Bird use of agricultural fields at Lake Apopka, Florida,

with recommendations for the management

of migratory shorebirds and other species

Prepared by

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Bill Pranty and Gianfi-anco D. Basili ,. - .,..

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Florida Audubon Society

1331 Palmetto Avenue
Winter Park. Florida 32789

22 September 1998

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This report has been prepared

for all stakeholders in the Lake Apopka restoration effort:

St. Johns River Water Management District

Zellwood Drainage and Water Control District
Florida Audubon Society and its 46 localchapters
Friends of Lake Apopka
Florida Ornithological Society
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission
National Fish and Wildlife Foundation
Canadian Fish and Wildlife Service
Ducks Unlimited
Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve Network
and
Residents of the communities surrounding Lake Apopka

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................
History of birding at the Zellwood farms ..................................................................
2

RESULTS ..........................................................................................................................3
3
Species diversity ........................................................................................................
Species abundance .....................................................................................................4

DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................5
General overview of shorebird life history ...............................................................5
Farming practices at Zellwood ...................................................................................5
Consequences of long-term deep-flooding ................................................................6
Bird use of agricultural landscapes ............................................................................
7
The importance of the Zellwood farms for migratory shorebirds..............................9
. .
Pesticide use at Zellwood ...........................................................................................
9

Nature-based tourism and recreation at Zellwood ...................................................10

MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................11

11
Acreage ....................................................................................................................
12
Depth, timing, and duration of flooding ..................................................................

SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................
13
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................14
LITERATURE CITED ..................................................................................................15
APPENDIX A: Bird list for the

ellw wood' f m s .............................................................18

APPENDIX B: Annotated list of aquatic birds observed at the Zellwood farms............20

INTRODUCTION
Within the past 50 years, much of Florida's coastal and estuarine habitats have
been altered or destroyed for human uses, and farmland along the north shore of Lake
Apopka-the Zellwood farm-has become an important foraging site for thousands of
migratory shorebirds. Since the early 1960s, 38 species of shorebirds have been reported
from the farms (Table I), which ranks Zellwood as the third most diverse shorebird site in
Florida. Overall, at least 222 species of birds have occurred at Zellwood (Appendix A),
including 14 listed as Endangered, Threatened, or Species of Special Concern (Wood
1996). Most of the birds present in the area use habitats created by agricultural practices.
Large-scale farming of the Lake Apopka north shore began in the early 1940s.
Farming practices included the flooding of fallow fields for weed and pest control. Excess
water, which contained large amounts of phosphorus, was then pumped back into Lake
Apopka. These drawdowns created mudflats and shallow-water foraging habitats that
attracted large numbers of shorebirds, wading birds, and other aquatic species. By the
mid-1960s, however, there was growing concern for pollution in the lake. Nevertheless,
little action was taken until 1985. The Lake Apopka Restoration Act of 1985 provided
hnding and strategies to improve water quality. In 1988, 5000 acres of farmland were
acquired by the St. Johns River Water Management District (District) for $15 million to
build a marsh flow-way to remove phosphates and suspended sediments from lake water.
The Lake Apopka Restoration Act of 1996 provided $20 million to acquire additional
farmland along the lake's north shore, and another $26 million was provided by the
Federal Government. An additional $45 million was appropriated by the Florida
Legislature in 1997. With this $91 million, the District has purchased over 13,000
additional acres of farmland.
In March 1998, the District convened a workshop in Winter Garden to present to
the public, for the first time, their long-term plan to restore water quality in Lake Apopka.
It was learned that during an initial five- or six-year period, the farms would be flooded
with one to three feet of water. Following this, the levee that separates the farm fields
from Lake Apopka would be breached, and the fields would be flooded to lake level.
Because of soil subsidence resulting from years of farming, the fields are lower than the
lake level. Therefore, once the lake levee is breached, the fields will be covered with four
feet or more of water.
Birders, ornithologists, and wildlife managers became concerned that the
District's plan did not address the impacts to birds using the farm fields. After deep-water
flooding, the thousands of shorebirds, wading birds, and other aquatic species will lose
critical foraging, breeding, and roosting habitats.
In May 1998, the District issued a brief report (Conrow [1998]) to address the loss
of shorebird habitats at Zellwood. The report, which concluded against shorebird
management, was done with limited information and contained an important error: the
shorebirds at Zellwood repeatedly were called "wintering" birds. In fact, the vast majority
of the shorebirds at Zellwood are migrants that pass through the area in late summer and
fall on their way to wintering grounds in Central and South America. The Zellwood farms
are a migration stopover site, and understanding this has important conservation
implications, locally, regionally, and internationally.

Because we feel that Conrow's [I9981 report did not adequately address the issue
of shorebird management of the Zellwood farming area, we have prepared this report to
better inform those involved in the Lake Apopka restoration effort. We hope the
information presented here will guide future restoration action. Specifically, we report on
the use of shallow-flooded agricultural fields by resident wading birds and waterfowl,
migratory waterfowl and other aquatic species, and especially by migratory shorebirds.
We provide basic life history information of all aquatic species that use the farms, and
summarize their local status. Lastly, we recommend methods for maintaining some of the
shorebird foraging habitats at the Zellwood farming area following purchase of the farms
by the District.

History of birding at the Zellwood farms

Although the farms and farms roads are privately owned, they have been open to
birders as a courtesy for over 30 years. The hundreds of birding trips to the farms since
the early 1960s are responsible for the wealth of knowledge we have about the birds of
the area.
The first bird observations from the Zellwood farms were made in the early
1960s, with more reports through the 1970s. Following inclusion of the farms in every
edition of A Birder's Guide to Florida (Lane 1981,1984, and 1989, and Pranty 1996), the
area annually has received a large volume of birders, mostly from midJuly to midSeptember. Many Audubon societies and other birding groups, from central Florida and
beyond, annually schedule one or more trips to the farms in late summer and fall to
search for local "specialties" such as Fulvous Whistling-Ducks, Black-necked Stilts,
Upland, Pectoral, Stilt, and Buff-breasted sandpipers, Wilson's Phalaropes, and Black
Terns. With so many experienced birders visiting the farms regularly, it is inevitable that
very rare birds are found from time to time. When this occurs, many dozens to a few
hundred birders from around the state can be expected to visit Zellwood. Some birders
also visit the farms in spring and winter to observe species not present in fall. Additional
winter observations have been made by participants of the Mount Dora Christmas Bird
Count, which includes the Zellwood farming area.
We have compiled a list of the birds known to have occurred at Zellwood, based
on our own records, and those of other birders we contacted. These lists concentrate on
wading birds, shorebirds, and other aquatic species observed in the flooded farm fields,
but include all other species observed in dry fields, sod farms, and wooded habitats
within the farming area. Our database of bird reports from Zellwood exceeds 2200
records, mostly from late summer through mid-fall. We summarize these records for
aquatic species in Appendix B.

RESULTS
Species diversity
The total number of shorebird species observed at Zellwood-38, including one
exotic (Table 1)-truly is amazing, especially considering that Zellwood is an inland site,
and that the shorebird diversity is an unintentional artifact of farming practices. We
compared the number of shorebirds from other well-known sites in Florida, all of them
coastal. Based on the number of shorebird species, only Everglades National Park, with
41 species (Loughlin et al. 1990) and Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge, with 39
species ( M m [undated]), have recorded more shorebirds than Zellwood. The number
of shorebirds recorded at other sites in Florida are: Dry Tortugas National Park, 36
species (Robertson 1986); St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge, 33 species (USFWS
1991); Honeymoon Island State Recreation Area, 33 species (DEP 1998); Fort DeSoto
County Park, 33 species (Biggs 1993); St. George Island State Park, 29 species (DNR
1984); Cedar Keys National Wildlife Refuge, 27 species (USFWS 1993); and J.N.
"Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge, 24 species (JNDDWSI 1993).
Table 1. Status and habitat preferences of all shorebirds that occur at Zellwood.
Our abundance categories, which apply predominantly to fall migration, are defined as follows: very rare species occur
less than every year. All other categories denote annual occurrence, and abundance is measured by thc number of
individuals expected to occur in a day: rare (1-4), uncommon (5-59, fairly common (10-19), common (20-99), and
abundant (100 and up). Predominant foraging habitats of shorebirds at Zellwood are indicated for all but the very rare
species. We define shallow water as two inches or less (Rundle and Fredrickson 198 1).

SPECIES

I ABUNDANCE AT ZELLWOOD I HABITAT PREFERENCE AT ZELLWOOD I

uncommon to fairly common

very rare; 4 reports
very rare; 1 report

dry grassy fields, sod farm

Baird's Sandpiper
Pectoral Sandniner

3 reoorts
7
verv
rare:
.~,
.~
.,-.
-r
I
I grassy fields, mudflats, shallow water
common to abundant
verv
II
. -., rare: I
- renort
- r - - uncertain, very rare to uncommon I shallow water, mudflats
very rare; 4 reports
shallow water, mudflats
common to abundant
dry grassy fields, sod farm
uncommon to fairly common
very rare; 8 reports
common to abundant
shallow water, mudflats
shallow water, mudflats
rare to fairly common
rare to uncommon
I shallow water, mudflats, shallow marshes
uncommon to common
I shallow water, mudflats
very rare: 2 reports
I
-

Dunlin
Curlew Sandpiper
Stilt Sandpiper
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Ruff
Short-billed Dowitcher
Long-billed Dowitcher
I Common S n i ~ c
I Wilson's Phalarope
I Red-necked Phalarove

I
I
I

I
I
I
1

Overall, 224 birds have been reported from the Zellwood farms, comprising 215
native species, seven exotic (i.e., non-native) species, one hybrid or exotic species, and
one color morph (Appendix A). Five of the exotic species are established locally, and two
others represent individuals that escaped or were released from captivity. Of the native
species, two are Endangered, four are Threatened, and eight are Species of Special
Concern (Wood 1996) (Table 2). The Whooping Crane, from an experimental population
released in Osceola County, also is listed as a Species of Special Concern (Wood 1996).

