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    Modern Power Station Practice

    Transféré par

    Marco Carrieri
    modern power station

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Téléchargez comme PDF ou lisez en ligne sur Scribd
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    MODERN POWER STATION PRACTICE Third Edition Incorporating Modern Power System Practice British Electricity International, London Volume A Station Planning and Design ® PERGAMON PRESS Member of Maxwell Macmillan Pergamon Publishing Corporation OXFORD - NEW YORK - BEIJING - FRANKFURT ‘SAO PAULO - SYDNEY - TOKYO - TORONTO UK usa PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC ‘OF CHINA FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY eRAZIL AUSTRALIA JAPAN CANADA Pergamon Press ple, Headington Hill Hall, (Oxlord OX3 OBW, England Porgamon Press, ine., Maxwell Houte, Fairview Park, Elmsford, New York 10623, U.S.A. Pergamon Press, Room 4037, Olanmen Hotel, Bejing, People's Repubiic of China Pergarmon Press GmbH, Hammerweg 6 6202 Kronberg, Federal Repubic of Germany Pergamon Editora Ltda, Rus Es de Queiros, 348, CEP 04011, Pereizo, S80 Paulo, Brat! Pergamon Press (Australi) Pry Ltd, P.O. Box 544, Potts Point, NSW. 201%, Australia Pergamon Press, Sth Floor, Matsuoia Central Building, 1-7-1 Nishishinjuku, Shinjuia-ku, Tekye 180, Jazan Pargamon Press Canads Ltd, Suite No. 271, 253 College Strest, Toronto, Ontarie, Canada MST 195 Copyright © 1991 British Electricity Internationa! Lec All Rights Reserved. No pert of this publication may be ‘reproduced, stored in 2 retrieval system oF transmitted in any form of by any means: electronic, electrostatic, ‘magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or ‘thenwise, without permission in writing rom the copy- right holder First edition 1963 ‘Second edition 1971 ‘Third edition 1892 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Date Modern power station practice: incorporating modarn ower system practice/Brtish Electicity Internetion: Sed ed. p. om includes index. 1. Electric powerplants. |. British Electricity Intor national TRIISTMdS 1390 2.3921 — e290 90-43748, British Library Cataloguing in Publication Date Briish Electricity Internation. Modern power station practice ~Srd, ed. 1, Blectne power-plants, Design ard construction L. Tile. I.” Cencrat Electricity Generating Board éar3i21 ISBN 0-08-040511-8 (Volume A} ISBN 0.08-040510-X (Set) Printed in the Republic of Singapore by Singapore National Printers Lid MODERN POWER STATION PRACTICE Third Edition {in 12 volumes) Incorporating Modern Power System Practice Main Editorial Panel D. J. Littler, BSc, PhD, ARCS, CPhys, FinstP, CEng, FIEE (Chairman) Professor E. J. Davies, DSc, PhD, CEng, FIEE H. E. Johnson F. Kirkby, BSc, CEng, MIMechE, AMIEE P. B. Myerscough, CEng, FiMechE, FINucE. W. Wright, MSc, ARCST, CEng, FIEE, FiMechE, Finst€, FBIM Volume Advisory Editors P. C. Martin, BSc, DMS, CEng, MIMechE {Chapters 1 and 2) |. W. Hannah, BSc(Tech), CEng, FICE, HonFRIBA (Chapter 3) Authors Chapters 1 and 2 M. J. Brindle, BTech, CEng, MIMechE |. Cresswell, BSc, CEng, MIMechE J.C, Greenslade, BSc, CEng, MIMechE ‘A. R. Jones, BEng(Mech}(hons}, MIMechE K. Jones P.C. Martin, BSc, DMS, CEng, MiMechE A. R. Smith, BSc, CEng, MIMeché Stagg, BEngthons) Chapter 3 4. D. Blackhall, BSothons), CEng, MICE P. D. Davis, MSc, MICE P.M. Emberson, BA, DipLD, ALI E. J. Forsey, CEng, MiMechE R. Hawkridge, HNC(Civils) M.F.F. Hynes, BSc, CEng, MICE J. Irving, BSc, CEng, FICE D. J. Mallard, MSc, MICE, FGS P. A. Moulding, CEng, MICE R. A. Pope, BSc, CEng, MICE ©. H. Trent, DRTC, CEng, MICE R.A. Vevers, CEng, MICE Series Production Managing Ecitor P.M, Reynolds Production Editor H. E. Johnson Resources and TA. Dolling Co-ordination J. R. Jackson Contents CoLour PLATES ~ ForeworD PREFACE ConTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES Chapter 1 Power station siting and site layout Chapter 2 Station design and layout Chapter 3 Civil engineering and building works INDEX vi vii xi 59 178 305 2 6. Fis. Fos. Fis. Fis. Re. Fe. 2.8 Fic. Re. Fee. Feo. Fis, Frc, Fee. Fic, Fe. Fe. gee 7 BR 19 Lu a 1s 119 1.20 1.33 2 22 23 24 25 26 27 2d Fis, 2.26 267 2.80 3 32 33 34 36 3.30 3.5 3.60 371 Colour Plates (between pp 66 and 67) Satelite imagery of thermal discharges from power stations ‘Transport of heavy or abnormal Toads Ash disposal site Cooling towers at Drax power station ‘Hidden power: Dinorwig pumped storage power station ‘View of Drex power station nesting completion Didcot coal-fired station landscape Drax 6 x 660 MW coal-fired station Littlebrook D 3 % 660 MW oilfired station Kingsnorth 4 x $00 MW dual-fited station Oldbury 2 x 313 MW magnox station Heysham 2.2 x 660 MW AGR station Ffestiniog 4 x 9 MW pumped storage station Kielder 1 x 5.5 MW hydro station Cowes 2 x 70 MW gas-turbine station Leicester 2 x 70 MW gas-turbine station Wind turbines at Carmarthen Bay site ‘Turbine island concept ‘View of pumphouse and intake screens — Littlebrook D Bucket wheel stocking-out reclaiming machine (between pp 242 and 243) Light cable tool boring rig Large rotary drilling rig Detail of rotary drilling Rotary core drilling of an upwartly-inclined borehole in an existing dan Interior of electric static cone penetrometer truck showing data processing equipment Reclaim hopper under construction West Thurrock coal-fired station Lower stressing gallery for AGR pressure vessei Precipicators Foreword G. A, W. Blackman, CBE, FEng Chairman, Central Electricity Generating Board and Chairman, British Electricity International Ltd Fok OVER THIRTY YEARS, since its formation in 1958, the Central Electricity Generating Bourd (CEGB) has been at the forefront of technological advances in the design, construction. operation, and maintenance of power plant and transmission systems. During this time capacity increased almost fivefold, involving the introduction of thermal and nuclear generating units of 500 MW and 660 MW, to supply one of the largest integrated power systems in the world. In fulfilling its statutory responsibility to ensure continuity of a safe and economic supply of electricity, the CEGB built up a powerful engineering and scientific capability, and accumulated a wealth of experience in the operation and maintenance of power plant and systems. With the privatisation of the CEGB this experience and capability is being carried forward by its four successor companies — National Power, PowerGen, Nuclear Electric and National Grid. ‘At the