphic architecture of the
resultant accumulation.
In wet aeolian systems (e.g., Kocurek, 1981), where the water

table or its capillary fringe interacts with the sediment surface,
accumulation can occur in response to a rise in the relative level of
the water table over time, regardless of the proportion of the
accumulation surface covered by aeolian dunes. In such systems,
the wicking effect of moisture at the surface significantly
increases cohesive intergranular forces acting on surface
sediments, thereby preventing their en-trainment by the wind. The
relative rate of rise of the water table acts to control the rate of rise
of the accumulation sur-face. Aeolian accumulation associated
with a rise in water table level over time can occur through one of
two principal mechanisms (Figure 12). First, the rise in water table
level may be absolute, for example, in response to a climatic or a
hydrological change. Second, the rise in water table level may be
relative, for example, where the water table itself remains static
but the accumulating succession gradually subsides be-neath it.
Because wet aeolian systems can accumulate regard-less of the
extent to which constructed dunes cover the accumulation surface,
the resultant stratigraphic architecture differs from that of dry
aeolian systems, being characterized by elements of climbing dune
strata that are interleaved with elements of damp or wet interdune
strata, which in some cases can themselves make up the majority
of the preserved suc-cession (Figure 13). The main controls on the
architecture of accumulated, wet-aeolian successions are the size
(downwind wavelength) of the dunes and the adjoining interdunes,
and the ratio between the rate of bedform migration and the rate of
rise of the accumulation surface via relative water table rise,
which defines the angle of bedform climb (Fig-ure 13). Changes
in any of these variables over space or time
Site of
Downwind deceleration of airflow
sediment
supply
(clastic or carbonate)
Common sources:
Zone of aeolian
Zone of aeolian
Zone of aeolian
Zone of aeolian
Fluvial,
transport
dune field
dune field
dune field
coastal,
(Aeolian
construction
construction
accumulation
glacial ,
sandsheets)
(Extensive interdune flats)
(Isolated interdune
volcanigenic,
depressions)
older aeolian
Deflation
Bypass
Accumulation
Figure 10 The concept of dry aeolian system construction, in which aeolian bedforms grow and migrate over time but do not climb to
form an accumulation until interdune flats have been reduced to isolated depressions.

260
Dry interdunes reduced to

Grainflow strata generated
Bedforms commonly
exhibit along-crest
on bedform lee slope inclined
Isolated depressions
sinuosities that
at angle of repose
Angle of climb determined

between climbing
generate large-scale
by the ratio between the

and aggrading dunes
sets of trough
rate of bedform migration
cross-bedding
and the rate of aggradation
due to ongoing sedimentation
Reactivation surfaces
100
1.20 m
Dune
migration
common within aeolian
500
dune cross-bedded sets
significantly
beneath the
Climbing bedforms
accumulation
(a)
generate cross-
surface
stratified sets
Water table lies
Trough cross-bedding
200
with successive
generated by the migration
of a train of bedforms
crestline sinuosities
that are out-of-phase
50
Preservation of only thin
accumulations of near-flat
surface
lying wind-ripple strata
interdune depressions
Accumulation
representing the preserved
product of isolated dry
(b)
(c)
Figure 11 Stratigraphic architecture arising from aeolian system accumulation in a dry aeolian system. (a) Simple depositional
model for transverse bedforms with the typical range of scale indicated (in part courtesy of Oliver Wakefield); (b) example from
the Permian Cedar Mesa Sandstone, Utah; (c) example from the Jurassic Najavo Sandstone, Utah.
localized flow deceleration and accumulation associated with a

reduction in the sediment transport capacity of the wind. Many
will change the stratigraphic architecture of the resultant
accumulation.
In stabilizing aeolian systems (Kocurek and Havholm, 1993),

constructing bedforms are influenced by the action of a
stabilizing agent that enables accumulation by binding or cementing surface sediments, thereby preventing their entrainment by the wind. One common stabilizing agent is vegetation,
which acts as an obstacle to near-surface airflow, resulting in
plant species that are adapted to the colonization of sand dunes