Table 2. Listed species found at the Zellwood farms.

SPECIES
Brown Pelican
Little Blue Heron
Tricolored Heron
White Ibis
Roseate Spoonbill
Wood Stork
Bald Eagle
Peregrine Falcon
Limpkin
Whooping Crane
P i ~ i n gPlover
Least Tern
Black Skimmer
Burrowing Owl

CATEGORY (Wood 1996)

Special Concern
Special Concern
Special Concern
Special Concern
Special Concern
Endangered
Threatened
Endangered
Special Concern
S~ecialConcern
Threatened
Threatened
I Special Concern
I Svecial Concern

FORAGING HABITAT(S)

shallow water. mudflats, shallow marshes

I open water

I shallow water, mudflats, shallow marshes

I shallow water. mudflats, shallow marshes. fields

I shallow water
I
I shallow water. mudflats. shallow marshes

I usuallv open water

I mostlv oven areas: aerial hunter

I shallow water. shallow marshes

I shallow water. shallow marshes. fields
I mudflats. shallow water
I shallow water

I
I
I
I
I
I
I

[ shallow water
I oastures. fields. other drv owen areas

Species abundance
In the past 30+ years, there have been many hundreds of birding trips to the
Zellwood farms, mostly from late summer to mid-fall. Unfortunately, few observers kept
lists of the species they observed, and far fewer made detailed counts of the numbers of
individuals. Ironically, it is the abundance of birds at Zellwood+ften in the thousandsthat makes it difficult to count them. We therefore are unable to present extensive
abundance data based on actual counts, or to present an accurate range of seasonal
occurrence for species based on trip lists. We do, however, present such data when they
were available to us. Information on the abundance and seasonal occurrence of all aquatic

birds found at Zellwood is found in Appendix B. We caution that the few detailed trip
lists available to us has limited the accuracy of the information in Appendix B.
Especially, both the high counts and the range of dates we have assigned to each species
likely are understated.
DISCUSSION

General overview of shorebird life history

Shorebirds are hemispheric travelers, and nearly two-thirds of the 48 species that
breed in North America undertake spectacular long-distance migrations between Arctic
nesting areas and Central and South American wintering areas. Some of these migrations
are made in single, non-stop flights, but most shorebirds stops at a few key sites in
between their breeding and wintering grounds. These migration "stopover" sites contain
abundant food resources that enable the birds to rest and quickly replenish energy
reserves needed to continue their migration. During late summer and fall, the Zellwood
f a m s are an important stopover site for thousands of shorebirds on their southward
migration.
The duration that shorebirds remain at a stopover site varies from a few days to
two weeks or more (e.g., Post and Browne 1976, Cooper 1994) and depends upon the
species and the condition of the bird upon arrival. Interestingly, and relevant to our
discussion of the Zellwood farms, shorebirds often return to the same stopover sites year
after year (e.g., Smith and Houghton 1984, Lanctot and Laredo 1994). If a stopover site is
lost, many of the shorebirds that depend on that site may be unable to find a suitable
alternate site, and may not complete their migration.
As a consequence of their life-history patterns, the long-term conservation of
shorebirds requires that their important breeding, wintering, and migration sites be
identified and protected. Currently, the Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve Network
is linking these important shorebird sites into a network of protected reserves of regional,
international, and hemispheric significance. We are in the process of nominating the
Zellwood farming area as a site of regional significance (>20,000 shorebirds seasonally),
or possibly a site of international significance (>100,000 shorebirds seasonally).
Because we are unaware of any other site in central Florida that currently could
substitute for the Zellwood farms, we stress the need for continued management of the
farms as a fall migratory stopover site for the thousands of shorebirds that have relied on
the farms for 50 or more years.

Farming practices at Zellwood

Here, we briefly summarize the farming region and farming practices along the
north shore of Lake Apopka. The area managed by the Zellwood Drainage and Water
Control District encompasses 8700 acres in Orange County, and is divided by the
McDonald Canal. Farmland north of the canal, which totals about 2700 acres, is called
Unit 1, while farmland to the south, totaling about 6000 acres, is known as Unit 2. West
of these two units, and east of the Apopka-Beauclair Canal, is the 3300-acre Duda farm,

located in Lake and Orange counties. The "sand farm," which is about 1000 acres, also is
west of units 1 and 2. The Marsh Flow-way, which is about 5000 acres in size, occupies
former farmland west of the Apopka-Beauclair Canal.
The Apopka-Beauclair Canal was dug in 1880, and farming soon followed. The
McDonald Canal was dug later. Until 1942, year-round farming was limited to lands to
Unit 1. The Zellwood Drainage and Water Control District was created by the Florida
Legislature in 1941, and began building the levee along the lake's north shore. This levee
was completed in 1942 and isolated extensive sawgrass marshland between the levee and
the McDonald Canal. This marshland was soon converted to the farms of Unit 2. An
extensive series of dikes, canals, and pumps manipulates water levels to allow farming.
Farming practices at Zellwood varied between farmers, but generally, the muck
soil was disked at the beginning of the year, followed by the planting of crops (e.g., corn,
carrots, radishes, and celery). One farm produced only sod. Following harvest of the
crops, in late June and early July, the fields were flooded to control weeds and nematodes
(parasitic roundworms), and to prevent soil erosion. The fields remained flooded until
August or September, then were tilled and prepared for crops. Depending on the
vegetable grown, three or more crops were produced annually. Not all farms were flooded
regularly, and some farms were not flooded at all in the past 10 years (Giles Van Duyne
personal communication). Vegetable fields that were not flooded were disked every two
weeks for weed control.
Only about 1500-2000 acres of farmland in units 1 and 2 are flooded in any year
Giles Van Duyne personal communication). The fields are shallow-flooded to encourage
algae growth (for weed control) and to heat up the water (for nematode control). The
ideal water depth is two inches, but elevational variation in the fields results in portions
of some fields remaining dry, while other portions are flooded by water deeper than two
inches. Because the farm fields are lower than the lake level, flooding of the fields is
accomplished easily by opening gates in the lake levee. About two weeks are required to
flood a field, which typically is one half-section (320 acres). Pumping is required to
remove water fi-om a field, and requires another two to four weeks.

Consequences of long-term, deep flooding

Because of subsidence of the muck soils, the level of the farm surface is lower
than the lake level. The initial flooding proposed by the District will inundate the fields
with from one to three feet of water for a period of five or six years. The District's
ultimate restoration plan involves breaching the lake levee to connect the fields to Lake
Apopka. This will result in long-tenn flooding of the fields to a water depth of about four
feet (Giles Van Duyne personal communication).
Following long-term deep flooding of the farm fields by the District, Conrow
[1998:3] predicted use of the area by "species of special concern, such as the little blue
heron, tri-colored [sic] heron, snowy egret and white ibis" and "numerous birds of prey"
such as "the endangered American bald eagle, and two CITES Appendix I1 species: the
northern hamer and [American] kestrel." However, Conrow [I9981 fails to acknowledge
that all these species already occur at the farms under current fanning practices (Table 2,
Appendix A and B). Furthermore, deep-flooding of the farm fields will substantially

reduce-r
eliminate entirely-the amount of foraging habitats available for all wading
birds, shorebirds, and many other species such as American Kestrels and Northern
Harriers.
Shorebirds feed by picking up prey (e.g., insects, worms, and small crustaceans)
from the surface of the water or ground, or by probing into the mud. Except for
phalaropes, shorebirds cannot swim, hence all foraging activity must occur while the
birds are standing. The longest-legged shorebirds that occur regularly at Zellwood have
leg-lengths of eight to 12 inches, and the leg-lengths of the small sandpipers is only one
or two inches. Therefore, shorebirds require water depths of no more than 6-10 inches for
the largest species, and very shallow water of only one inch or less for the smallest
species. Even the longest-legged wading birds, which feed on frogs, fish, and other small
animals, cannot forage in water deeper than 18-20 inches. Ogden (1 996) characterized the
primary foraging depth of Wood Storks as 2 to 15 inches.
Conrow [1998:3] correctly pointed out that shallow water habitats are "declining
more precipitously than are other wetland habitats." Kautz (1993) estimated there were
6.96 million acres of marshland in Florida in 1936, or 20% of the state's total area. By
1987, wetlands in Florida had declined 56%, to only 3.87 million acres, or 9% of the
state's land area. Similar or greater losses of marsh habitats have been reported virtually
worldwide. In California, for instance, only 9% of the wetlands that existed 200 years ago
still remain (Elphick and Oring 1998). In the Great Plains region of North America,
where many shorebirds breed, 90% of the wetlands in some areas have been lost to
agriculture since the early 1900s (Farmer and Parent 1997). With so much loss of habitat,
migratory shorebirds are increasingly forced to rely on fewer stopover sites, which
increases the distance they must travel between sites. Hence, the importance of each
remaining stopover site increases as other sites are lost. The Zellwood farms are at least a
regionally significant, and possibly an internationally significant, fall stopover site for
shorebirds. 1t is vital that the District realizes the importance of maintaining shorebird
foraging habitats at the Zellwood farms.

Bird use of agricultural landscapes

In many parts of the world, flooded farm fields often act as surrogate habitat for
natural wetlands that have been lost to human uses. For example, recent studies in
California's Sacramento Valley (Elphick and Oring 1998), the lower Mississippi Valley
(Hands et al. 1991), and the Mediterranean region (Fasola and Ruiz 1996), illustrate that
for shorebirds and other aquatic species, flooded agricultural habitats provide a partial
solution to the problems these species encounter as their natural wetland habitats are lost.
In Florida, birds have responded similarly, and agricultural areas at Zellwood and Belle
Glade (mentioned below) provide habitat for many wetland-dependent species.
In 1977, Sykes and Hunter (1978) surveyed 2000 acres of shallow-flooded
agricultural fields along the southeastern shore of Lake Okeechobee, near Belle Glade, in
Palm Beach County, Florida. These vegetable fields, which were flooded with 0-12
inches of water, appear to be very similar to the fields at Zellwood. Sykes and Hunter
(1 978) recorded amazing numbers of wading birds, shorebirds, and other aquatic species
at Belle Glade. Their two highest daily counts recorded 55,143 and 70,714 aquatic birds.