heart of the CEGB’s success has been an awareness of the need to sustain and improve the skills and knowledge of its engineering and technical staff. This was achieved through formal and on-job training, aided by a series of textbooks covering the theory and practice for the whole range of technology to be found on « modern power station. A second edition of the series, known as Modern Power Station Practice, was produced in the early 1970s, and it was sold throughout the world to provide electricity undert engineers aad students with an account of the CEGB's practices aad hard-won experience. ‘The edition had substantial worldwide sales and achieved recognition as the authoritative reference work on power generation. ‘A completely revised and enlarged (third) edition has now been produced which updates the relevant information in the ealier edition together with a comprehensive account of the solutions to the many engineering and environmental challenges encountered, and which puts on record the achievements of the CEGB during its lifetime as one of the world’s leading public electricity utilities. In producing this third edition, the opportunity has been taken to restructure the information in the original eight volumes to provide a more logical and detailed exposition of the technical content. The series has also been extended to include three new volumes on. ‘Station Commissioning’, ‘EHV Transmission’ and ‘System Operation’, Each of the eleven subject volumes had an Advisory Editor for the technical validation of the many contributions by individual authors, all of whom are recognised as authorities in their particular field of technology. ‘All subject volumes carry their own index and a twelfth volume provides @ consolidated index for the series overall. Particular attention has been paid to the production of draft material, with text refined through a number of technical and language editorial stages and complemented by a large number of high quality illustrations. The result is a high standard of presentation designed to appeal to a wide international readership. It is with much pleasure therefore that I introduce this new series, which has been attributed to British Electricity International on behalf of the CEGB and its successor companies. i have been closely associeted with its production and have no doubt that it will be invaluable to engineers worldwide who are engaged in the design, construction, ‘commissioning, operation and maintenance of modern power stations and systems. on Aint Preface Chapters 1 and 2 ‘The planning and design development of new power station proposals at first sight appears straightforward, but experience has shown that such a process can involve complex interaction between not only the various engineering disciplines which contribute to the process but also environmental, planning, economical, political and social pressures. In this third edition, the opportunity has been taken to restructure the information and CEGB experience to provide a logical review of the investigations and engineering design activities which are required to underwrite power station development. ‘The Engineering studies are outlined in some detail together with examples showing how such activities need to be brought together to fully define the project parameters, Engincers by nature and iraining prefer to make decisions on factual information but in reality judgement is often required. A sound basis for exercising this need is not only experience bbut also knowledge, and the revised text attempts to illustrate how the progressive and interactive nature of investigations allows for project evolution from initial conception through {0 commitment to consiruct The implications of the more intangible ‘non-engincering’ factors are reviewed and their potential influence on the development process discussed in general terms, but for any particular proposal these aspects will have varying degrees of relevance. It will be the responsibility of the development manager in his own particular circumstances to judge the influence of these factors and the implications they may have for the cost and programme of his project. There is always so much that is of relevance in preparing a text that the engineers responsible for this chapter have trad to be responsible for choosing those aspects which they consider most important. If the material they have chosen is found to be of benefit to the reader and helps to pass on the experience and ‘know how’ of the CEGB engineers working in this field, then the authors will no doubt draw some satisfaction from their efforts. PC. Magny Advisory Editor — Chapters 1 and 2 Preface Chapter 3 Civil engineering anc building in. the power industry may initially be seen, in simplistic terms, as the provision of weatherproof containment over the mechanical and electrical plant and the necessary foundations to support it, In this edition of Modern Power Station Practice my contributors and I have tried to illustrate that this truism leaves much unsaid. The civil engineer and the architect are main contributors in every sense throughout the design and construction on any new power station, From the earliest planning and site selection studies through to the final landscaping both these disciplines together with the support of colleagues in estimating, finance and quantity surveying, are fully involved. Indeed the start of a project presents the civil engineer with perhaps his greatest challenge. Unavoidably he is unable to proceed with his design work until the weights and loads of the plant and their locations are known with some certainty. This late start must then be compensated by design and conteact to allow the construction phase to go ahead. ‘Under these circumstances the civil engineer must accept the soil conditions as found, since. the proximity of cooling water, fuel supplies and transmission connections are likely to ‘outweigh the poorest ground strata in the overall planning considerations. Setting up his own ‘factory’ on the site and providing good access and working facilities for the mechanical and electrical contractors presents its own unique set of problems for the civil engineer. Doing so with a labour force that is mainly recruited locally, or itinerant, and assembled specifically for the project, requices considerable man management skills The timely and successful completion of the civil works isthe key factor without which no power station project can mect its overall