develop extensive surface root mats and these act to bind the
substrate and trap sand, thereby promoting accumulation. Another common method of stabilization is via the development of
incipient cement to form a crust on sediment surfaces, for
example, due to gypsum precipitation, thereby promoting accumulation. Given suitable conditions, stabilizing aeolian systems can build significant accumulations by trapping and
binding wind-derived sediment, resulting in a progressive rise of
the accumulation surface (Figure 14). Examples of aeolian dune
261
Accumulation via an absolute rise in water table level
Migrating dunes
Accumulated
Accumulated
t1
damp interdune strata

dune strata
t2
Component of
absolute water
table rise
Water table
Accumulation surface
Former water table
New water table
(a)
Accumulation via a relative rise in water table level
Migrating dunes
Accumulated
Accumulated
t1
t2
damp interdune strata
dune strata
Component of
relative water
Water table
Accumulation surface
table rise
Component of
Water table is static
(b)
subsidence enables
in an absolute sense
accumulation
Figure 12 Schematic illustration of the concept of absolute and relative changes in water-table level and their role in enabling
accumulation in wet aeolian systems.
fields that have accumulated via stabilization affects include

modern dune fields in Iceland (Mountney and Russell, 2004, 2009)
and the Tertiary Tsondab Sandstone of Namibia (Kocurek et al.,
1999), a precursor to the modern Namib dune fields.
Aeolian System Bypass, Destruction, Deflation and

Super Surface Generation
The continued construction and accumulation of an aeolian

succession requires: (1) the maintenance of an upwind sedi-ment
supply; (2) the continued availability of that supply for aeolian
sediment transport to the site of deposition and accu-mulation; (3)
the maintenance of an airflow that is fully sat-urated with respect
to its potential sediment carrying capacity; and (4) the downwind
deceleration of that airflow over the site of accumulation such that
sedimentation remains ongoing (Kocurek, 1999; Kocurek and
Lancaster, 1999). Given these conditions, an aeolian system can
continue to accumulate and can potentially generate a thick
succession. However, these conditions cannot be maintained ad
infinitum and eventually an episode of aeolian system
accumulation must cease. For ex-ample, a cessation in
accumulation might occur in response to an exhaustion of an
upwind sand supply, resulting in a switch to an airflow that is
undersaturated with respect to its potential transport capacity and
which will therefore begin to cannibalize (deflate or erode) the
existing accumulation. A cessation of an episode of aeolian
accumulation is marked by the generation of a super surface a
major erosive bounding surface that caps and delineates an
individual sequence of aeolian accumulation
most examples of which are of regional extent.
Bypass super surfaces arise where aeolian dunes persist and

perhaps continue to migrate but do not climb or aggrade to form an
accumulation (Figure 15(a)). Conditions of dune bypassing due to

non-climbing migration that result in the generation of a bypass
super surface are unlikely to persist for
a protracted period of time since bypass requires a balance

whereby the sediment state of the system favors neither accumulation nor deflation. Short-lived, fluvial flood incursion into
a dune-field margin is one common mechanism that is known to
induce temporary aeolian sediment bypassing by disrupting the
availability of sediment for aeolian transport. Resultant flood
surfaces (Langford and Chan, 1988) are a type of bypass super
surface. Preserved features associated with sediment bypass
include thin paleosols, small rhizoliths (plant root traces),
desiccation cracks, and thin but sheet-like and laterally extensive
flood deposits (Figure 15(a)).
Deflation of an aeolian accumulation occurs where aeolian dunes

are eroded by an airflow that is undersaturated with respect to its
potential transport capacity (Figure 15(b)). As the deflation
continues, the level of the accumulation surface is progressively
lowered, potentially until the water table is reached, whereupon
further deflation is prevented (Stokes, 1968). Alternatively,
deflation may not progress to the level of the water table before
conditions once again become favorable for a renewed episode of
accumulation. Deflationary super surfaces may represent the end
product of regional episodes of dune-field deflation and some
examples are lat-erally extensive over thousands of square
kilometers (Loope, 1985). Typically, deflationary super surfaces
have no appre-ciable relief. Where deflation has been halted at the
level of the water table, resultant super surfaces commonly have
large desiccation cracks, salt polygons, rhizoliths, paleosols (e.g.,
calcisols), and other damp or wet surface features asso-ciated with
them. Where deflation did not proceed to the level of the water
table and the surface remained dry, evidence for deflation might
include a thin winnowed lag of coarser grains, in some cases
composed of a distinctive heavy mineral population, or by
fragments of fossil bone. In late Quaternary examples, such lags
might additionally include human arte-facts and they therefore
represent horizons of important archeological significance.

