Cellular Energy and Metabolism: Underlying Chemical Principles

Introduction

Cells capture and utilize energy through a series of chemical reactions which involve:
o Rearrangement of electrons within the molecules involved in the reaction.
o Redistribution of energy that these molecules contain.
Some molecules end up with more energy than they began while some end up with less.
Metabolism complex network of reactions inside the cell that captures the energy and
raw materials of its environment and allows them to be changed into forms that are used
to sustain cells.

Energy Change in Chemical Reactions

All chemical reactions are accompanied by a net energy change, which depends on how
much energy is taken in by the chemicals when chemical bonds form and how much
energy is released when bonds break.
In chemical reactions, there is a balance between energy taken when chemicals break,
energy released when chemical bonds form and energy exchanged with surroundings.
As a result, there is overall loss of usable energy.
Change in Free Energy
o Change in free energy (G) = change in the usable energy that is available for
doing work
Positive G: Reaction will not proceed spontaneously. It is work-requiring
(endergonic.)
Negative G: Reaction will proceed spontaneously. It is work-producing
(exergonic.)

G=H TS

ATP and Free Energy

Some molecules like ATP (adenosine triphosphate) contain bonds that are called high
energy phosphate bonds.

ATP ( energy stored as chemical energy ) ADP+ P i+energy released

ADP + Pi+energy ATP(energy stored as chemical energy)

Cells capture energy as chemical energy stored with molecules of ATP. This captured
energy is used to drive energy-requiring reactions.
ATP is considered the central currency of energy in the cell. Why?
- Because it is a high energy molecule that is used in many different reactions
throughout the cell as the energy source. You can make or use ATP, like making or
using Philippine peso in normal currency. Also, some reactions might need more than
other reactions, just like how some items cost more than others. But like what was said
before, ATP is not only used, it can also be produced by energy-producing processes
just like how jobs can produce Philippine peso.
Some pathways require inputs of ATP and use the energy of ATP to drive endergonic
reactions.
Living cells continuously form and consume ATP.

Activation Energy

Input of energy which all chemical reactions begin with whether they eventually take in or
release energy overall.
Chemical reactions begin with collision between reactant molecules. Activation energy is
required in a collision to initiate a chemical reaction.

Enzymes and Activation Energy

Enzymes are globular proteins with characteristic 3-dimensional shapes that act as
biological catalysts to speed up the rates at which chemical reactions occur by lowering
the activation energy.
Lock and Key Model
Enzyme and substrate are available.
Substrate attach to the active site of the enzyme in order to produce an enzymesubstrate complex.
Substrate is converted to product.
Product is released and enzyme goes back into its original state. Enzymes are not
consumed or modified in the overall course of the reactions they catalyze.
The active site is the binding site for the enzymes substrate.
Enzymes are specific for substrate molecules. These are all shape-driven, so anything that
alters the shape of the active site will affect enzymatic activity.
Enzymes are efficient, can operate at relatively low temperatures and are subject to
various cellular controls.
Enzyme exhibit very precise substrate specificity, i.e. each enzyme can bind to and
catalyze the reactions of only a very small range of molecules.
The specificity of enzymes for a particular substrate depends on the precise structure of
each enzymes active site.
Fundamental unity at the cellular level exists among all living organisms.
The uniqueness of a certain type of cell or organism is not due to uniqueness of
substances and enzymes found in it, but rather due to the uniqueness of combinations of
substances and enzymes found in them.

Factors affecting Enzyme Activity

At high temperatures, enzymes undergo denaturation and lose their catalytic properties;
at low temperatures, the reaction rate decreases. The rate at which enzymatic reactions
process is sensitive to temperature. Above about 40C, most enzymes become structurally
altered via denaturation.
The pH at which enzymatic activity is maximal is known as the optimum pH. Enzymes are
proteins and their molecular structure is affected by pH. Catalysis by enzymes is highly
dependent on molecular structure thus enzyme activity is sensitive to pH change.
Within limits, enzymatic activity increases as substrate concentration increases. At some
high concentration of the substrate, so that all the enzymes active sites are occupied,
increasing the substrate concentration will not further increase the rate of the reaction. At
this substrate concentration, the maximum rate of enzymatic reaction (V max) has been
reached.
Michaelis-Menten Equation
The dependence of the rate of enzymatic reaction (V) on substrate concentration [S]
is given by

V=

Vmax [S]
[ Km+ S]

Km, the Michaelis constant, is the substrate concentration that results in a reaction
rate one-half times the maximum (Vmax).
Km is a measure of the affinity of the enzyme for a particular substance. The
greater the affinity is, the lower the Km is.