criteria of quality, programme and cost. These seemingly supplementary items to the boiler and turbine plant — the roads, drains, culverts, cooling towers, chimneys, building and structures are likely to represent at least 25% of the total cost of a fossil-fired or nuclear station and up to 66% of a hydro or pumped storage station. Beyond cost, the potential for cumulative delay is massively enhanced if the civil ‘engineering and building works run late and hence delay the erection of the largely factory- produced mechanical and electrical plant. Equally the final stage on site — the landscaping — has its own importance. Hard and soft landscape treatments are essential in leaving a completed station which reflects credit, on its designers and builders, inspires pride and dedication in its operators and shows the public and planning authorities that the promises made at the outset have been fully kept. T hope that this civil engineering chapter of the Station Planning and Design volume is able to convey to the reader a litte of the technical skills, imagination, excitement, perseverance and devotion that are always present in any successful civil engineering and architectural team working on a power station project. If it also conveys any sense of the innate satisfaction and fun that so often helps motivate that team, our purpose will have been well served. LW. Hawwant Advisory Editor — Chapter 3 Contents of All Volumes Volume A — Station Planning and Design Power station siting and site layout Station design and layout Civil engineering and building works Volume B — Boilers and Ancillary Plant Furnace design, gas side characteristics and combustion equipment Boiler unit — thermal and pressure parts design Ancillary plant and fittings Dust extraction, draught systems and flue gas desulphurisation Volume C — Turbines, Generators and Associated Plant The steam turbine ‘Turbine plant systems Feedwater heating systems Condensers, pumps and cooling water systems Hydraulic turbines The generator Volume D — Ebectrical Systems and Equipment Electrical system design Electrical system analysis ‘Transformers Generator main connections ‘Switchgear and control gear Cabling Motors Telecommunications Emergency supply equipment Mechanical plant electrical services Protection Synchronising Volume E — Chemistry and Metallurgy Chemistry Fuel and oi! Corrosion: feed and boiler water Water treatment plant and cooling water systems Plant cleaning and inspection Metallurgy Introduction to metallurgy Materials behaviour Non-ferrous metals and alloys Non-metallic materials Materials selection Contents of All Volumes Welding processes Nondestructive testing Defect analysis and life assessment Environmental effects ‘Volume F — Control and Instrumentation Introduction ‘Automatic control ‘Automation, protection interlocks and manual comtrols Boiler and turbine instrumentation and actuators Electrical instruments and metering Central control rooms Ondine computer systems Control and instrumentation system considerations. Volume G — Station Operation and Maintenance Introduction Power plant operation Performance and operation of generators The planning and management of work Power plant maintenance Safety Station thermal efficiency ‘Volume H — Station Commissioning Introduction Principles of commissioning ‘Common equipment and station plant commissioning Boiler pre-steam to set commissioning ‘Turbine-generatorifeedheating systems pre-steam to set commissioning Unit commissioning and post-commissioning activities Volume J — Nuclear Power Generation Nuclear physics and basic technology ‘Nuclear power station design Nuclear power station operation Nuclear safety ‘Volume K — EHV Transmission Transmission planning and development ‘Transmission network design ‘Overhead line design Cable design ‘Switching station design and equipment Transformer and reactor design Reactive compensation plant HVDC transmission plant design Insulation co-ordination and surge protection Interference Power system protection and automatic switching Telecommunications for power system management ‘Transmission operation and maintenance Contents of All Volumes. ‘Volume L — System Operation System operation in England and Wales Operational planning — demand and generation Operational planning — power system Operational procedures — philosophy, principles and outline contents Control in real time System control structure, supporting services and staffing ‘Volume M — Index ‘Complete contents of all volumes ‘Cumulative index xl CHAPTER 1 Power station siting and site layout 1. Planning for new power stations 1.1 introduetion 42. Capecity con 15 System planning studies 18 Authority to bulld @ new power station 2. Site selection and investigation 24. Basie site requicems 22. Area of search for initial sie selection 23. Detailed site invastigation 23.3. Preliminary station layout 23.2 Land requirements 233 Gooling water 23.4 Trensmission 235 Geolosy 236 ‘Site and station levels, 12. Ash and dust disposal 3.10 Fiue gas desulphurisation byproducts 2311 Detailed favestgations related to nuclear safery 24) Environmental considerations 24.1. Ecological eHtects 24.2 Amenity considerations 243 Sociceconomie effects, 24.4 Communication with local people 245 _Assesemont of environment affects 25° Site selection 9 Site layout — thermal power stations 34. General 32 Foundations 2 23.8 Weter supplies for make-up and domestic purposes 23, 2 23. Ske and station levels 3.4 Main buildings and oriencation 35 Ancifery buildings as coess and on-site roads 37. Stator operation constserations 38 Cooling water systom 3.8.1 Direct cooled sysiem 382 Closed cooling tower water system 38° Fuel supplies and storage 38.1 Coal plant 3.82 Fuel oll plant 310 Ash and dust disposal 3.11 Flue gas desulphurisation plant materials 3.12 Transmission requirements 3.13. Construction requirements 3:44 Amenity considerations 315 Typical site layouts 4 Pumped storage 41 fntroduetion 42 Suttabie topology 43. Ground conditions 44 Site capacity 45. Systom one transmission requirements 48 Hydraulic system requirements 47 Heavy load access 48 Avaitablity of construction labour 43. Environmental impact, 5 Gas turbines 5.1. Introduction 5.2 The role of gas turbines 52.1 Auxiliary power generation 8.22 Peak load generation 1 Planning for new power stations 1.1 Introduction The construction of a major new power station takes typically about five to six years from the decision to build the station to the commissioning of the first