Shorebirds comprised 45,236 and 58,706 of these totals, respectively. Their two lowest
counts in 1977 recorded 5368 and 6392 aquatic birds, of which 3923 and 897 of these
were shorebirds, respectively. The mean count for Sykes' and Hunter's (1978) six
surveys in 1977 is 20,030 shorebirds per survey. Some of their daily totals are equally
impressive: 1900 Great Egrets, 770 Snowy Egrets, 2480 Wood Storks, 4400 American
Coots, 3 12 Black-bellied Plovers, 1330 Black-necked Stilts, 22,500 Lesser Yellowlegs,
4250 Semipalmated Sandpipers, 12,450 Least Sandpipers, and 4800 Short-billed
Dowitchers. The mean number of birds per acre on 10 September 1977 was 35.4 for all
birds, and 29.4 for shorebirds, which accounted for 83% of all birds observed (Sykes and
Hunter 1978).
Sykes and Hunter (1978) regarded most of the shorebirds they recorded during
their weekly surveys to be different individuals, and the substantial variation in many of
their totals (Table 3) seems to support this belief. If nearly all of their shorebirds were
migrants that were counted only once, then Sykes and Hunter (1978) recorded over
120,000 shorebirds using 2000 acres of flooded fields over a seven-week period from late
July to early September 1977 (Table 3).

Table 3. Shorebird counts from Belle Glade in 1977 (from Sykes and Hunter 1978).

* Three species dominate this category: Least, Semipalmated, and Western sandpipers. All "peeps" are very similar in
size and plumage coloration, making it difficult or impossible to identify birds in large, distant flocks. Hence, they are
combined here.

The importance of the Zellwood farms for migratory shorebirds

According to Sprandel et al. (1997), the combined total of all of Florida's 40-t
Christmas Bird Counts yielded a mean of 206,735 shorebirds annually between 1980 and
1989. The 120,000 migratory shorebirds recorded during six surveys of a single stopover
site in 1977 by Sykes and Hunter (1978) suggests that more shorebirds migrate through
Florida in fall than winter in the state. Consequently, inland agricultural habitats in
Florida harbor a large proportion of the total number of shorebirds that occur in the state.
Therefore, loss of the inland agricultural stopover sites could have disproportionately
greater impacts on populations of Western Hemispheric shorebirds.
Because the Belle Glade migratory stopover site is entirely privately owned and
not managed specifically for birds, conversion of these vegetable farms to less suitable or
unsuitable habitats would eliminate what certainly is one of the most important migratory
shorebird stopover sites in Florida. Hence, the Zellwood farms would play an even larger
role in sustaining thousands of individual shorebirds traveling between their breeding and
wintering areas.
The Zellwood farms also are used extensively by wading birds (e.g., Great Egret,
Little Blue Heron, and Wood Stork) and other aquatic species in late summer and fall. In
fact, the number of wading birds is usually in the hundreds, and occasionally thousands
of individuals (Appendix B). For species where the age of birds can be determined by
plumage differences, wading bird flocks at Zellwood often contain a substantial
proportion of hatching-year juveniles. The Zellwood farms may provide important
foraging areas for juvenile wading birds that are not otherwise available locally. Also,
Sykes and Hunter (1978) point out that the shallow-flooded farm fields at Belle Glade
supply good quality foraging areas when natural foraging areas may be flooded deeply
from rainfall. Wading birds at Zellwood may be following a similar foraging strategy.

Pesticide use at Zellwood

Conrow [1998:3] reported that, "There is some evidence that concern is warranted
regarding ingestion of pesticides by birds feeding on the [Zellwood] farm properties" and
". . .use of pesticides [at Zellwood] may have a very negative impact on many varieties of
birds." However, she presented no data or references to support these statements. It
certainly is warranted that a study be done to examine whether avian pesticide poisoning
occurs regularly at Zellwood, but we consider it unwise to presume results without
having supporting data. Conrow [1998:3] later states that, "once farming practices and
pesticide use cease, there are no potential soil contaminant risks identified that cannot be
effectively controlled," which suggests to us that pesticide poisoning at Zellwood is not a
major problem. Giles Van Duyne (personal communication) confirmed that farmers at
Zellwood follow all label directions when applying pesticides.

Nature-based tourism and recreation at Zellwood

The migratory shorebirds at the Zellwood farms are a major attraction for birders.
Every year, fiom midJuly through September, hundreds of birders from many parts of
the state visit the area to experience the great diversity of shorebirds, and to search for
rare species that have made Zellwood famous. Further influencing birders' interest is that
mid-to-late summer has the lowest landbird diversity in the state, and because there are
few other places that offer exciting birding opportunities, Zellwood has become one of
the most popular destinations in central Florida to watch birds during this time of year.
If a sufficiently large area of the farms can to be managed for shorebirds, and if
access is improved (i.e., keeping gates open on weekends), visitation to the area for
wildlife viewing could be increased substantially. This type of nature-based tourism
could generate significant revenues for service industries in Zellwood, Plymouth,
Apopka, and Mount Dora. In fact, an annual "Shorebird Festival," modeled after similar
events elsewhere in the US and Canada, could help replace local economic losses caused
by the ending of the popular "Sweet Corn Festival" that was held annually in the area.
A recent event illustrates the direct economic benefits of shorebird viewing at
Zellwood. On Saturday, 29 August 1998, a Curlew Sandpiper was discovered at the
farms. This species breeds on the Siberian tundra and usually migrates to Afnca and
Australia. It is a rare bird in North America, with very few reports each year. By late
Saturday afternoon, news of the sandpiper was transmitted to birders statewide via email
and telephone "hotlines." Birders began to arrive at the farms early Sunday morning.
They came from most parts of the state; groups from Jacksonville, Gainesville,
Melbourne, St. Petersburg, West Palm Beach, and Miami. By the end of the day, about 75
people had come to see the Curlew Sandpiper, and by the end of the week, we estimate
that nearly 200 people traveled to Zellwood to see this bird.
Some of those who traveled long distances, or failed to see the bird on their first
visit, stayed overnight in motels in Apopka and Mount Dora. Many purchased goods at
local restaurants, convenience stores, and gas stations. On average, we estimate that each
birder spent $25 while in the area, which translates to a net input of about $5000 into the
local economy from the discovery of a single, rare shorebird.
Nature-based tourism is one of the fastest growing segments of Florida's tourism
industry, and the largest growing segment of tourism worldwide, averaging a 30% annual
increase since 1987 (Ruskin and Bock 1995). In 1996, nature-based tourism generated
$1.7 billion for Florida's economy (FGFWFC 1998). The most popular type of wildlife
viewing by Florida's residents and non-residents was watching birds. In 1996, over 1.5
million people watched birds in Florida, and over 1.3 million of these watched shorebirds
(FGFWFC 1998). The number one habitat type visited by Florida's nature-based tourists
was wetlands (FGFWFC 1998).
Zellwood and the neighboring communities around Lake Apopka have a truly
spectacular natural history event in the diversity and abundance of shorebirds, wading
birds, and other aquatic species that forage in flooded agricultural fields along the lake's
north shore. We think it is realistic that, with proper management and marketing,
observing birds at the Zellwood f m i n g area could generate substantial revenues for the
local economies, and may greatly assist in offsetting the anticipated costs of managing a

portion of the farms for shorebird use.

In addition to direct economic benefits, preserving the shorebird stopover site and
the abundance of wading birds at Zellwood will provide a special wildlife viewing
experience for local residents. The site also will create educational opportunities for
nearby schools, where teachers and students can learn about birds, their migrations,
habitats, and conservation needs. With a few site improvements such as signage and an
observation platform, and management that creates habitat for shorebirds and wading
birds, residents of the Lake Apopka area will have their own version of the famous Black
Point Wildlife Drive at Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge east of Titusville. In fact,
visits to both areas in September 1998 revealed that the diversity, abundance, and
observability of birds were much greater at Zellwood than at Black Point.

MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS

With proper management, Zellwood could equal-and possibly exceed-Belle

Glade as the premier inland fall migratory shorebird site in Florida. By simply increasing
the amount of foraging habitat available at Zellwood, a greater number of shorebirds,
wading birds, and other aquatic species will be attracted to the farms. Skagan and Knopf
(1994) noted a positive correlation between the numbers of shorebirds and the amount of
available habitat in the Great Plains during fall migrations in 1989-1992, and similar
results are likely to be obtained at Zellwood.
Maintenance of the farm fields as a Shorebird Management Area (SMA) should
not be labor-intensive and costly if facilitated by the existing series of fields, drainage
canals, and pumps used by the farmers. The SMA can be a self-contained unit isolated
from the remainder of the District's North Shore Restoration Area, and with appropriate
engineering, should not affect the District's water and phosphorus budgets.
Amount of acreage

To maintain the diversity of species that use the farms, we stress the need to
maintain a diversity of habitats within the SMA. Habitats should include shallow-flooded
fields, short-grass uplands, and fallow fields. To achieve this balance, we recommend that
at least 2560 acres, comprised of eight current fields of 320 acres each, be set aside as a
permanent SMA. This figure is derived from the extent of shallow water habitat that was
available under past farming practice+1500 to 2000 acres in the Zellwood Drainage
District--plus an additional three fields available in short-grass uplands, exposed soil,
and fallow habitats. A potential management scenario would be the following; five fields
shallowly flooded, two fields for water storage, if needed, and one field in short-grass
uplands.