Enzyme Regulation

Cofactors
Many enzymes need a cofactor (inorganic substances such as minerals) to activate
them. Without the cofactor, the enzyme cant lock the substrate into its active site,
so the reaction cant take place.
The cofactor can be a metal ion(e.g. Fe2+) or a complex inorganic molecule known
as coenzyme (e.g. NAD+)
Allosteric effectors
The rate of enzymatic reactions can be altered by molecules that can act as
allosteric effectors which are molecules that bind at the enzyme and deform the
active site which disables substrate to bind with the enzyme.
Competitive inhibitors compete with the normal substrate for the active site of the
enzyme.
Noncompetitive inhibitors act on other parts of the apoenzyme or on the cofactor
and decrease the enzymes ability to combine with the normal substrate.
How do enzyme regulation work? A substrate binds with enzyme 1 and produces
intermediate A which becomes the substrate that will bind at the active site of enzyme 2.
This process will produce intermediate B that will now bind with enzyme 3 to produce the
end product which when attaches to enzyme 1 will stop the production of intermediate A
and eventually, the whole process.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Many metabolic reactions, including those involved in energy capture and utilization are
reactions that involve electron transfer.
Many enzymatic reactions require coenzymes (small non-protein organic substances that
bind loosely to specific enzymes and assist in their catalytic function).
They can accept a chemical group (or an electron) produced by one enzymatic reaction,
hold on to it for a short time and then donate it to the substrate of another reaction.
Oxidation of a substrate is often coupled to the simultaneous reduction of a coenzyme.

Reduction Potential

Molecules vary with regard to how easily they gain or accept electrons. This ability is
reflected in the value of their reduction potential, which is a value indicating how readily a
substance accepts/donates electrons. The substance with the most positive reduction
potential has the greatest potential to accept electron.

Electrical Potential

The electrical potential (rxn) is related to the free energy (G) by

G=nF rxn

Where

n = number of electrons transferred

F = Faradays constant (96,485 Coulombs/mole)
The higher the electrical potential of a reduction half-reaction, the greater the tendency for
the species to accept an electron.

Metabolic Strategies for Generating ATP

Via metabolic pathways:

Chemical energy or light energy -> energy stored in ATP
Cell obtains C for synthesis of new cell materials
Synthesis of ATP
Through metabolism of inorganic substances
Through the conversion of light energy -> chemical energy
Utilization of organic substances
Two different mechanisms for generating ATP:
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Chemiosmosis

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Free energy released from exergonic reactions supplies the free energy required to
combine inorganic phosphate (Pi) or phosphate from an organic molecule and ADP to form
ATP.
In a substrate level phosphorylation, ATP is made during the conversion of an organic
molecule from one form to another.
Energy released during the conversion is partially conserved during the synthesis of the
high energy bond of ATP.
SLP occurs during fermentations and respiration (the TCA cycle), and even during some
lithotrophic transformations of inorganic substrates.
Example:
Phosphoenolpyruvate -> pyruvate
(exergonic)
ADP -> ATP
(endergoni

Chemiosmosis

ADP -> ATP

Movement of electrons down a proton gradient across a membrane
(exergonic)

(endergonic)

Autotrophic Metabolism

Self-feeding
Uses inorganic CO2 as carbon source

Heterotrophic Metabolism

Requires supply of preformed organic matter for the production of cellular biomass and as
a source of chemical energy used to form ATP
Involves conversion of the organic substrate molecule to end products via a metabolic
pathway that releases sufficient energy for it to be couples to the formation of ATP.
Two basic types:

Respiration
Fermentation

Respiration

Requires an external electron acceptor not derived from the organic substrate.
Reduction of final electron acceptor balances the oxidation of initial substrate (electron
transport system)

Fermentation

Metabolism in which energy is derived from the partial oxidation of an organic compound
using organic intermediates as electron donors and electron acceptors.
No outside electron acceptors are involved; no membrane or electron transport system is
required.
All ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation.