unit, ‘The CEGB's annual plans therefore include the pro- vision for specific new generating stations that are planned for commissioning in the period seven to aine ‘years ahead of need (referred to as the planning years). Before it can embark on the ordering of a new power station the CEGB must have received the Secretary of State's consent required under Section 2 of the Electric Lighting Act 1909. together with any related consent and licences, and must separately have received finan- ial sanction from the Government. ‘The CEGB has to evaluate the need for power stations in the light of its statutory duties. It considers whether there is a need for new capacity in order to maintain an adequate security of supply, or to give greater economy, or to improve the security of fuel supply by allowing the types ard sources of fucl or primary energy to be diversified. In addition, it may be justifiable to build a new form of generating capacity in order to develop the ground for a possible future benefit 1.2 Capacity considerations Capacity requirement is determined by the need to meet the peak demand of the year. The first step in estimating generating capacity requirement is therefore 1 Power station siting and site layout Chapter 4 to forecast the peak demand for each future winter up to the planning years. The forecast presumes that the peak is most likely to occur on working weekdays in December to February during a spell ot cold weather of average severity and is thus described as the average cold spell (ACS) winter peak demand. ACS conditions are determined by a statistical analysis of past weather data and the variation in demand caused by weather variations. Each year the Electricity Supply Industry prepares new estimates of the unrestricted ACS winter peak demand, the corresponding values of restricted peak demand after allowing for the expected reduction in peak demand by load management, and the total number of units of electricity (unit requirements) to be produced by the CEGB or purchased from external suppliers. The unit requirement therefore equals the sum of the CEGB sales of electricity to Area Boards and to its direct consumers and the transmission losses on the CEGB system. After consideration of the various forecasts, recom- mendations are made to the Electricity Council as to estimates of demand and unit requirement up to the planning years. The Electricity Council then formally adopts these forecasts, together with provisional esti- mates for the subsequent two years, on behalf of the Electricity Supply Industry in England and Wales. In order to meet the statutory requirement to pro- vide a continuous supply of electricity except in cases ‘of emergency, the industry has over many years aimed to provide sufficient generating capacity to meet the future demand with a high degree of security. Since itis impracticable to ensure 100% security of supply there will, on occasions, be insufficient generating capacity to meet demand even after the application of load management. In such circumstances, the first action would be to reduce the voltage and/or frequency within permissible statutory limits. This has the effect of reducing the magnitude of demands which are sensitive to voltage or frequency while maintaining continuity of supply to all consumers. In this way the overall demand can be reduced by up to 7.5%, but if the remaining demand still exceeds the generation available. then some consumers must be disconnected. It is the CEGB’s function to ensure that sufficient generating capacity is provided to meet the generation standard and it achieves this by planning @ rescrve margin of generating capacity called the planning ‘margin. This is defined as — the percentage margin of additional generating plant planned to be in service in the planning years over and above that needed to meet the peak demand. ‘The CEGB and Electricity Council make estimates of the expected average availability and of the expected magnitude of variabilities of availability and forecast demand. A simple statistical calculation then gives the size of planning margin that meets, or approximately meets, the security standard. 2 1.3. Economic considerations The provision of new capacity to meet the forecast demand is not the only reason which might justify the construction of new generating plant. New construction ‘might also be justified on economic grounds and might allow the retirement of some existing capacity, In principle, a plants retained in service until it becomes ‘more economic to replace it with new capacity. Evalua- tions are made for certain economic indicators for cxisting stations and for the potential new stations that might be built: © For existing stations, the anmual avoidable cost is evaluated on a year-by-year basis of retaining certain stations or parts of stations in an operable condition This cost is calied the net avoidable cost (NAC) expressed in units of /kWpa © For new generating station options for commis- sioning by the planning years, the CEGB calculates ‘the net effect on total system costs of building and operating the station over its lifetime and converts this into an average annual cost, in units of £/kWpa, called the net affective cost (NEC). ‘These indicators allow two economic comparisons to be ‘made. Firstly, the comparison of NEC for alternative new generating plant allows, for given assumptions of input parameter values, the indication of the most economic option, namely the one with the lowest NEC Secondly, for that option, it is possible to test whether it is economic to instal! the new plant and decommi sion existing capacity. ‘When making an economic appraisal of alternative ‘new generating station options, itis necessary to assess the probable cost of installing and runing each station and its impact on other system operating costs, and to censure that there is likely to be sufficient fuel available at an acceptable price throughout its expected operat- ing life. Some generating plant options may have a relatively short construction time and have the poten- tial of being economic after a short period of gener- ation. However, the plaaner must consider all options, including ones with a construction lead-time of five to six years and operating life of up to 40 years, Hence the planner needs to take a view of electricity demand, fuel availability and fuel price many years ahead Figure 1.1 shows @ possible future plant mix as envisaged by CEGB in 1985, 1.4 Future requirement predictions