262
200
Dune number
175
Time step in model

Transport
150
Cover (1980)
Cover (1980)
metr
es
125
100
75
50
25
Cover (1980)
Cover (1980)
Cover (1980)
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450 1500
metres
dune strata with

constant
Wet aeolian system: damp or wet
thickness
Fixed dune size and angle of

inerdune flat elements climbing
Tramline
packages of
climb results in generation of sets of
dune and damp

or wet interdune
alongside aeolian dune elements
strata
Dune wave length (m)
(a)
100
Dune and interdune wavelength over time

300
W
a
v
Angle of bed form
climb overtime
l
e
16
n
g
t
h
(
m
)
I
n
t
e
r
d
u
n
e
w
a
v
e
l
Angle of climb (deg)
e
n
Time step
g
t
100
h
(
m
)
Angle of climb deg)
A
g
Aggradation rate
g
r
a
d
a
ti
o
n
l
e
v
e
l
Shown for dune number 3
(
m
)
20
(m/time step)
Time step
100
Aggradation level overtime
Mean aggradation level (m)
S
h
Local aggradation level (m)
o
w
n
Static model for an
accumulating wet
aeolian dune
r
d
system, showing
dune-interdune
morphology and
resultant
n
u
m
b
architecture based
on controlling
e
r
sedimentary
parameters that are
Time step
100
Time step
invariable over both

space and time.
Dunes and
adjacent interdunes
climb in response to
100
a progressive rise
in water table that

enables
accumulation.
Climb angle is
determined by the
ratio between the
Aggradation rate overtime
rates of migration
and aggradation.
Model output from
Dunemodeller
Local aggradation rate (m/time

stop)
200
175
bedform modeling
software.
Cover (1980)
150
metr
Cover (1980)
es
125
Cover (1980)
100
75
Cover (1980)
Transport
50
25
Cov
er
(198
0)
Cov
er
(198
0)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
120
0
125
0
130
0
135
metres
0
140
0
145
0
1500
Dune-field centre succession dominated by
Dune-field margin succession dominated
climbing aeolian dune elements interrupted
by climbing wet interdune elements that

partition climbing aeolian dune elements
by non-climbing episodes
Dune wavelength (m)
Dune and interdune wavelength overtime

300
100
Wavelength (m)
Interdune wavelength (m)
Angle of bedform
climb overtime
16
Aggradation
level (m)
20
0
Aggradation rate
(m/time step)
Time step
100
0
4
0
(b)
Time step
100
Aggradation level overtime
Mean aggradation level (m)

Local aggradation level (m)
Dynamic model for

an accumulating wet
aeolian dune system
showing duneinterdune
morphology and
resultant
sedimentary
architecture based
0
Time step
100
on controlling
parameters that are
variable over both
Time step
space and time.
100
size downwind and
Dunes reduce in
vary in size and
angle of climb
temporally. Wet
interdune units
expand and become
increasingly
interconnected
Aggradation rate overtime
towards the dunefield margin. Bypass

supersurfaces are
generated during
Local aggradation rate (m/time

step)
episodes when the

climb angle reduces
to zero.
Figure 13 Stratigraphic architectures arising from aeolian system accumulation in wet aeolian systems. (a)
Simple architecture in which dune and interdune size (downwind bedform spacing), and angle of climb itself a
function of the ratio between the rate of bedform migration and the rate of bedform accumulation remain
constant over both space and time. (b) Complex architecture arising from cyclical temporal changes in dune
and interdune size and angle of climb, and an accompanying spatial change in dune and interdune size from a
dune-field center to its margin. For ease of depiction angles of climb depicted are greater than those common
in nature. See Mountney (2012) for further explanation.