Respiratory Metabolism

Aerobic respiration begins with an organic molecule and combines it with oxygen in an
oxidation-reduction process that ends with the formation of CO 2 and H2O plus a substantial
amount of ATP.
3 Phases of Respiratory Metabolism
A catabolic pathway during which the organic molecule is broken down into smaller
molecules usually with the generation of some ATP and reduced coenzymes.
The tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA), during which the small organic molecules
produced in the first phase are oxidized to inorganic carbon dioxide and water,
accompanied with more production of more ATP and reduced coenzymes
Oxidative phosphorylation, during which
The reduced enzymes are reoxidized
The electrons they release are transported through a series of membrane-bound
carriers to establish a proton gradient across a membrane (electron transport
system)
A terminal acceptor such as oxygen is reduced and ATP is synthesized

Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle

At the end of the TCA cycle, all the carbon has been converted to CO 2.
TCA plays a central role in the flow of carbon through the cell.
It supplies organic precursor molecules to many biosynthetic pathways. Some of the
intermediates in the TCA cycle must be resynthesized to maintain TCA cycle.

Electron Transport Chain

Electrons are brought to the electron transport chain by NADH.

The electron transport chain consists of membrane-bound carriers, including flavoproteins,
cytochromes and ubiquinones.
Electrons from the reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH 2 are passed from one carrier with
low reduction potential to carriers with higher reduction potential. The energy gained from
each electron-transfer step is used to drive proton pumps, or move protons against a
concentration gradient, from the matrix to the intermembrane space.

The final/terminal electron acceptor is irreversibly reduced; it may be oxygen (aerobic) or

another inorganic molecule (anaerobic).
ETP requires that electrons removed from substrates be dumped into an electron transport
system (ETS) contained within a membrane. The electrons are transferred through the ETS
to some final electron acceptor in the membrane (like O2 in aerobic respiration) , while
their traverse through the ETS results in the extrusion of protons and the establishment of
a proton motive force (pmf) across the membrane.
The idea in electron transport phosphorylation is to drive electrons through an ETS in the
membrane, establish a pmf, and use the pmf to synthesize ATP.

Aerobic Respiration: Overall Process

A substrate such as glucose is completely oxidized to CO 2 by the combined pathways of

glycolysis and the TCA cycle.
Electrons removed from the glucose by NAD are fed into the electron transport chain in
the membrane.
As the electrons traverse the electron transport chain, a proton motive force becomes
established across the membrane.
The electrons eventually reduce an outside electron acceptor, O 2 and reduce it to H2O.
The proton motive force on the membrane is used by the ATPase enzyme to synthesize
ATP by a process referred to as oxidative phosphorylation.

Anaerobic Respiration

The final electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration include NO 3-, SO42- and CO32-.
NO3- is reduced to NO2SO42- is reduced to H2S.
CO32- is reduced to CH4.
The total ATP yield is less than in anaerobic respiration because only part of the Krebs
cycle operates under anaerobic conditions.

Fermentation

Fermentation is any process that releases energy from sugars or other organic molecules
by oxidation, does not require O2, the Krebs cycle, or an electron transport chain, and uses
an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor.
Fermentation is metabolism in which energy is derived from the partial oxidation of an
organic compound using organic intermediates as electron donors and electron acceptors.
No outside electron acceptors are involved; no membrane or electron transport system is
required; all ATP is produced by substrate level phosphorylation.
Fermentation can sometimes occur in the presence of O 2.
Fermentation produces 2 ATP molecules by substrate-level phosphorylation.
Electrons removed from the substrate reduce NAD + to NADH.
Uses a terminal electron acceptor derived from organic substrate. Both the electron donor
and electron acceptor are internal to the organic substrate in a fermentation pathway, i.e.
the eventual electron acceptor.
Can occur in the absence of air because there is no requirement for O 2 or an external
electron acceptor to achieve a balance in the oxidation-reduction reaction.
Yields less ATP per substrate molecule than respiration (because the organic substrate
molecule must serve as both the internal electron donor and internal electron acceptor).
ATP generation is only during glycolysis.