Depth, timing, and duration of flooding

Rundle and Fredrickson (1981) and Hands et al. (1991) recommend that
impoundments managed for shorebirds be manipulated to create a mosaic of mud and
shallow water less than two inches deep. Coincidentally, two inches was the target depth
of flooding for Zellwood farmers to control weeds and nematodes. It is not surprising,
therefore, that farmers in the Zellwood Drainage District attracted large numbers of
shorebirds. They unintentionally created ideal habitat, and the timing of habitat
availability coincided perfectly with fall migration. Based on scientific research, and the
past success of farmers, we recommend that shallow water habitats in the Zellwood SMA
be managed to create water depths of two inches or less.
Because of rainfall and evaporation, it may be difficult to maintain desired water
depths. Therefore, there is no optimal initial flooding depth (Rundle and Fredrickson
1981). The objective is a mosaic of habitats that will become suitable for shorebirds
throughout the migratory period. Areas that are too deep for shorebird use initially will
provide future habitat as impoundments dry out, and dry areas will provide a hedge
against heavy rains (Rundle and Fredrickson 1981).
The timing and duration of flooding should parallel the migratory periods of
shorebirds. At Zellwood, and throughout Florida, fall migration of shorebirds occurs
from mid-July through mid-October (e.g., Stevenson and Anderson 1994). Initial
flooding and drawdowns should be implemented just prior to or during the migratory
period (Hands et al. 1991). When manipulating water levels, gradual drawdowns are
preferred to rapid drawdowns because new mudflats are continually exposed, and the
period for shorebird use is extended (Rundle and Fredrickson 1981).
Vegetation grows rapidly in Florida, so some method of weed control will be
necessary in the SMA. Fanners at Zellwood controlled weeds by disking fields every two
weeks. We propose a similar schedule for fields managed as bare soil or short-grass areas.
For fields managed for shallow water, disking should precede flooding to create mudflats
and shallow, open water habitats used by shorebirds and wading birds.
Maintaining flooded fields through the winter should result in extensive use of the
fields by waterfowl and will provide overwintering habitat for some shorebirds. Drawing
down these fields in March and April should attract large numbers of shorebirds and other
aquatic species on their northward migration.

SUMMARY
1. The Zellwood farms are one of the most important-and
one of the three most
diversmhorebird sites in Florida. From late summer through fall, the shallowly
flooded farm fields are used by thousands of shorebirds migrating south from their
breeding grounds in North America to their wintering grounds in Central and South
America. Additionally, the fields are used by thousands of wading birds, including
listed species such as Little Blue Herons, White Ibises, and Wood Storks. Long-term
deep-flooding of these fields by the St. Johns River Water Management District will
eliminate crucial foraging habitats for many birds. These habitats may not be
available elsewhere in central Florida, and may disrupt the migration of thousands of
shorebirds.
2. Maintenance of the farm fields as a Shorebird Management Area (SMA) should be
relatively easy, given the existing series of fields, drainage canals, and pumps used by
the farmers. The SMA can be a self-contained unit isolated from the remainder of the
District's North Shore Restoration Area, so the SMA should not affect the District's
water and phosphorus budgets.

3. The District has a superb opportunity to improve an existing, significant wildlife

viewing site. Continued maintenance of some of the fields as shorebird habitats will
benefit Florida's residents and tourists, the economies of local communities, and the
District's conservation standing. Ignoring this opportunity will have ramifications for
bird conservation and the quality of life for local residents. Seizing this opportunity
will allow the District to create a flagship wildlife viewing area for the public.
Additionally, creation of the Shorebird Management Area within the large-scale
restoration of Lake Apopka will be a national model for complex restoration
initiatives that include water quality improvements, wildlife conservation and viewing
opportunities, and economic benefits to nearby communities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to the Zellwood Drainage and Water Control District, and to the
individual farmers, for allowing access to the farms for birding purposes for over 30
years. For supplying the funds that allowed BP to work on this project, we are indebted to
the Alachua Audubon Society, Duval Audubon Society, Halifax River Audubon Society,
Lake Region Audubon Society, Orange Audubon Society, St. Petersburg Audubon
Society, Seminole Audubon Society, West Volusia Audubon Society, and several
individuals: Kathy Banard, Wes Biggs, Becky Payne, and Mary Jean Rogers. Mike
Delany graciously allowed BP to take off time fiom Florida Grasshopper Sparrow
research to work on this project.
For submitting bird observations, we are especially grateful to Paul Fellers, Becky
Payne, Harry Robinson, and Parks Small; we thank also Wes Biggs, Dave Marvin, Gary
Sprandel, and Eric Stolen. Giles Van Duyne and Jim Thomas supplied information on the
Zellwood Drainage and Water Control District and the Lake Apopka restoration effort,
respectively. Matt Schrader and Eugene Stoccardo supplied additional references. We
thank David A. Sibley for use of the illustration, and Sandy Bogan for word processing
assistance.

LITERATURE CITED
Biggs, C.W. 1993. Checklist of the birds of Fort DeSoto Park and Pinellas Bayway.
Anderson Environmental Education Center. Sawgrass Lake Park. St. Petersburg,
Florida.
Conrow, R. Undated [1998]. Lake Apopka north shore wetlands restoration consideration of habitat management for migratory shorebirds. Department of
Water Resources. [St. Johns River Water Management District. Palatka, Florida].
4 pages.
Cooper, J.M. 1994. Least Sandpiper (Calidris minutilla). In The Birds of North America,
Number 115 (A. Poole and F. Gill, editors). Academy of Natural Sciences.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and American Ornithologists' Union. Washington,
D.C. 28 pages.
DEP. 1998. Checklist of the birds of Honeymoon Island State Recreation Area. Florida
Department of Environmental Protection. Division of Parks and Recreation.
Tallahassee, Florida.
DNR. 1984. Vertebrates identified in St. George Island State Park. Department of Natural
Resources. Division of Recreation and Parks. Tallahassee, Florida.
Elphick, C.S., and L.W. Oring. 1998. Winter management of Californian rice fields for
waterbirds. Journal of Applied Ecology 35 :95- 108.
Farmer, A.H., and A.H. Parent. 1997. Effects of the landscape on shorebird movements at
spring migration stopovers. Condor 99:698-707.
FGFWFC. 1998. The 1996 economic benefits of watchable wildlife recreation in Florida.
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. Tallahassee, Florida. 18 pages.
Hands, H.M., M.R. Ryan, and J.W. Smith. 1991. Migrant shorebird use of marsh, moistsoil, and flooded agricultural habitats. Wildlife Society Bulletin 19:457-464.
JNDDWSI. 1993. Birds of the J.N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge. J.N.
"Ding" Darling Wildlife Society, Inc. U.S. Department of the Interior.
Washington, D.C.
Kautz, R. 1993. Trends in Florida wildlife habitats 1936-1987. Florida Scientist 56:7-24.
Lanctot, R.B., and C.D. Laredo. 1994. Buff-breasted Sandpiper (Tryngites subruficollis).
In The Birds of North America, Number 91 (A. Poole and F. Gill, editors).
Academy of Natural Sciences. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and American
Ornithologists' Union. Washington, D.C. 20 pages.

Lane, J.A. 1981. A Birder's Guide to Florida. First edition. L & P Press. Denver,
Colorado. Second edition in 1984, and Third edition in 1989. 160 pages.
Loughlin, M.H., J.C. Ogden, W.B. Robertson, Jr., K. Russell, and R. Wood. 1990.
Everglades National Park bird checklist. Florida Parks and National Monuments,
Inc. Homestead, Florida.
Myers, J.P., R.I.G. Momson, P.Z. Antas, B.A. Hamngton, T.E. Lovejoy, M. Sallaberry,
S.E. Senner, and A. Tarak. 1987. Conservation strategy for migratory species.
American Scientist 75: 19-26.
Ogden, J.C. 1996. Wood Stork (Mycteria americana). Pages 31-41 in Rare and
Endangered Biota of Florida. Volume V. Birds. (J.A. Rodgers, Jr., H.W. Kale, 11,
and H.T. Smith, editors). University Press of Florida. Gainesville, Florida
Post, W., and M.M. Browne. 1976. Length of stay and weights of inland migrating
shorebirds. Bird Banding 47(4):333-339.
Pranty, B. 1996. A Birder's Guide to Florida. Fourth edition. American Birding
Association. Colorado Springs, Colorado. xii + 388 pages.
Robertson, W.B., Jr. 1986. Birds of Fort Jefferson National Monument. Florida Parks and
National Monuments, Inc. Homestead, Florida.
Rundle, W.D., and L.H. Fredrickson. 1981. Managing seasonally flooded impoundments
for migrant rails and shorebirds. Wildlife Society Bulletin 9(2):80-87.
Ruskin, W., and C. Bock. 1995. Sustaining nature's treasures: Ecotourism 1991-1995 and
beyond. World Congress on Adventure Travel and Ecotourism.
Skagan, S.K., and F.L. Knopf. 1994. Migrating shorebirds and habitat dynamics at a
prairie wetland complex. Wilson Bulletin 1O6(l):9 1-105.
Smith, P.W., and N.T. Houghton. 1984. Fidelity of Semipalmated Plovers to a migration
stopover. Journal of Field Ornithology 55:247:249.
Sprandel, G.L., J.A. Gore, and D.T. Cobb. 1997. Winter shorebird survey. Final
Performance Report. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission.
Tallahassee, Florida. v + l 6 l pages.
Stevenson, H.M., and B.H. Anderson. 1994. The Birdlve of Florida. University Press of
Florida. xv + 892 pages.