The interrelationship between estimates of economic activity. fuel prices, energy supply and demand, elect city demand and the implications for electricity supply have been more fully examined through the develop- ‘ment of economic scenarios (j,e., imagined sequence of future events) Planning for new power stations carsriom oF Bg 2 ‘assume nucLean evEonMeNT se aay ay Fic. 1.1 Possible @xure CEGB plant nix The scenarios set cut @ spectrum of possible future developments which can be used in a variety of plan- ning studies. More specifically: © They form a valuable aid to the judgement of the range of plausible outcomes that should be allowed for in planning, especially with regard to the furure extent and composition of economic activity, energy supply and demand, energy conservation, fuel prices and availabilities, and electricity demand. ‘# The relative economic merits of alternative generat- ing plant types for each scenario are evaluated. ‘* The implications for economic operation and sccur- ity of fuel supplies of alternative generating plant development options within each scenario are con- sidered, ‘The scenario approach does not require the CEGB Xo estimate specific probabilities of occurrence of the alternative scenarios, but provides a background against which planning judgements can be made for a highly uncertain future, However, each scenario is considered with care when it has been fully developed and is judged whether or not it still appears to be plausible and with a significant prospect of occurrence in real life. Provided the scenarios individually pass this test, the CEGB aims ideally to ptan so as to be able to respond to any one of these plausible outcomes. In practice, some reasonable latitude would be accept- able; for example, in the case of a scenario entailing rapid growth of electricity demand, it might be prac- tically necessary to accept a moderately lower standard of security of supply for some interim period before generating capacity could be fully adjusted to the requirement. However, it is planned to avoid a really serious failure to achieve a secure and economic supply for any plausibie scenario. ‘The scenarios allow the CEGB to examine the risks attached to alternative generating plant options which arise, in particular, from variations in future electricity demand or fuel prices. In addition, the analysis of risk covers uncertainties which attach to the alternative 3 Power station siting and site layout Chapter 1 ‘options, especially with regard to capital cost, perform- ance factors, lifetime and construction time. The wider strategic aspects are also considered, of which two are worth particular mention, namely the security of fuel supplies and making provision for future investment options. Figure 1.2 shows the effect of particular scenarios on the estimation of system demand up to the end of the century, using 1979/80 as the base year. In order to assess the economic merits of different types of generating plant it is necessary to make estimates of capital cost, construction period, station efficiency, lifetime and availability in service, all of which are relevant to the overall value of the plant. The construction period and the incidence of expenditure over that period are important in relation to the total capital investment and the time when a return may be expected on that investment; the lifetime and avail- ability (together with the estimated fuel and running costs) determine what that cetumn will be. Endeavours are made to ensure that, as far as possible, these estimates are central ones (i.e., those which are as likely to be high as they are to be low) and the sensi- tivity of the results of the economic appraisals to changes either way in the estimated values is examined. ‘As the economic appraisal must represent the per- formance of a new station over its lifetime, it must take account of the other generating plant which may be on the system over that period. It is therefore necessary to make assumptions about the types of generating plant which might be installed in the future and their cost and availability. For this purpose it has been assumed that ‘the values of capital cost, construction period, lifetime and availability for later stations would be the same as for the stations being appraised unless there is justifica- tion for doing otherwise. a ay N, soganio 4 wie chown Nan 1.8 System planning studies Early planning work begins with the examination of system load flows and the identification of future gen- eration and transmission needs. This process shoves regional requirements and notional locations of gener- ation sites. One important factor which is taken into account is a CEGB policy to develop existing sites wherever possible, if this satisfies the system require= ments. By developing such sites to their full capacity, as determined by any technical and environmental limits, advantage can be taken of existing facilities, such as transmission outlet, improved local roads and minimi- sing the amount of new works. ‘At an early stage the type and size of power station are selected. An initial technical appraisal, capital cost and construction programme can be produced for each site. At the completion of this review, a list of alternative generation sites will have been compiled and they can be ranked in preferred order for develop ment. Detailed siting studies can then be carried out — as described in Section 2 of this chapter, 1.6 Authority to buiid a new power station Station design and siting studies are carried out, to the point where an application is made for Government consent 10 develop 4 site. This procedure, a statutory obligation, is a request to the Secretary of State, under the provision of Section 2 of the 1909 Electric Lighting Act, to build a power station, In addition to Section 2 Consent, the CEGB requires planning permission under the Town and Country Planning Act of 1971. Part of this Act empowers the Sceretary of State to direct that planning permission Fio, 1.2 fects of scensrios on demand Site selection and investigation is granted at the same time as Section 2 Consent However, the Secretary of State may attach conditions, as he thinks appropriate, in regard to the planning sanction, the CEGB proceeds with the design and con- struction of the project. Figure 1.3 shows the typical timescale for power station planning and carly con- struction. ‘An important part of the investigation programme is consultation with Ministerial and