Not all C and H are oxidized to CO2 and H2O. C and H are rearranged into a form containing
less chemical energy than that with which they began.

Catabolism of Lipids

Lipase hydrolyze lipids into glycerol and fatty acids.

Fatty acids and other hydrocarbons are catabolized by beta oxidation.
Beta oxidation produces two carbon units that are linked to CoA to make acetyl-CoA.
Catabolic products can be further broken down into glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.

Transamination of amino acids

Before amino acids can be catabolized, they must be converted to various substances that
enter the Krebs cycle or glycolysis.
Transamination (transfer of NH2), decarboxylation (removal of COOH), and
dehydrogenation (H2) reactions convert the amino acids to be catabolized into substances
that enter the glycolytic pathway or Krebs cycle.

Lithotrophic Metabolism

Lithotrophy the use of an inorganic compound as a source of energy

Most lithotrophic bacteria are aerobic respirers.
Get e- from inorganic compound
e- -> electron transport chain to produce ATP
Some lithotrophs are facultative litotrophs.
Organic or inorganic compound as source of energy
Lithoautotrophs
A very diverse group of prokaryotes.
Able to oxidize an inorganic compound as an energy source.

Lithotrophic Metabolism: Hydrogen Oxidation

Hydrogen bacteria oxidize hydrogen gas as an energy source.

Most are nutritionally-versatile, i.e. use a wide range of carbon and energy sources.
Some have NAD-linked hydrogenase that transfers electrons from hydrogen to NAD in a
one-step process. NAD then delivers the electrons to the electron transport system.
Others have hydrogenase enzymes that pass electrons to different carriers in the bacterial
electron transport system.

Lithotrophic Metabolism: Autotrophic Methanogenesis

Methanogens the most prevalent and diverse group of Archaea and able to oxidize
hydrogen as a sole source of energy while transferring the electrons from hydrogen to
carbon dioxide in its reduction to methane.
Metabolism of the methanogens is absolutely unique.
Methanogens use H2 and CO2 to produce cell material and methane. They have
unique coenzymes and electron transport processes.
Their type of energy generating metabolism is never seen in the Bacteria, and their
mechanism of autotrophic CO2 fixation is very rare.

Lithotrophic Metabolism: Oxidation of Carbon monoxide

Carboxydobacteria able to oxidize CO to CO2 using an enzyme CODH (carbon monoxide

dehydrogenase)
The enzyme CODH used by the carboxydobacteria to oxidize CO to CO 2 is used by
methanogens for the reverse reaction the reduction of CO 2 to CO during CO2 fixation by
the CODH pathway.

Lithotrophic Metabolism: Nitrification

The nitrifying bacteria are represented by two genera, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
Together these bacteria can accomplish the oxidation of NH3 to NO3, known as the
process of nitrification. No single organism can carry out the whole oxidative process.
Nitrosomonas oxidizes ammonia to NO2 and Nitrobacter oxidizes NO2 to NO3.
Nitrifying bacteria grow in environments rich in ammonia, where extensive protein
decomposition is taking place.
Nitrification in soil and aquatic habitats is an essential part of the nitrogen cycle.