263
stabilizes dune crests
stabilizes interdunes
Near-surface
decreases (e.g. Marram and Iyme grass)
of salt crusts
(Roots reach to
wind speed,
Water
water table)
table
encouraging
in semi-arid climates
Wet interdune
root mats trap

sedimentation
(e.g. Gypsum)
Veget
ation
Pione
and bind sand
er
veget
ation
Clima
Stabilization of dune
pond where
x
veget
ation
to stabilize dunes
locally
water table
flanks by precipitation
meets accumulation surface
Caliche nodules preferentially developed

Primary sedimentary structures in aeolian sand
Rhizoliths preferentially preserved
in shallow subsurface in semi-arid climatic
dune deposits destroyed due to churning by
at key stratigraphic horizons
settings (weak soil profile development)
organisms or pedoturbation (plant root disturbance )
(stabilization supersurfaces)
1m
Figure 14 Stratigraphic architecture arising from aeolian system accumulation in a stabilizing aeolian system, with photo examples
from the SkeiXararsandur dune field, southern Iceland.
Stabilized dune fields with inactive dunes are characterized by

stabilization super surfaces (Figure 15(c)), which commonly
preserve relic dune topography (cf., Talbot, 1985). Multiple
episodes of dune-field construction, accumulation, and stabilization can lead to the generation of complex stratigraphic sequences, whereby stabilized relic topography acts to control local
geomorphic accommodation space by encouraging later episodes
of accumulation to preferentially infill topographic interdune
depressions left by older, stabilized sequences. Qua-ternary
examples include parts of the Sahara (Kocurek et al., 1991;
Swezey, 2001; Swezey et al., 1999), whereas part of the Permian

Cedar Mesa Sandstone represents an example from the ancient
geologic record (Langford et al., 2008).
Aeolian System Preservation
Given that episodes of aeolian accumulation are typically followed

by episodes of deflation, long-term preservation of an aeolian
succession and its incorporation into the geologic record requires
that an accumulation be placed beneath the level to which
deflation can progress. This can be achieved in one of two
principal ways. First, where an accumulation is placed beneath the
water table either via subsidence through a static water table or
via an absolute rise in water table level it becomes protected
from deflation. Second, where accumulation occurs within a
subsiding basin in which ac-commodation space is available to be
filled, the accumulation
Sandstone of the Southern North Sea was preserved (with partly

denuded, relic dune-topography) following rapid transgression by
the Zechstein Sea (Figure 16(a)). This caused aeolian dune
sediments to be partly reworked and homogenized before being
overlain by marine shale and carbonate deposits (Glennie and
Buller, 1983). Marine flooding was also responsible for the
preservation of part of the Jurassic Entrada Sandstone in New
Mexico (Benan and Kocurek, 2000). Another mechanism for
exceptional pre-servation of aeolian successions is via rapid burial
of actively accumulating dune-fields by lava flows and the intact
preser-vation of relic dune forms (Figure 16(b)), as occurred in the
Cretaceous Etjo Formation of Namibia (Jerram et al., 2000) and
the Botucatu Formation of Brazil (Scherer, 2002).
can be placed beneath a so-called baseline of erosion (Kocurek

and Havholm, 1993).
Dynamic Models for the Generation of Aeolian

Successions
Additionally, aeolian successions can be preserved through
exceptional mechanisms (Figure 16). Inundation of entire dune
fields by marine incursion is known to have been the mechanism
for preservation through a sudden change in environment (Eschner
and Kocurek, 1986). For example, part of the Permian Leman
The numerous controlling parameters that govern aeolian system

construction, accumulation, deflation, super surface development,
and sequence preservation are variable over both

264
t1
Bypass super
surface model
t2
t3
(b)
Stabilization super surface model

t1
(a)
t2
Deflationary super
surface model
t3
Dunes and interdunes climb to

accumulate a succession of crossbedded sets and inclined bounding
surfaces
Deflation to the level of the water

table; surface colonized by
plants, which generate abundant
Dunes and
root structures
interdunes climb to
accumulate a
succession of
cross-bedded sets
and inclined
bounding surfaces
Generation of subsequent aeolian
dune accumulations and their
Interruption of dune
accumulation, for
example in
response to fluvial
partial
preservation following repeated
episodes of deflation; deflationary
incursion along
super surfaces bound aeolian
interdune corridors;
sequences
dunes remain active