Sykes, P.W., Jr., and G.S. Hunter. 1978. Bird use of flooded agricultural fields during
summer and early fall and some recommendations for management. Florida Field
Naturalist 6:36-43.
USFWS. 1991. Birds of St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Department of the Interior. Washington, D.C.
USFWS. 1993. Birds of Cedar Keys and Lower Suwannee national wildlife refuges,
Florida. 1983. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Department of the Interior.
Washington, D.C.
Wood, D. 1996. Florida's Endangered Species, Threatened Species, and Species of
Special Concern. Bureau of Nongame Wildlife. Florida Game and Fresh Water
Fish Commission. Tallahassee, Florida. iii + 14 pages.

APPENDIX A:
BIRD LIST FOR THE ZELLWOOD FARMS

* aquatic species known to breed at Zellwood

L Listed species (Wood 1996)

Pied-billed Grebe*
American White Pelican
Brown Pelican
Double-crested Cormorant
Anhinga
American Bittern
Least Bittern
Great Blue Heron
"Great White Heron" (morph)
Great Egret
Snowy Egret
Little Blue Heron L
Tricolored Heron L
Cattle Egret
Green Heron
Black-crowned Night-Heron
Yellow-crowned Night-Heron
White Ibis L
Scarlet lbis (.exotic or hybrid)
Glossy lbis
Roseate Spoonbill L
Wood Stork L
Fulvous Whistling-Duck*
Black-bellied Whistling-Duck
Snow Goose
Brant
Wood Duck
Green-winged Teal
Mottled Duck*
Mallard
White-cheeked Pintail
Northern Pintail
Blue-winged Teal
Northern Shoveler
Gadwall
American Wigeon
Canvasback
Redhead
Ring-necked Duck
Greater Scaup
Lesser Scaup
Hooded Merganser
Ruddy Duck
Black Vulture
Turkey Vulture
Osprey
Swallow-tailed Kite
Bald Eagle L
Northern Harrier
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Cooper's Hawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
Swainson's Hawk

Red-tailed Hawk
Fermginous Hawk
American Kestrel
Merlin
Peregrine Falcon L
Northern Bobwhite
King Rail*
Virginia Rail
Sora
Purple Gallinule*
Common Moorhen*
American Coot*
Limpkin L
Sandhill Crane
Whooping Crane L (released)
Southern Lapwing (exotic)
Black-bellied Plover
American Golden-Plover
Semipalmated Plover
Piping Plover L
Killdeer*
Black-necked Stilt*
American Avocet
Greater Yellowlegs
Lesser Yellowlegs
Solitary Sandpiper
Willet
Spotted Sandpiper
Upland Sandpiper
Whimbrel
Long-billed Curlew
Hudsonian Godwit
Marbled Godwit
Ruddy Turnstone
Red Knot
Sanderling
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Western Sandpiper
Least Sandpiper
White-rumped Sandpiper
Baird's Sandpiper
Pectoral Sandpiper
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper
Dunlin
Curlew Sandpiper
Stilt Sandpiper
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Ruff
Short-billed Dowitcher
Long-billed Dowitcher
Common Snipe
Wilson's Phalarope
Red-necked Phalarope

Laughing Gull
Bonaparte's Gull
Ring-billed Gull
Herring Gull
Gull-billed Tern*
Caspian Tern
Royal Tern
Sandwich Tern
Common Tern
Forster's Tern
Least Tern L
Black Tern
Brown Noddy
Black Skimmer L
Rock Dove (exotic)
Eurasian Collared-Dove (exotic)
White-winged Dove (exotic)
Mourning Dove
Common Ground-Dove
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
Smooth-billed Ani
Barn Owl
Eastern Screech-Owl
Great Homed Owl
Burrowing Owl L
Barred Owl
Short-eared Owl
Common Nighthawk
Chuck-will's-widow
Chimney Swift
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
Belted Kingfisher
Red-bellied Woodpecker
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
Downy Woodpecker
Northern Flicker
Pileated Woodpecker
Eastern Phoebe
Great Crested Flycatcher
Western Kingbird
Eastern Kingbird
Gray Kingbird
Purple Martin
Tree Swallow
N. Rough-winged Swallow
Bank Swallow
Cliff Swallow
Barn Swallow
Blue Jay
American Crow
Fish Crow
Tufted Titmouse
Carolina Wren

House Wren
Sedge Wren
Marsh Wren
Ruby-crowned Kinglet
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
Hermit Thrush
American Robin
Gray Catbird
Northern Mockingbird
Brown Thrasher
American Pipit
Cedar Waxwing
Loggerhead Shrike
European Starling (exotic)
White-eyed Vireo
Blue-headed Vireo
Red-eyed Vireo
Golden-winged Warbler
Orange-crowned Warbler
Northern Parula
Yellow Warbler

Yellow-rumped Warbler
Black-throated Green Warbler
Yellow-throated Warbler
Pine Warbler
Prairie Warbler
Palm Warbler
Black-and-white Warbler
American Redstart
Prothonotary Warbler
Ovenbird
Northern Waterthrush
Louisiana Waterthrush
Kentucky Warbler
Common Yellowthroat
Yellow-breasted Chat
Summer Tanager
Northern Cardinal
Blue Grosbeak
Indigo Bunting
Dickcissel
Eastern Towhee

Chipping Sparrow
Field Sparrow
Vesper Sparrow
Lark Sparrow
Savannah Sparrow
Grasshopper Sparrow
Fox Sparrow
Song Sparrow
Swamp Sparrow
White-throated Sparrow
White-crowned Sparrow
Bobolink
Red-winged Blackbird*
Eastern Meadowlark
Yellow-headed Blackbird
Rusty Blackbird
Boat-tailed Grackle*
Common Grackle
Brown-headed Cowbird
American Goldfinch
House Sparrow (exotic)

APPENDIX B:
Annotated list of aquatic birds observed at the Zellwood farms
Pied-billed Grebe (Podilymbus podiceps): A common winter resident in Florida, less common as a
permanent resident. Breeds and forages in shallow fresh water, and forages also in open water.
Probably a permanent resident at Zellwood, but status in spring and winter uncertain. Zellwood
reports range between 22 July and 13 November, with one winter report on 20 February. The
three highest counts are 40, 150, and 175 birds. There is at least one Zellwood breeding report: an
adult with 4 chicks 22 July 1976.
American White Pelican (Pelecanus elythrorhynchos): An uncommon to locally abundant winter resident
of the coasts and a few selected inland sites. Forages in shallow open water. There are six
Zellwood reports: singles 1 August 1972 and 2 August 1976, 25 birds 16 July 1988, 8 birds 20
February 1992,4 birds 20 March 1992, and 125 birds 16 September 1998.
Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis): A Species of Special Concern, common along both coasts of
Florida and rare but increasing inland. Forages in open water. There is at least one undated report
from Zellwood.
Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus): An uncommon to common permanent resident
throughout Florida, abundant coastally in winter. Forages in relatively shallow open water.
Probably occurs year-round at Zellwood, but limited data exist for winter and spring. The three
highest counts are 40, 52, and 52 birds.
Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga): An uncommon permanent resident throughout the Peninsula. Forages in
quiet, shallow fresh or brackish water. The three highest Zellwood reports are 10, 10, and 11
birds.
American Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus): A rare to uncommon migrant and winter resident throughout
Florida. Forages in dense vegetation (e.g., cattail) in shallow fresh water marshes and wet fields.
There are two Zellwood reports of single birds: 15 August 1971 and 20 March 1992.
Least Bittern (Ixob~ycl~us
exilis): A fairly common but secretive permanent resident throughout Florida.
Forages in shallow fresh water marshes and weedy ponds. There are five Zellwood reports of
singles between 1 July and 23 August, but probably breeds regularly in less-disturbed areas along
the lake.
Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias): A common to abundant permanent resident throughout Florida.
Forages in shallow water. The three highest Zellwood counts are 52, 125, and 250 birds.
"Great White Heron" (Ardea herodias occidentalis): An uncommon coastal resident of South Florida and
the Keys. Some birds, usually immatures, move northward following the nesting season, and a
few occur inland. Forages in shallow water. There is one Zellwood report: 1 immature 30 July
1986.
Great Egret (Al-dea alba): A common to abundant permanent resident throughout Florida. Forages in
shallow water coastally and inland. The three highest Zellwood counts are 315, 400, and 500
birds.
Snowy Egret (Egretta thula): An uncommon to common permanent resident throughout Florida. Forages in
shallow water coastally and inland. The three highest Zellwood counts are 125, 200, and 300
birds.

Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea): A Species of Special Concern, common to abundant throughout
Florida. Forages in shallow water, but is more common inland. The three highest Zellwood counts
are 100,250, and 562.
Tricolored Heron (Egr-etta tricolor-):A Species of Special Concern, uncommon throughout Florida, more
commo inland. Forages in shallow water. The three highest Zellwood counts are 52, 60, and 70
birds.
Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis): An abundant permanent resident throughout Florida. Feeds in dry open or
grassy fields on insects disturbed by cattle, or-as at Zellwood-tractors.
The three highest
Zellwood counts are 1500, 1700, and 3000 birds.
Green Heron (Butorides striatus): Generally an uncommon permanent resident throughout Florida. Forages
along the shores of quiet, shallow water. Common in canals at Zellwood, where the three highest
counts are 50, 50, and 100 birds.
Black-crowned Night-Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax): An uncommon permanent resident throughout
Florida. In most areas, much more common inland than along the coasts. Forages in and along the
shore of shallow water. The three highest Zellwood counts are 10, 13, and 20 birds.
Yellow-crowned Night-Heron (Nyctanassa violacea): A fairly common permanent resident throughout
Florida. Generally much more common coastally than inland. Forages in and along the shore of
shallow water. There is one Zellwood report: 1 bird 30 July 1977.
White Ibis (Eudocimus albus): A Species of Special Concern, common to abundant throughout Florida.
Forages in shallow water, marshes, and wet fields. The three highest Zellwood counts are 416,
1000, and 2000 birds.
Scarlet Ibis (Eudocimus ruber): Native to South America and Trinidad, but kept often in captivity in
Florida. Birds that have escaped or were introduced at Miami in 1961 have bred with Wlute
Ibises, producing hybrids that vary from pale pink to nearly pure scarlet. Stevenson and Anderson
(1994) point out that captive Scarlet Ibises with a dietary deficiency could lose some of their
color, so pale birds may not necessarily be hybrids. Forages in shallow water. One "very scarlet"
bird was seen at Zellwood 25 July 1980.
Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus): An uncommon to locally abundant permanent resident of the Florida
Peninsula, generally rare in the Panhandle. Much more common inland than along the coasts.
Forages in shallow water and marshes. The three highest Zellwood counts are 175, 200, and 200
birds.
Roseate Spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja): A Species of Special Concern, locally common in coastal areas of South
Florida, uncommon but increasing in central Florida. After breeding, many birds, mostly
juveniles, move inland. Forages in shallow water. There are numerous Zellwood reports between
1 July and 3 September. Most reports are 1-3 birds, with the highest count of 14 birds 3
September 1988.
Wood Stork (Mycter-ia americana): An Endangered species, uncommon to locally abundant in the Florida
Peninsula; usually more common inland. Forages in shallow water. The three highest Zellwood
counts are 350, 500, and 600 birds.
Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus): A common permanent resident throughout most of Florida. Forages on
the ground. Undoubtedly occurs regularly at Zellwood, but we could find only three (!) reports,
with the highest count of 6 birds.

Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura): A common to abundant permanent resident throughout most of Florida.
Forages on the ground. The three highest Zellwood counts are 40, 40, and 62 birds.
Fulvous Whistling-Duck (Dendrocygna bicolor): An uncommon to abundant, very local permanent
resident of the Florida Peninsula from Orlando south to Lake Okeechobee. Breeds and forages in
shallow fresh water marshes and, especially, shallowly flooded agricultural fields at Zellwood and
Belle Glade. The three highest Zellwood counts are 250, 350, and 474 birds. Has bred annually at
the Zellwood since at least 1985.
Black-bellied Whistling-Duck (Dendrocygna autumnalis): A recent arrival into Florida, apparently from
Mexico. Very locally abundant at Sarasota, with reports of presumed dispersers from many areas
of the Florida Peninsula. Forages in shallow fresh water, along ponds, and in flooded agricultural
fields. There are nine Zellwood reports, all of 1-3 birds, between 1 July and early September.
Snow Goose (Chen caerulescens): An uncommon to fairly common winter resident of the Florida
Panhandle, much less common in the Peninsula. Forages in shallow water, marshes, and
agricultural areas. There are three Zellwood reports, two of these probably of the same flock: 2
birds 30 October 1981, 13 birds 6 November 199 1, and 3 birds 13 November 1991.
Brant (Branta bernicla): A rare winter resident of the Florida Panhandle, even rarer in the Peninsula.
Forages in shallow marshes and shallow water. There are two Zellwood reports of almost certainly
the same bird: 24 and 3 1 October 1981.
Wood Duck (Aix sponsa): A common permanent resident throughout Florida, found exclusively in fresh
water. Forages in shallow water and shallow marshes. The three highest Zellwood counts are 12,
15, and 100 birds.
Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca): A fairly common winter resident throughout Florida. Forages in shallow
water and shallow marshes. There are only two (!) Zellwood reports: 1 bird 18 September 1970
and 15 birds 6 November 1991.
Mottled Duck (Anus fulvigula): A fairly common to common permanent resident throughout the Florida
Peninsula. Forages and breeds in shallow fresh water marshes. The three highest Zellwood counts
are 75, 80, and 100 birds. Probably breeds at Zellwood annually.
Mallard (Anas plalyrhynchos): A rare to uncommon winter resident of the Florida Peninsula, more
common in the Panhandle. Forages in shallow water and shallow marshes, mostly in fresh water.
Also an uncommon permanent resident of developed areas throughout Florida, where released as
ornamental waterfowl. The presence of resident Mallards in the Orlando area makes it difficult to
determine the status of the Zellwood birds. The summer reports almost certainly are of feral
individuals, rather than wild birds. There are seven Zellwood reports between 23 July and 17
November. The highest count is 4 birds 1 September 1973.
White-cheeked Pintail (Anas hahamensis): A Caribbean species that has strayed to Florida less than 25
times. Forages in shallow water and shallow marshes. There is one Zellwood report: 1 bird 18-19
August 1973.
Northern Pintail (Anas acuta): An uncommon to very locally abundant winter resident, more common
along the coasts. Forages in shallow water and shallow marshes. There is one Zellwood report: 1
bird 6 November 199 1.
Blue-winged Teal (Anus discors): A common to abundant migrant and winter resident throughout Florida.
Forages in shallow water and shallow marshes, mostly in fresh water. All Zellwood reports are
during fall migration, but the species likely winters in the farming area. Zellwood reports range

between 1 July and 20 September. The three highest Zellwood counts are 750, 1000, and 1100
birds.
Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata): An uncommon to fairly common winter resident throughout Florida.
Forages in shallow water and shallow marshes, mostly in fresh water. Zellwood reports range
between 2 September and G November. The three highest Zellwood counts are 6, 11, and 20 birds.
Gadwall (Anas strepera): Generally a rare to uncommon winter resident throughout Florida. Forages in
shallow water and shallow marshes, mostly in fresh water. There are two Zellwood reports of
presumably the same 2 birds: 6 and 13 November 1991.
American Wigeon (Anas americana): An uncommon to common winter resident throughout Florida.
Forages mostly in open water. There are two Zellwood reports of probably the same flock: 10
birds 6 November 1991 and 5 birds 13 November 1991. .
Canvasback (Aythya valisineria): An uncommon winter resident of coastal areas in Florida, rare inland.
Forages in open water. There is one Zellwood report: 1 bird 17 August 198 1.
Redhead (Aythya americana): An uncommon to common winter resident of coastal areas in Florida, rare
inland. Forages in open water. There is one Zellwood report: 1 bird 23 September 1983.
Ring-necked Duck (Aythya collaris): A common to abundant winter resident in fresh water habitats
throughout Florida. Forages in shallow fresh water marshes. There are two Zellwood reports: 1
bird 19 August 1973 and 5 birds 6 November 1991.
Greater Scaup (Aythya marila): A rare to locally common winter resident of coastal areas in the Florida
Panhandle. Much rarer in the Peninsula, and very rare inland. Forages in open water. There are
three Zellwood reports of two singles: 7 and 15 January 1978, and 12 August 1973.
Lesser Scaup (Aythya afinis): An abundant winter resident of coastal areas in Florida, generally rare
inland. Forages in open water. There are two Zellwood reports: 8 birds 6 November 1991 and 1
bird 13 November 1991.
Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus): An uncommon to locally abundant winter resident throughout
Florida, much more common inland. Breeds very rarely in the state. Forages in shallow water.
There is one Zellwood report: 2 birds 13 November 199 1.
Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis): An uncommon to locally abundant winter resident throughout Florida,
also breeds very rarely in the state. Forages in open water. The are four Zellwood reports of
probably three singles: 1 and 15 September 1973,7 August 1986 (male in breeding plumage), and
13 November 1991.
Osprey (Pandion haliaetus): A fairly common permanent resident throughout Florida. Forages in open
water. The three highest Zellwood reports are 5, 5, and 12 birds.
Swallow-tailed Kite (Elanoides forjicatrts): An uncommon breeding resident of upland areas throughout
most of Florida. Feeds on small animals plucked from trees. There is at least one undated
Zellwood report.
Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus): A Threatened species, uncommon to locally common throughout
the Peninsula, less common in summer. Forages in open water. The three highest Zellwood
reports are 2, 8, and 11 birds.
Northern I-Iarrier (Circus cyanea): An uncommon to fairly common winter resident throughout Florida.

Forages over fields and shallow marshes. Zellwood reports range between 17 August and 16
April. The three highest Zellwood reports are 7, 11, and 15 birds.
Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter sh-iatus): A fairly common migrant and winter resident throughout Florida.
Feeds on birds captured in flight. Zellwood reports range between 15 August and 22 February. All
reports have been of single birds.
Cooper's Hawk (Accipiter cooperii): An uncommon permanent resident in most of Florida. Feeds on birds
captured in flight. There are at least two reports, including 1 bird 3 1 August 1998.
Red-shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus): A fairly common permanent resident of upland habitats throughout
Florida. Feeds on small animals captured on the ground. All Zellwood reports are of 1-6 birds.
Swainson's Hawk (Buteo swainsonii): A rare to uncommon winter resident of South Florida, rare
elsewhere during migration. Feeds on rodents and other animals captured on the ground. There are
two reports from Zellwood: 7 January 1984 and 4 August 1984, a report called "so extreme [it]
cannot be accepted without documentation" (Stevenson and Anderson 1994: 170).
Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis): A rare to uncommon permanent resident throughout upland habitats
in Florida, more common in winter. Feeds on rodents and other animals captured on or near the
ground. Most reports at Zellwood are of 1-3 birds, with the highest count of 9 birds 13 November
1991. One individual of the Krider's race (B. j. kriderii) was observed 25 January and 22 February
1992.
Fermginous Hawk (Buteo regalis): A breeding resident of open country of the western US and Canada,
wintering south to Mexico. Forages on the ground in dry,open and weedy fields. The first Florida
record was obtained at Zellwood: 2 immatures that wintered at the farms between 19 December
1993 and 5 March 1994.
American Kestrel (Falco sparverius): Occurs in Florida as two populations. The resident race (F. s. paulus)
is a rare to uncommon, declining permanent resident, while the northern race (F. s. sparverius)
breeds north of Florida but winters extensively in the state. Based on dates of occurrence, all
kestrels at Zellwood apparently are the wintering race. F. s. paulus has been virtually eliminated
from the entire Orlando area by habitat destruction. Both races feed on insects and small
vertebrates captured on the ground. Zellwood reports range between 10 September and 20 March.
All reports are of 1-5 birds.
Merlin (Falco cohmbarius): An uncommon migrant and winter resident throughout Florida, more
common coastally. Feeds on birds captured in flight. We could find only two Zellwood reports:
single birds 6 November 1991 and 12 September 1998.
Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus): An Endangered Species, uncommon to locally common along coasts
in Florida in fall, rare inland, and in winter and spring. Feeds on birds captured in flight. Zellwood
reports range between 11 September and 17 November. All Zellwood reports have been of single
birds, except 2 birds 16 September 1998.
Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus): Formerly a common resident throughout Florida, declining and
now generally uncommon. Forages on seeds and insects in dry weedy fields. All Zellwood reports
are of 1-2 birds, except 8 birds 14 July 1977 and 10 birds 16 September 1998.
King Rail (Rallus elegans): An uncommon to locally common permanent resident throughout fresh water
habitats of Florida. Breeds and forages in shallow fresh water marshes. All Zellwood counts are of
1-3 birds. There is at least one Zellwood breeding report: a chick observed with 2 adults 29
August 1987.