Local Authorities and other statutory bodies such as Water Authorities. As part of the procedure for ensuring that all parties are fully aware of agreements which have been negotiated and which must be observed during the station design and construction period, a document called ‘Station Development Particulars’ is issued, which records all discussions and agreements with parties and also con- tains @ schedule of statutory consents which must be obtained, ‘The Station Devetopment Particulars also contain a technical section dealing with the transmission connec- tions and parameters of the main plant, particularly the generator transformer, so that they are properly matched to the transmission system. The details cover matters such as power factor, synchronous impedance, frequency regulation, the dynamic response of the unit to change in load demand and guidelines on the elec- trical auxiliary system to ensure that this is a reliable network 2. Site selection and investigation 2.1. Basic site requirements A power station is simply a factory for the conversion of the energy stored in the fuel into electrical energy. The basic requirements for a power station are, there- fore, similar to those of any other factory A supply of raw material at a competitive cost (fuel). @ Access to the markets for its products (transmis. sion) © A labour force of the size and quality required. © Means of disposal for any trade effluent or by- product. * Land for construction and operation. ‘The raw material from which electricity is made in s thermal power station can be coal, oil, uranium or ‘natural gas. Electricity, the main product, has its own ‘access to centres of consumption through the transmis- sion and distribution system. By-products are ash or irradiated uranium fuel elements and the economic disposal of the former is often a major consideration. The trade effluents are the large quantities of heat, the disposal of which generally requires very large quanti- ties of water which, for cost reasons, must be available close to the site. The products of combustion, in the ar Meee wxgiheere (eee SRR Ba NSU See ata Fic. 1.3 ‘Typical timescale for power station planning Power station siting and site layout form of large volumes of flue gases, must also be dispersed without contravening the national clean air policy or causing atmospheric pollution. ‘The main techaical requirements of sites for nuclear and coal-fired stations of the size being considered currently are summarised in Table 1.1. Chapter 1 2.2 Area of search for initial site selection In densely-developed countries like England and Wales, suitable power station sites are difficult to find. Many of the best sites have already been used for one Taste Lt Technleat ste requirements NUCLEAR STATION (1200) PARAMETER CCOAL-FIRED STATION 20044) Foci oeivery congmie moans of delivery {ew volume and intent {pte Sratton tonnes oe" year Stes sam sume (8) ower coon UpteSimas absvaces UsteSinte abstracted ost Fémviseveperated Shei O7Smilgovaoorares 12) Constuction materiats 1B) Abnormal oats Land (Greet cooles inctucingcorstucton ara stnainewding conerston area bitexcluang PP ash csposa ares eon Groune sbi to support neawy loads our anetos leads ™ \ithvisuaty mo arent oslemert eas, ralo sea acomta a deer 0 Benutontonars, moan Set 3 years Roatorseaaccersio delve absut60 fea, ral or son aceast odin up'o Erion omnes moet fest yeare ond or sen access to aelver about 50 ‘arvarceleees eptge nada nach lensing tcl or Selah Read ie pane Nuiaer ig Satictoty remote tom popuaion SS ronal ournect aerate crraiy nin reguremeni, Feces Dotvorotanouta.amiion ‘anes ber yee olimestore ‘Digpossietanous 2 iin ‘anes peryeerotyssam este disposal Means otszasingafup omen ear retreat fr wanggont of asks {area peryeurotaah ‘Starelatea fl abou" ons pe vee) Trarsmisson Suter connoctione 2 parton ‘sitatn er connection 9 poten Iegid able oacoept outa estan Pegnd wee acs cuipe ct saton whaticent cea Site selection and investigation purpose or another and more and more of the undevel- ‘oped areas are being conserved. In fact some 12% is built on, while over 40% is given statutory protection; ‘on the coast, the respective figures art 25% and 60% (sce Fig 1.4), Nevertheless the CEGB must be able to ar ettng a mga on ne C208 0 SSices arate Aa w'rag hosyees mcs oe fn wich meats warned regan Suits peceee, or amare sore sons a, Aros ef aang Nat [eaayrand hon tonca cera Mo eeuty anon any pay overcome By rong een St [El] Asse eaneete meet the need for new stations as foreseen by its estimates of future demand, The considerable length of time’ that is required to plan and construct a station and the regular revision of future demand estimates means that it is wise for the fo, 13 Protected land apd major eomurbations as at 1984 Power station siting and site layout Chapter 1 CEGB to maintain a ‘pool’ of potential sites from which suitable candidates can be chosen a8 necessary. This pool is made up of the following three types of sit ‘© Existing power station sites capable of further development, © Pieces of land already purchased by the CEGB for future development. * Pieces of land not owned by the CEGB, but that have been identified as potential sites. ‘The identification and investigation of potential sites is usually divided into two phases: area of search and detailed investigation. Although the Supergrid allows the transfer of large amounts of electricity from one part of the country to another, its capacity to do so is limited by both technical and economic constraints. Therefore, when the need for new generation is foreseen, transmission considerations combined with other factors, such as fuel sources, usually indicate in which part of the country it would be best to locate the station. The type of station required (nuclear, coal or oil) is dictated by such factors as the relative costs, the desired overail balance between fuels, and environmental considera- tions. Having identified the need for new generation in a certain region, a large area, perhaps covering several hundred square kilometres, is studied to find out its potential. Any known sites are also reviewed. Govern ment Departments arc invited to draw attention to any places of special concern to them. Bodies such as The Countryside Commission and the Nature Conservancy Council, who have responsibility for preserving areas of natural beauty or of scientific value, are also notified and discussions are held with officers of the Local Planning Authority. Information is gathered and analysed on technical matters such as water resources, geology, population distribution, road and rail system; as well as on environmental aspects such as areas of scientific interest or of outstanding natural beauty, historic features and recreational areas. Much of this informa- tion can be obtained from ordnance and geological survey maps, local and county plans, aetial photo- graphs, Admiralty charts and other published material. ‘These studies may take upwards of a year before a shortlist of sites thought worthy of detailed investiga- tion can be prepared. 