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3, AUGUST 2007
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I. INTRODUCTION
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TABLE I
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT BATTERIES
TABLE II
REQUIREMENTS FOR PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL RESERVE IN UCTE
Fig. 2. NPV of cost for different types of 10-MW BESS and PHS versus variable capacity and NPV of profit (dashed horizontal line) obtained by selling
primary reserve in Germany.
Fig. 2 shows the NPV of cost for 10-MW BESS units as a function of BESS capacity.
The NPV of cost for a pumped hydro storage (PHS) plant is
plotted on the same diagram for comparison. PHS is the unbeatable storage solution for a discharge time higher than 0.75 h in
comparison to any BESS technology; however, its application is
very limited due to geographical and environmental constraints.
Among batteries, lead-acid BESS is the most economic solution
for a discharge time up to 1.25 h.
Fig. 2 anticipates results for the market price for the primary
reserve service and results for the capacity minimization to be
discussed below.
system operators (TSOs) members of the Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE) (synchronous
interconnection of central European countries) to achieve the
required generation-load balance (see Fig. 3).
A deviation of system frequency will cause primary controllers of all generators subject to primary control to respond
within a few seconds to stop frequency drop/rise. Requirements
for primary reserve in UCTE are shown in Table II [13]. Since
the early days of UCTE, the primary frequency control was a
mandatory service organized through the vertically integrated
electrical utilities making all large thermal and hydro units
MW) available for the provision of primary reserve.
(
During the last decade, markets for ancillary services have
been established in many European countries. Under free
market conditions, the control philosophy is still respected, but
the TSOs do not exercise direct authority over the power plants.
Other entities such as loads, distributed generation, and energy
storage have the right, not an obligation, to offer frequency
control reserves as long as they fulfill technical and commercial requirements set by the TSO. Currently, primary reserve
markets are local; cross border reserve markets, however, are
being discussed and will be established in the near future [14].
OUDALOV et al.: OPTIMIZING A BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM FOR PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL
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Reserve Price
Period
(1)
The German market for primary frequency reserve has been established in 2001 and has the longest historic records in UCTE.
Awarding of contracts for the provision of primary reserve is
realized in a nondiscriminatory manner on the basis of public
tenders. Fig. 4 illustrates the results of tenders in four German
TSOs starting from 2001. The current average price for primary
reserve is about 60 Euro/kW/six month. Thus, the annual payMW in Germany is
ment for keeping a primary reserve of
120 k Euro.
IV. ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF BESS APPLICATION
FOR PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL RESERVE
To determine the economic viability of BESS application
for primary frequency control, the total revenue from selling
must be compared with capital, operating,
reserve
and maintenance (O&M) costs over the BESS life cycle
Profit
(2)
Revenue
Cost
(3)
(4)
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TABLE III
RESULTS OF STATISTIC ANALYSIS OF PRIMARY RESERVE POWER CURVE
grid code [13], which states that the full primary reserve
has to be activated when the frequency deviation
reaches
mHz. As an example, we choose a contracted primary
reserve Pn (nominal power of the BESS) of 2 MW, which is
0.06% of the total UCTE primary reserve. The BESS follows
the frequency profile; however, its influence on the frequency
is neglected.
The p-f characteristic permits the transformation of the measured frequency deviations into a required output/input power
for every second (see Fig. 7). The duration, the maximum power,
and the energy of each discharging/charging pulse have been analyzed in Table III.
B. Simulation of BESS Supplying Primary Reserve in UCTE
1) BESS With No Additional Charging: We start the analysis
with an unrealistic case for illustration purposes only: a BESS
with an efficiency of 70% that is charged and discharged only in
function of the frequency variation with no additional charging.
At the beginning of the month, the BESS is 100% charged, and
then, it supplies/absorbs power depending on the system frequency variation (see Fig. 7).
With the given p-f characteristic, the operating rules are very
simple:
Discharge the battery when
mHz.
mHz.
Charge the battery when
OUDALOV et al.: OPTIMIZING A BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM FOR PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL
Fig. 8. SoC of the BESS with efficiency 70%, no recharge, and recharge with
1%-5% of BESS nominal power, April 2005.
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the recharge power, the higher the deepest state of charge and
the smaller the needed battery capacity.
There are, however, also disadvantages with a high recharge
power. With the high recharge power, the BESS is fully charged
most of the time and is not able to absorb power from the grid
in the case of a frequency rise above the noncritical window.
We use auxiliary resistors to dissipate power under these circumstances. This costs money. Energy has to be bought on the
market that could be obtained for free during the high frequency
periods.
Fig. 9 puts together two plots that demonstrate the impact of
the recharge power percentage on BESS design and operation.
The black line shows how the BESS capacity depends on the
recharge percentage. The BESS capacity is the minimum value
hours to ensure a further maximum disin Fig. 8 plus 0.25
charge event (15 min full nominal power) at the lowest statistically occurring level of charge.
The grey line in Fig. 9 shows how the total energy losses in
the auxiliary resistors during one month depend on the recharge
percentage.
3) BESS With Additional Charging and SoC Max/Min Limits:
If the target level for the state of charge is chosen slightly below
100%, we keep some charging reserve, and most of the events
can be avoided where energy would be dissipated in the resistors. Based on this idea, we have improved the BESS operating
strategy. The goal is now not to keep the battery 100% charged
but to keep it in a range between two defined SoC levels. This
Payment
(5)
(6)
where
is the BESS installation and O&M cost.
is the
cost of recharge energy bought from the grid.
All parameters and variables used in the optimization are
grouped in Table IV.
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TABLE IV
BESS PARAMETERS AND VARIABLES FOR OPTIMIZATION
TABLE V
RESULTS OF BESS CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION
Revenue - Cost
Payment
(7)
Fig. 11. Monthly SoC variation of the 2-MW BESS with adjusted SoC
max/min limits. Frequency data: April 2005.
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current battery system costs and current market prices for the
provision of primary reserve capacity.
With rare use of emergency resistors, the optimum capacity is
0.62 h multiplied by the nominal power rating. For a cost-effective sizing, it is essential to use adjustable maximum and minimum state of charge limits, to recharge at moderate rate while
the system frequency is within the noncritical window, and to
sell some power to the intra-day market if the state of charge is
on the high side. An economically optimum BESS for primary
frequency control includes emergency resistors to dissipate energy during rare events when an extreme over-frequency excursion occurs while the BESS is fully charged.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank G. Linhofer (ABB Switzerland) and W. Sattinger (ETRANS) for their contributions.
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