but angle of climb
temporarily reduced
to zero leading to
bypass
Dunes and interdunes climb to
accumulate a succession of crossbedded sets and inclined bounding
Generation of
surfaces
subsequent aeolian
dune accumulations
and their
preservation
following repeated
Stabilization of the aeolian
episodes of fluvial
accumulation;
incursion; bypass
colonized by plants,
surface
supersurfaces
bound aeolian
sequences
which generate abundant root

structures; bedform topography
largely retained
Generation of
following repeated episodes of
subsequent aeolian
stabilization; stabilization
dune accumulations
supersurfaces bound aeolian
and their
sequences (Relic bedform
preservation
topography preserved)
(c)
Figure 15 Models for the generation and preserved expression of super surfaces arising from a
termination of episodes of aeolian accumulation. (a) Model for bypass super surface generation.
(b) Model for deflationary super surface generation. (c) Model for stabilization super surface
generation.

265
Model for the exceptional preservation of an aeolian dune field system due to marine inundation due to a relative sea-level rise.
t1
t2
Water
Dune topography
Former aeolian
Initial marine
Later marine
Marine limestone
partly eroded
sandstone reworked
deposits drape relic
deposits compensate
Marine shale
during marine
by mass transport
topography; thinner
for any remaining
transgression;
flows; accumulation
on bedform crests
topography to
Reworked aeolian
relic bedforms
in interdunes as
and thicker in
generate a low-
Aeolian dune
preserved
homogenized deposits
interdune depressions
relief sea bed
(a)
Emplacement of successive
Availability of sediment for aeolian
basalt flows repeatedly raises the
transport diminishes as the upwind
base level; pauses between flows
sand supply is progressively
enable dunes to become
covered by flood basalts; preserved
temporarily re-established.
dunes diminish in size up-succession.
Model for the exceptional preservation of

an aeolian dune field system through
progressive shutdown due to repeated
inundation by flood basalt flows. Dune
bedform morphologies are largely
preserved intact.
(b)
Three simple transverse dune forms.

Isolated barchan dune form.
Preserved transverse compound draa.
Figure 16 Models for the preservation of aeolian system accumulations through exceptional circumstances. (a) Inundation of an
aeolian dune field in response to marine incursion; (b) inundation of an aeolian dune field by flood basalts, with photo examples from
the Cretaceous Etjo Formation, Namibia.
space and time. As a consequence, the possible configurations of

stratigraphic architectures that can result from the operation of
these controls are many and it is not feasible to propose a single
summary model to account for aeolian stratigraphic complexity. A
better approach is to propose a stratigraphic model of dynamic
sequence generation in which a variety of outcomes can be
presented to illustrate some of the commonly occurring
architectures resulting from systems that are charac-terized by a
variety of spatial and/or temporal variability.
Models that describe the three-dimensional, stratigraphic

complexity inherent in successions that represent the accu-mulated
deposits of aeolian systems are important for understanding the
evolution of aeolian dune fields (ergs) over both space and time
(Mountney, 2006, 2012). Such models should ideally convey
stratigraphic architecture in four dif-ferent ways. First, they should
account for stratigraphic com-plexity arising from spatial changes
in aeolian system type, for example, by demonstrating the stratal
expression associated

266
with a transition from an extra-dune-field

sandsheet, to an outer-erg margin, to an erg
center (cf., Porter, 1986). Second, models
should account for stratigraphic complexity
arising from temporal changes in aeolian
system type, for example, by demonstrating the
stratal expression arising from temporal
changes in water table level and its effect on
dune and inter-dune type and migratory
behavior. Third, models should ac-count for
stratigraphic complexity over a range of
different scales, from the large, dune-field
scale, to the scale of an in-dividual dune or
interdune element. Fourth, models should
account for stratigraphic complexity arising
from aeolian sys-tem interaction with
neighboring, nonaeolian environments.
Conclusion
Aeolian stratigraphic models are important for