Lithotrophic Metabolism: Sulfur Oxidation

Lithotrophic sulfur oxidizers include both Bacteria (e.g. Thiobacillus) and Archaea (e.g.
Sulfolobus).
Sulfur oxidizers oxidize H2S (sulfide) or S (elemental sulfur) as a source of energy.
The purple and green sulfur bacteria oxidize H 2S or S as an electron donor for
photosynthesis, and use the electrons for CO 2 fixation (the dark reaction of
photosynthesis).
Lithoautotrophic sulfur oxidizers are found in environments rich in H 2S, such as volcanic
hot springs and fumaroles, and deep-sea thermal vents.
Some are found as symbionts and endosymbionts of higher organisms.
Since they can generate energy from an inorganic compound and fix CO 2 as autotrophs,
they may play a fundamental role in primary production in environments that lack
sunlight.
As a result of their lithotrophic oxidations, these organisms produce sulfuric acid (SO 4), and
therefore tend to acidify their own environments.
Some of the sulfur oxidizers are acidophiles that will grow at a pH of 1 or less.
Some are hyperthermophiles that grow at temperatures of 115 degrees C.

Lithotrophic Metabolism: Iron Oxidation

Iron bacteria oxidize Fe++ (ferrous iron) to Fe+++ (ferric iron).

At least two bacteria probably oxidize Fe++ as a source of energy and/or electrons and are
capable of lithoautotrophic growth
the stalked bacterium Gallionella, which forms flocculant rust-colored colonies
attached to objects in nature
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, which is also a sulfur-oxidizing lithotroph.

Phototrophic Metabolism

Phototrophy is the use of light as a source of energy for growth, more specifically the
conversion of light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP.
Procaryotes that can convert light energy into chemical energy include
The cyanobacteria conduct plant photosynthesis, called oxygenic photosynthesis;

the purple and green bacteria conduct bacterial photosynthesis or anoxygenic

photosynthesis;
the extreme halophilic archaea use a type of nonphotosynthetic
photophosphorylation mediated by bacteriorhodopsin to transform light energy into
ATP.
Photosynthesis is a type of metabolism separable into a catabolic and anabolic
component.
The catabolic component of photosynthesis is the light reaction, wherein light energy is
transformed into electrical energy, then chemical energy.
The Light Reactions depend upon the presence of chlorophyll, the primary lightharvesting pigment in the membrane of photosynthetic organisms.
Absorption of a quantum of light by a chlorophyll molecule causes the displacement
of an electron at the reaction center.
The displaced electron is an energy source that is moved through a membrane
photosynthetic electron transport system, being successively passed from an ironsulfur protein (X ) to a quinone to a cytochrome and back to chlorophyll.
As the electron is transported, a proton motive force is established on the
membrane, and ATP is synthesized by an ATPase enzyme.
This manner of converting light energy into chemical energy is called cyclic
photophosphorylation.
In a noncyclic photophosphorylation, the electrons are used to reduce NADP +, and
the electrons are returned to chlorophyll from H 2O or H2S.
The anabolic component involves the fixation of CO2 and its use as a carbon source for
growth, usually called the dark reaction.
In photosynthetic procaryotes there are two types of photosynthesis and two types of CO2
fixation.
The functional components of the photochemical system are light harvesting pigments, a
membrane electron transport system, and an ATPase enzyme.
The photosynthetic electron transport system of is fundamentally similar to a
respiratory ETS, except that there is a low redox electron acceptor (e.g. ferredoxin)
at the top (low redox end) of the electron transport chain, that is first reduced by
the electron displaced from chlorophyll.
There are several types of pigments distributed among various phototrophic organisms.
Chlorophyll is the primary light-harvesting pigment in all photosynthetic organisms.
The chlorophylls are partially responsible for light harvesting at the photochemical
reaction center.
Carotenoids are always associated with the photosynthetic apparatus. They function
as secondary light-harvesting pigments. Carotenoids transfer energy to chlorophyll,
at near 100 percent efficiency, from wave lengths of light that are missed by
chlorophyll. In addition, carotenoids have an indispensable function to protect the
photosynthetic apparatus from photooxidative damage.
Phycobiliproteins are the major light harvesting pigments of the cyanobacteria.
They also occur in some groups of algae. Being closely linked to chlorophyll they
can efficiently transfer light energy to chlorophyll at the reaction center.
The normally cyclical flow of electrons during bacterial photosynthesis must be opened up
in order to obtain electrons for CO2 fixation. In the case of the purple sulfur bacteria, they
use H2S as a source of electrons. The oxidation of H2S is coupled to PSI. Light energy
boosts an electron, derived from H2S, to the level of ferredoxin, which reduces NADP to
provide electrons for autotrophic CO2 fixation.