2.3. Detailed site investigation Prospective sites may be ideatified through the area of search work or because changes in land-use give new opportunities, ¢... the closure of defence installations, Before detailed site investigations are started, the bodies previously consulted arc notified, the owners 8 and occupiers are approached, and announcements are made in national and local newspapers. It can take over two years to carry out the necessary detailed studies to prove the viability and determine the ‘optimum capacity of each of the alternative sites being considered. During this period consultations take place with the authorities concemed with planning, environ- mental protection, transport, water supply, flood pro- tection, fisheries, safety and other relevant subjects. A careful study is made of the technical and amenity aspects of power station siting, The main topics covered for @ typical nuclear power station site are shown on Fig 1.5. The major aspects of the studies are described as follows, 2.3.1. Preliminary station layout In order to assess the suitability of a particular site for the type of power station being considered, it is necessary t0 establish the initial basic station design. ‘This includes the disposition of the major plant or {groups of plant in the main station buildings, leading up to the determination of the shape and size of the build- ings and then the grouping of the various individual buildings, and external plant items to produce a co- ‘ordinated station design which achieves the lowest capital cost, ease of construction and efficient oper- ation and maintenance of the power station The preliminary station layout enables the on-site geological work to proceed and assessments to be carried out on the proposed site level, disposition of construction contractors’ plant and storage areas and environmental aspects. The station layout would be developed during the study period to take the fullest possible advantage of the available site area and of the recommendations of the architectural and landscape consultants. ‘The principles used in the development of the station layout are described in Chapter 2 of this Volume. 23.2 Land requirements Sufficient land will be required not only for the station when it is in operation, but also to provide adequate arcas during the construction period. The area occupied by an 1800 MW tower cooled, coal-fired station may be up to £00 ha (exciuding ash disposal arcas). The station buildings will take only a portion of the site. The remainder depends on the needs of the coal store and railway sidings. ‘A 1200 MW nuclear power station will require 16-20 ha for operational purposes ‘A considerable area will be required during the construction of both coal-fired and nuclear power stations. Typically 28-34 ha would be required to provide adequate working and storage arcas for the contractors and for the construction car and bus parks. In addition, storage space will be required for topsoil removed during excavations (the area required would depend on the particular site) and for excavated materiel required for backfill ‘Most of the temporary construction areas for a coal- fired station could probably be accommodated on the ‘coal store area, although some extra land may also be required. Extra land would be required temporarily for nuclear stations. Therefore a suitable site for a coal- fired station would require about 100 ha and for a nuclear station about 60 ha. Some further off-site land may also be required to provide areas for planting or landscaping (0 screen the station. Site selection and investig Figure 1.6 shows the typical land requirements for a pressurised water reactor (PWR) station location next to an existing nuclear station 2.3.3 Cooling water ‘The total cooling water (CW) requited depends on the ultimate station capacity planned. Typically for a coal- fired station a 900 MW turbine requires a main CW flow rate of about 24 ms. For a PWR station a (600 MW turbine requires about 23 ms. Allowing for Fic, 15 Typiesl site investigation programme for a nuclear power station ion siting and site layout Chapter 1 -RESLAMED AREA SRONTING TEMPO WORKS AREAS ectamen area enokeing new Staion St Ni Stavew ane cures Seana Cunensnar Groecanng arinaleustéa Gunarh sSgesstmounouaoUT SERVING Rew 00 EXETHO STATIONS ‘Ste orcas Penwonwese 28 Sar “ewwonann cowrmae tee Aeese Consra aru Tose ProreeTED fe Sie nocten By SonstPUcron oan eae 18 tancsoapaa sus sron nga 1 hate nesenve ahca tonew SUSETATION 18 WGomuana To we mrensareS 30 Basie wstean orion —— cnr cece onmensiae pounce PROPOSED NEW BOUNDARY BEER ite eee LSE OSS ALVAETCnNeD ToRGRICU UNA USE fie. 1.6 Typical land requirements for a PWR station next to an existing auslear station other cooling water requirements this means that an 1800 MW coal-fired station would require about 52 mvs and a 1200 MW PWR station about 50 m/s. As the cooling water flows through the condenser tubes, its temperature is raised and this could typically vary between 8°C and 12°C. This warmed water mast then be cooled using cooling towers or, in the case of direct cooied stations, by discharge to the water source and be dispersed in such a manner as t minimise its recirculation back into the cooling water intake with attendant loss of steam cycle efficiency. The use of cooling towers requires that 2 suitabie make-up water supply b¢ identified which would typi- cally amount to 2% to 3% of the total cooling water flow. Whilst the actual flow would be influenced by the 10 site-specific water quality aspects, it is usual for about ‘wo-thirds of this abstraction to be retuned to the water source as purge to maintain the concentration factor ‘within the cooling system. This water would be about WC warmer than the ambient water temperature. If such a water supply is to be obtained from a river, then studies are required to identify minimum Hows and the consequences of