Virginia Rail (Rallus limicola): A rare to uncommon winter resident throughout Florida. Forages in
shallow marshes. There is at least one undated report from Zellwood.
Sora (Porzana carolina): A fairly common to common winter resident throughout Florida. Forages in
shallow marshes. Undoubtedly occurs annually at Zellwood, but we have dates for only four
reports, all of singles birds between 2- 19 September.
Purple Gallinule (Porphyrula martinica): An uncommon to locally common permanent resident of fresh
water habitats throughout most of Florida. Breeds and forages in shallow, well-vegetated fresh
water. Undoubtedly occurs at Zellwood in spring, but reports range only between 21 July and 9
September, with many breeding reports. The highest count is 10 birds on 21 July 1974.
Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus): A common to abundant permanent resident throughout fresh
water habitats in Florida. Breeds and forages in shallow fresh water and fresh water marshes.
There are numerous Zellwood breeding reports. The three highest Zellwood counts are 850, 1 100,
and 2000 birds; the latter is the highest count in Florida (Stevenson and Anderson 1994).
American Coot (Fulica americana): A common to abundant winter resident throughout Florida, rare and
very local as a permanent resident. Breeds and forages in shallow fresh water marshes; forages
also in shallow water. Undoubtedly occurs at Zellwood in spring, but reports range only between
22 July and 13 November. The three highest Zellwood counts are 60, 75, and 90 birds. There are
two breeding reports: an incubating adult 22 July 1976 and young birds in August 1987.
Limpkin (Aramus guarauna): A Species of Special Concern, limited in North America to Florida and
extreme southern Georgia, where a permanent resident. Breeds and forages in shallow fresh water
marshes, along shores, in ditches, and in shallow fresh water. Probably resident at Zellwood, but
reports range only between 8 August and 15 September. All reports are of 1-3 birds.
Sandhill Crane (Grus canadensis): Two populations occur in Florida. The Florida Sandhill Crane (G. c.
pratensis) is an uncommon to locally common permanent resident in the Peninsula. The Greater
Sandhill Crane (G. c. tabicla) is a locally abundant winter resident of the Peninsula. The Florida
race breeds in shallow fresh water marshes, and both races forage in muddy fields and shallow
fresh water marshes. There are two Zellwood reports: 2 birds 23 August 1970 and 2 birds
"overhead" 22 August 1971. These dates are sufficiently late (Stevenson and Anderson 1994) to
suggest the birds may have been migrant Greater Sandhill Cranes, rather than of the resident
Florida race.
Whooping Crane (Grus americana): An Endangered species, breeding exclusively in Woods-Buffalo
National Park in Canada, and wintering almost exclusively at Aransas National Wildlife Refuge in
Texas. Since 1992, an experimental population of about 40 birds per year has been released into
Osceola County, Florida. Birds from this population, which are considered a Species of Special
Concern, have dispersed to many areas of central Florida. Breeds in shallow fresh water marshes
and forages in muddy fields and shallow fresh water marshes. There is one Zellwood report: 2
birds 1-13 August 1994.
Southern Lapwing (Vanellus chilensis): Native to South America. There are about seven Florida reports, all
presumed to represent escapes. Forages in dry and wet grassy fields. There is one Zellwood
report: 1 bird 23 July 1961.
Black-bellied Plover (Plzrvialis squatar-ola): A common migrant and winter resident of coastal areas
throughout Florida, uncommon to locally common inland, usually during migration. Forages in
short-grassy fields, bare ground, and along shallow water. Zellwood reports range between 21
July and 6 November, with one winter report on 22 February. The three highest Zellwood counts

are 55, 60, and 100 birds.

American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica): A rare to uncommon migrant throughout Florida, much
more common in fall than in spring. Forages in short-grass fields. Zellwood reports range between
3 August and 17 November, with one spring report on 16 April. The three highest Zellwood
counts are 1 1, 17, and 24 birds.
Semipalmated Plover (Charadrius semipalmatus): A common winter resident of coastal areas throughout
Florida, much less common inland during migration. Forages on mudflats and sandflats, and along
shallow water. Zellwood reports range between 21 July and 16 October. The three highest
Zellwood counts are 70, 100, and 100 birds.
Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus): A Threatened Species, very local in winter along sandy coasts, with
very few inland reports. Forages on sand flats, mud flats, and along shores. There are three
Zellwood reports, almost certainly of the same bird, 18 August-3 September 1974.
Killdeer (Charadrius vocijierus): An uncommon to locally common breeding resident in most of Florida,
often abundant in winter. Breeds and forages in dry grassy or weedy fields, also forages along the
edges of shallow fresh water marshes. Probably resident at Zellwood, but reports range only
between 9 July and 20 March. The three highest Zellwood counts are 136, 230, and 500 birds.
Probably breeds annually at Zellwood, but there seems to be no report of this.
Black-necked Stilt (Himantopus mexicanus): An uncommon to locally abundant breeding resident
throughout the Peninsula, rare and local in winter. Breeds and forages in shallow fresh water
marshes and mudflats. Zellwood reports range between 21 July and 15 September, but birds
almost certainly arrive in spring. The three highest Zellwood counts are 150, 250, and 300 birds.
There are many Zellwood breeding reports.
American Avocet (Recurvirostra americana): An uncommon to locally common permanent resident in
Florida, but has not bred. Occurs locally at a few coastal sites, and regularly is found inland in fall.
Forages in shallow open water. There are many Zellwood reports between 29 July and 16
October. The three highest Zellwood counts are 7, 8, and 8 buds.
Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca): A common to abundant migrant and winter resident throughout
Florida, much more common in fresh water. Forages in shallow water, shallow marshes, and on
mudflats. Zellwood reports range between 1 July and 13 November, but some birds may winter.
The three highest Zellwood counts are 400, 500, and 800 buds.
Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes): A common to abundant migrant and winter resident throughout
Florida, much more common in fresh water. Forages in shallow water, shallow marshes, and on
mudflats. Zellwood reports range between 1 July and 13 November, but some birds probably
winter. The three highest Zellwood counts are 900, 1000, and 1225 birds.
Solitary Sandpiper (Tringa solitaria): An uncommon migrant throughout Florida, avoiding salt water
habitats. Forages in and along shallow fresh water. Zellwood reports range between 14 July and
10 September. The three highest Zellwood counts are 9, 10, and 38 birds; the latter is the highest
count in Florida (Stevenson and Anderson 1994).
Willet (Catoptrophorus sernipalmatus): The Eastern Willet (C. s. sernipalmatus) is an uncommon to
common permanent resident of coastal areas throughout Florida. Birds found inland during
migration-apparently Western Willets (C. s. inornatus)-are rare to uncommon in fall. Both
races forage in and along shallow water and in shallow marshes. Zellwood reports range between
30 July and 15 September. The three highest Zellwood counts are 18, 19, and 40 birds; the latter
count is the highest inland report in Florida (Stevenson and Anderson 1994).

Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularia): An uncommon migrant and winter resident coastally throughout
Florida, uncommon inland during migration. Forages along the shore of shallow water. Zellwood
reports range between 1 July and 16 September. The three highest Zellwood counts are 11, 15,
and 19 birds.
Upland Sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda): A rare to fairly common migrant, much more common in fall
than in spring. Forages in dry grassy and weedy fields. Zellwood reports range between 1 1 August
and 10 September, with one spring report on 16 April. The three highest Zellwood counts are 33,
4 1, and 58 birds.
Whirnbrel (Numeniusphaeopus): An uncommon and local winter resident of the coasts, especially the Gulf
coast, but rare inland. Forages in shallow water. There are four Zellwood reports of single birds:
30 July 1966,24 August 197 1 , 3 August 1974, and 12 September 1980.
Long-billed Curlew (Mimenius amel.icanus): A rare and very local winter resident of a few sites along the
Gulf coast, very rare inland. Forages in shallow water and muddy areas. There is one Zellwood
report: 1 bird at Duda Farm 30 August-early September 1975.
Hudsonian Godwit (Limosa haemastica): A breeding resident of Alaska and Canada, wintering in South
America. There are less than 40 reports in Florida, mostly along the coasts. Forages in shallow
water. There are three Zellwood reports: single birds 7 September 1980 and 16 September 1983,
and up to 32 birds 31 August-early September 1986, the highest count in Florida (Stevenson and
Anderson 1994).
Marbled Godwit (Limosafedoa): Occurs nearly year-round in Florida, but has not bred. Locally common
at a few coastal sites, but irregular inland. Forages in shallow water. There are over 15 Zellwood
reports, all of single birds, between 12 August and 16 September.
Ruddy 'I'urnstone (Arenaria interpres): An uncommon to locally abundant winter resident of coastal
habitats throughout Florida, rare to uncommon inland during migration. Forages along the shore
of shallow water. Zellwood reports range between 28 July and 20 September. The three highest
Zellwood counts are 5,6, and 8 birds.
Red Knot (Calihis canutus): A local winter resident of sandy beaches, abundant at a few Gulf coast sites,
rare inland during migration. Forages in and along the shore of shallow water. There are at least
13 Zellwood reports between 17 August and 10 September. Four counts exceeded single birds: 2,
3,3, and 5 birds.
Sanderling (Calidris alba): A common to abundant winter resident of beaches and mudflats, rare inland
during migration. Forages mostly along the shore of shallow water. There are 10 Zellwood reports
between 28 July and 19 September, all of 1 or 2 birds.
Semipalmated Sandpiper (Calidris pusilla): A common to abundant migrant throughout Florida. Forages in
and along the shore of shallow water. Zellwood reports range between 15 July and 16 September.
The three highest Zellwood counts are 750, 1000, and 1500 birds.
Western Sandpiper (Calidris mauri): A common to abundant migrant throughout Florida, winters mostly
along the coasts. Forages in and along the shore of shallow water. Zellwood reports range between
14 July and 16 October. The three highest Zellwood counts are 500, 965, and 2100 birds.
Least Sandpiper (Calidris minutilla): A common to abundant migrant throughout Florida, winters mostly
along the coasts. Forages in and along the shore of shallow water. Zellwood reports range between
13 July and 13 November. The three highest Zellwood counts are 1000, 1290, and 2500 birds.