better under-standing the paleoenvironmental
significance of preserved ancient successions
of aeolian strata. The models enable predictions to be made regarding regional
paleogeography, paleoclimate (e.g., relative
aridity and prevailing wind dir-ection), and
sediment system state (e.g., sediment supply,
its availability for transport, and the potential
sand carrying capacity of the wind). From an
applied perspective, aeolian stratigraphic
models enable predictions to be made
regarding the heterogeneity of aeolian
successions, which is important for assessing
likely porosity and permeability distributions
in subsurface successions that might form
potential reservoirs for resources such as oil,
gas, and water, or which might be suitable
repositories for underground carbon
sequestration.
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268
Biographical Sketch
Professor Charlie Bristow is an Assistant Dean and Head of Department at the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Birkbeck College University of London. He
has a B.Sc. in Geology from the University of Sheffield and a Ph.D. in the Sedimentology of braided rivers: ancient and modern from the University of Leeds. He has
over twenty years experience in conducting GPR surveys in a wide range of environments including, the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh and the Niobrara River in
Nebraska. He has surveyed sand dunes in the deserts of America, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica as well as beach ridges in Australia, New Zealand, and the UK and
published extensively on the subject including editing a book on GPR in Sediments with Harry Jol.
Dr Nigel Mountney is Director of the Fluvial & Eolian Research Group at the School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, UK. He has a BSc in Geology and
Geography from the University of Nottingham, MSc in Computing in Earth Sciences from Keele University, and PhD in Tectonics and Sedimentation from the
University of Birmingham. He has more than 15 years of experience in the sedimentology and stratigraphy, aeolian and fluvial systems and their preserved successions,
and has worked extensively in Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, and North America. He has published on a variety of topics in sedimentology and stratigraphy and is
coauthor of the textbook Sedimentary Structures.

Bristow Montney 2013 Aeolian11

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11.13 Aeolian Stratigraphy

C Bristow, University of London, London, UK

NP Mountney, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 11

Author's personal copy

Aeolian strata include wind ripple lamination, airfall lamin-ation,

Wind Ripple Lamination

grains on their crests and this is re-flected within wind ripple

the lee-side of the ripple form is preserved. However, with a high

Grains transported in suspension are generally fine grained like

Author's personal copy

mixture of sand grains in air where interaction be-tween the

can be very thin, in some places less than 1 mm in thickness. The

When a pile of sand reaches a critical angle known as the angle of

(Figure 2). The avalanche is also known as a grainflow (or

Author's personal copy

Figure 2 Avalanche sequence, frame grab from digital video at

Aeolian Plane-Bed Lamination

Aeolian plane-bed lamination is sub-horizontally laminated sand

Adhesion ripples are low relief, sub-horizontal structures, a few

common source of cohesion in aeolian sands is the presence of

Physically Deformed Strata

In addition to the primary sedimentary structures formed at the

Aeolian Deflation Lags

The primary sedimentary structures described so far involve

Chemically Deformed Strata

The growth of evaporate minerals within aeolian sands on inland

Author's personal copy

depositional laminae. Most of the evaporite minerals are

ous with small folds (Figure 1(i)).

11.13.1.10 Bioturbation in Aeolian Strata

Loose, unconsolidated sand readily deforms under the pres-

sure of a foot and can retain a footprint. Modern dunes are

Soil formation involves a range of physical, chemical, and

Simpson and Strezeleki deserts of Australia, the dunes are largely

environments, especially beetles, and lizards, but also birds, as

In dune sands, a bounding surface is an erosion surface within or

Reactivation surfaces are formed when a sand dune is re-shaped

Author's personal copy

Superposition surfaces are formed where one dune migrates over

larger dune bedforms (called megadunes or draa) within the Grand

changes in the wind regime are regular or seasonal then the

Interdune surfaces are formed by the migration of dunes and

Author's personal copy

super surfaces may be correlated into adjacent

table which formed a downward limit to

to the destructive use of trenches (e.g., Bristow,

Super surfaces are generated when aeolian

Barchan dunes are crescentic dunes with a

by a 5 cm-thick veneer of laminae dipping in

161. In the other horn the strata dipped at 81.

Sedimentary Models for Dunes, Interdune, National Monument (McKee, 1966)

and Sandsheet Strata

Our knowledge of the internal structure of sand

of complexity with sets of cross-strata dipping

Author's personal copy

Sands National Monument revealed strata that are similar to those

Figure 6 3-DGPR image of superposition surfaces from a

observed localized scour and fill structures attributed to shifting