the water abstraction and return on the environmental well-being of the river system. In the UK, water authorities often hold long term records of water flows and details of licensed abs:ractions. A seasonally variable ‘minimam pre scribed flow” is often applied to rivers, which prohibits abstractions if the actual river flow falls to the specified level Site selection and investigation ‘The preferred location for a power station from the cooling water viewpoint, is near a large tiver, estuary or sea coast to obtain the large volume flows at lowest temperatures. One of the key problems facing the cooling water system designer is therefore to provide the optimum location and separation between the cooling water intake point and the outfall. Another important requirement is to design a system which has the minimum effect on marine ecology. In this con- nection it is necessary to ensure that warm water is adequately dispersed to avoid harmful effects on marine life. The acquisition of information on currents and water temperatures over a large area is necessary for these cooling water studies. With a direct cooled system abstracting from and Gischarging to the sea or estuary, the eventual loss of heat to the atmosphere is 2 lengthy process, and in the intervening period the dispersion of warm water dis- charged from a station outfall can be identified in a number of separate stages. The first, or near-field stage, is represented by the immediate mixing of newly discharged warmed water into the ambient sea Alter a brief transitory period, a second or midfield stage is represented by a buoyant plume of warm water lifting towards the surface and spreading outwards at a rate determined by gravity currents, momentum effects and the action of the tidal stream. A midfield plume can eventually reach several hundred metres in width and can extend in length for 1 km to 2 km in the direction of the tidal stream (see Fig 1.7). The normal practice is to minimise recirculation by physical separation of the intake and outfall structures. Civil tunnelling costs may limit the degree of protection that can be afforded by this practice, but additional protection can be sought by designing the intake structure to minimise drawdown from an overhead plume, to ensure maximum possibie depth of water over the period of coverage, and to minimise the period of coverage, CEGB surveys have identified a third stage in the heat dispersion process at a number of sites. During periods of calm weather conditions it has been observed that sequential flood and ebb movements of the midfield plume alongshore over a period of several Fic. 17 Midielé plume surface contours stout 30 minutes before low water slack at Sizewell Ww Power station siting and site layout Chapter 1 days can develop a far larger pool of warm water; Fig 1.8 shows this condition at Sizewell on the Suffolk ‘coast. It can be seen that the spatial spread extended full tidal excursion alongshore and several kilometres offshore. This far field plume is also moved alongshore by the reversing tidal stream and an amount of secon- dary recirculation cannot be avoided, in the example shown, as the cost of separating the intake and dutfall structures exceeds the recirculation penalty. It has been found that a far field phume is quickly dissipated with increasing wind strengths. Tt is important that survey operations should be conducted over a long period to ensure that the eventual design of the cooling water offshore works is founded upon a data base that sufficiently represents the variable meteorological and tidal current conditions local to the site. Tt is equally important that the survey period should include the calmer and warmer condi- tions of the summer months when the natural and artificial thermal fields are most likely to reach a combined maximum temperature. Some hydrographical information will be avaitable for proposed sites near to an existing power station. However, the increase in size of new developments, the need to place the new offshore works in correct juxta- position to existing structures, and the need to ensure that eventual combined discharges will not adversely affect local ecology, will still require additional survey operations. zai ean Fic. 18 2 A survey will comprise an array of moored instru- mentation to record continuous data of flow patterns and water temperature changes throughout the survey period, and a number of individual operations gen- erally limited in time to a single tidal excursion, The ‘moored array can include current meters, tide gauges and thermistor stringers which, together with an on- shore aotomatic meteorological station, provide an overall record of data to improve understanding of the results from individual survey operations. These indivi- dual operations can include float tracking, infra red photography from helicopters or satellites, dye release, thermal plume profiling, and temperatureicurrent salinity profiling. Alongside these activities, which are mainly designed to assist in evaluating thermal plume behaviour, the survey will contain the necessary echo sounding, side scan sonar, seismic work, seabed sediment sampling and wave recording to supply the information required by civil engineers for designing the station structures. The data is also used for asses- sing the movement of materials on the sea bed and beach under the influence of winds and tides. ‘Thermal images of offshore coastal waters or estuaries can be obtained using infrared cameras on satellites Contours of temperature may be marked by different grey tones for cach temperature band step on black and white image presentations, Alternatively, a colour sliced image may be obtained, as shown in Fig 1.9, by the choice of individual colours for each contour. ware ie Summer far Geld at end of flood tide Site selection and investigation DUNGENESS Fis, 19. Saclte imagery of thermal discharges trom power stations {see alse colour photograph between pp 66 and pp 67) Power station siting and site layout Chapter 1 Improvements in survey operations and measuring ‘equipments have been paralleled by development of mathematical modelling techniques. Experience how- ‘ever has clearly demonstrated the complex problems involved in both modelling the separate temperature fields that make up the thermal structure of a body of water, and of estimating the relative contributions of these temperature fields at different sites and under

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