White-rumped Sandpiper (Calidris fuscicollis): A rare to locally uncommon migrant throughout Florida.
Forages in and along the shore of shallow water. There is one Zellwood report: 2 birds 3 1 August
1986.
Baird's Sandpiper (Calidris bairdii): A very rare to rare migrant throughout Florida. Forages in wet and dry
grassy fields, and along the shore of shallow water. There are three Zellwood reports of single
birds: 14 August 197 1, 10 September 1989, and 20 September 1990.
Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos): A common to abundant fall migrant throughout Florida, much
less common in spring. Forages in and along the shore of shallow water, and in wet and dry fields.
Zellwood reports range between 14 July and 13 November. The three highest Zellwood counts are
2000,2000, and 3000 birds.
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper (Calidris acuminata): A breeding resident of Siberia that winters in New Guinea,
New Zealand, and Australia. A few birds stray to North America in fall, mostly along the Pacific
coast. Forages in wet fields, muddy areas, and shallow water. There are two Florida reports,
including one juvenile at Zellwood 12-13 August 1973.
Dunlin (Calidris alpina): A common to abundant winter resident of Florida's coasts. Rare inland during
migration. Forages in and along the shore of shallow water. There are four Zellwood reports: 1
bud 1 August 1991, 10 birds 6 November 1991, 32 birds 13 November 1991, and 1 bird 15
August 1998.
Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea): A breeding resident of Europe, Asia, and Alaska that winters from
England south to Africa, in India, the Philippines, and Australia. A few birds stray to North
America every year. Forages in and along the shore of shallow water. There are four Zellwood
reports of single buds: 18 September 1967, 28 April-1 May 1968, 17-19 August 1985, and 29
August-4 September 1998.
Stilt Sandpiper (Calidris himantopus): An uncommon to common migrant in Florida, much more common
in fall. Small numbers winter in the state. Forages in and along the shore of shallow water.
Zellwood reports range between 15 July and 16 October. The three highest Zellwood counts are
340,400, and 1228 birds.
Buff-breasted Sandpiper (Tryngites subruJicollis): An uncommon fall migrant in Florida, much less
common in spring. Forages mostly in dry, short-grass fields. Zellwood reports range between 17
August and 17 November, the latest date in Florida (Stevenson and Anderson 1994). The three
highest Zellwood counts are 40,40, and 45 birds.
Ruff (Philomachus pugnax): A widespread breeding resident of Eurasia, wintering south to Africa and
Australia. A few birds stray to North America every year. Forages in and along the shore of
shallow water. There are 10 Zellwood reports that probably represent eight singles between 17
July and 4 September.
Short-billed Dowitcher (Limnodromus griseus): A common to abundant migrant and winter resident of
coastal areas throughout Florida, also occurs inland, mostly during migration. Forages in shallow
water. Zellwood reports range between 28 July and 13 November, with one winter report on 13
January. The three highest Zellwood counts are 320, 350, and 450 birds.
Long-billed Dowitcher (Limnodromus scolopaceus): A rare to locally common migrant and winter resident
of fresh water habitats throughout most of Florida. Forages in shallow fresh water. Zellwood
reports range between 21 July and 25 August. The three highest Zellwood counts are 15, 25, and
3 1 birds.

Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago): A rare to uncommon migrant throughout fresh water habitats in
Florida; may be locally abundant in winter. Forages on mudflats and in and along the shore of
shallow fresh water. Probably winters regularly at Zellwood, but reports range only between 3
August and 15 September, with one spring report on 20 March. All counts have been of 1-4 birds.
Wilson's Phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor):A rare to locally common fall migrant at a few inland sites in the
Peninsula, very rare elsewhere and at other seasons. Common only in shallowly flooded
agricultural fields at Zellwood and Belle Glade. Forages in and along the shore of shallow fresh
water. Zellwood reports range between 22 July and 11 September. The three highest Zellwood
counts are 64,75, and 93 birds.
Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus): A breeding resident of northern North America and Europe,
wintering offshore in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. There are less than 100 Florida reports,
mostly in the Atlantic. Forages in open water, and along the shore of shallow water. There are two
Zellwood reports of single birds: 3 1 August 1974 and 8 September 1984.
Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla): An abundant permanent resident throughout coastal areas of Florida, rare
to uncommon inland in winter and during migration. Forages in open water, along shores, and at
garbage dumps. Zellwood reports range between 21 July and 11 September, with one spring
report on 16 April 1992. The three highest Zellwood counts are 19,20, and 25 birds.
Bonaparte's Gull (Larus philadelphia): An uncommon to locally abundant winter resident of coastal areas
throughout most of Florida, less common and local inland. Forages in shallow water. There is at
least one undated Zellwood report.
Ring-billed Gull (Larus ddawarensis): An abundant wintering resident in coastal areas throughout Florida,
locally abundant inland. Forages in open water, along shores, and at garbage dumps. Zellwood
reports range between 1 July and 16 April. The three highest Zellwood counts are 155, 250, and
300 birds.
Herring Gull (Larus argentatus): An uncommon to locally common winter resident of coastal areas
throughout Florida, rare inland. Forages in open water, along shores, and at garbage dumps. There
is one Zellwood report of 2 birds 13 November 1991.
Gull-billed Tern: (Sterna nilotica): A rare to uncommon, very local permanent resident, less common in
winter, except in extreme South Florida. Breeds in dry grassy areas or on bare ground. Feeds on
insects and small vertebrates captured in the air or on the ground. There are 10 Zellwood reports
between 14 July and 1 September, including a breeding report of 2 adults and 1 juvenile 19
August 1972. All Zellwood counts are of 1-5 birds.
Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia): An uncommon and very local permanent resident at a few coastal sites in
Florida. In migration and winter, uncommon and widespread coastally, and rare to locally
uncommon inland. Forages in open water. Zellwood reports range between 22 July and 13
November. The three highest Zellwood report are 30,4 1, and 45 birds.
Royal Tern (Sterna maxima): An uncommon to locally abundant permanent resident of coastal areas
throughout Florida; very rare inland. Forages in open water. There is at least one undated
Zellwood report.
Sandwich Tern (Sterna sanclvicensis): A rare to locally common permanent resident at a few coastal sites,
much more common and widespread in winter. Very rare inland. Forages in open water. There are
two Zellwood reports: 1 bird 16 July 1975, and 2 birds 3 1 August 1975.

Common Tern (Sterna hirundo): An uncommon to locally abundant coastal migrant throughout Florida,
very rare inland and in winter. Forages in open water. There are three Zellwood reports: 2 birds 17
August 1966 and 27 July 1972, and 1 bird 1 September 1973.
Forster's Tern (Sterna forsteri): A common winter resident of coastal areas throughout Florida, much less
common inland. Forages in open water. Zellwood reports range between 18 July and 16
September, with one spring report on 20 March. The three highest Zellwood counts are 90, 165,
and 500 buds.
Least Tern (Sterna antillarum): A Threatened Species, uncommon to common from spring to early fall
throughout Florida, mostly along the coasts. Forages in open water. There are seven non-breeding
reports from Zellwood between 9 July and 2 September. The three highest Zellwood counts are
15,21, and 50 birds.
Black Tern (Chlicionias niger): An uncommon to locally abundant migrant throughout Florida, especially
in fall. Forages over water, marshes, and dry fields. Zellwood reports range between 1 July and 11
September. The three highest Zellwood counts are 240,295, and 500 birds.
Brown Noddy (Anous stolicius): An abundant breeding resident at Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida.
Otherwise, occurs only offshore, unless blown inland by storms. Feeds on small animals plucked
from open water. There is one Zellwood report: 1 bird 10 September 1965.
Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger): A Species of Special Concern, uncommon to locally abundant in coastal
areas throughout Florida, rare inland. Forages in quiet, shallow water. There are at least 10 reports
ranging between 1 July and 16 September. All counts are of 1-2 birds, except 10 birds 21 July
1974.
Burrowing Owl (Athene canicularia): A fairly common resident of dry fields in scattered areas of the
Florida Peninsula, with other populations in the western US. Feeds on small animals captured on
the ground. There is one Zellwood report of 1 bird 8 August 1987.
Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus): A rare and local winter resident throughout Florida. Forages over dry
fields and shallow marshes. There are three Zellwood reports: up to 7 wintered in 1964-1965, up
to 6 wintered 1986-1987, and 1 bud 16 April 1992.
Belted Kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon): A common winter resident throughout Florida. Forages in shallow open
water. Zellwood reports range between 21 July and 25 August. All Zellwood counts are of 1-6
birds.