Light-Dependent Reaction: Calvin-Benson Cycle

CO2 is used to synthesize sugars in the Calvin-Benson cycle

CO2 is ligated to ribulose diphosphate (5-carbon molecule) to produce glucose
Three CO2 molecules and three RuDP molecules yield six glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate
molecules.
Five glyceraldehydes molecules are converted to three RuDP molecules and one
glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate is ligated to another to form glucose.

Additional Notes:

What are metabolism, catabolism and anabolism?

Metabolism is the general term for all chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living
organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their
structures, and respond to their environments.
Metabolism can be divided into two general types of reactions. Catabolism is all of the chemical
reactions that break down molecules, either to extract energy or to produce simple molecules for
constructing others. Anabolism refers to all of the metabolic reactions that build or assemble
more complex molecules from simpler ones. Catabolism and anabolism are intimately connected,
and one really cannot occur without the other.
Catabolism is also known as a "downhill" process during which energy is released, while
anabolism requires the input of energy, and is therefore an energetically "uphill" process. At
certain points in the anabolic pathway, the cell must put more energy into a reaction than is
released during catabolism. Such anabolic steps require a different series of reaction than are
used at this point during catabolism.

What are metabolic pathways?

The chemical reactions of metabolism do not happen randomly. They are organized into
metabolic pathways, in which one molecule is converted through a series of steps into another
molecule. For example, the metabolic pathway called glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate,
producing ATP. Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway, and all life depends on it. It is the central
metabolic pathway. Metabolic pathways are interconnected. Cells use molecules produced in one
pathway to make others.

How are metabolic pathways controlled?

Each step in a metabolic pathway will be catalyzed by an enzyme. These enzymes are crucial to
metabolism for several reasons.

They help all metabolic reactions occur faster and more efficiently.
Without a catalyst, some of the metabolic reactions require conditions that are more
extreme than what we see in cells (higher temperatures, extremes of pH, etc.) Metabolic
enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions so they can occur in more moderate
conditions.
Some of the steps in metabolic pathways require energy, and do not happen
spontaneously. Enzymes can couple these reactions to ATP cleavage, which releases the
energy needed to drive the reaction.

Enzymes also let cells regulate metabolic pathways in response to changes in the environment or
signals from other cells. Every metabolic pathway will have at least one rate-limiting enzyme. If
that enzyme is missing, the entire pathway stops. Cells can control the activity of the entire
pathway by:

Increasing or decreasing the amount of that one enzyme.

Adding or removing molecules that inhibit that enzyme.
Separating the enzyme and substrates in the pathway.
Separating enzymes that normally are together in a group. Very often, enzymes in a
metabolic pathway are located next to each other, either in an organelle or in the
membrane of an organelle, or held together by another protein. Removing one of the
enzymes from the group slows down the reaction process.
Adding or removing a phosphate, which changes the enzyme's activity.

MICROBIOLOGY OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT

Introduction

Microorganisms play a major role in organic matter, N and P removal in wastewater

treatment systems.
Conversions in wastewater treatment are linked to the growth of the microorganisms.
Microorganisms derive energy from substances present in wastewater.
Growth of microorganisms is dependent on some factors such as growth requirements and
environmental factors.

The Cell

The cell is a complex chemical system that can be distinguished from non-living entities.
Cells are capable of growth and reproduction. They can self-produce another entity
essentially identical to themselves.
Cells are highly organized and selectively restrict what crosses their boundaries. Cells are
at low entropy compared to their environment.
Cells are composed of major elements (C,N,O,S..) that are chemically reduced.
Cells take up necessary elements, electrons, and energy from their external environment
to create and maintain themselves as reproducing, organized and reduced entities.

Essential Components of Cells

Cell membrane a barrier between the cell and its environment

Cell wall a structural member that confers rigidity to the cell and protects the
membrane.
Cytoplasm comprises most of the inside of the cell water and substances (including
macromolecules) that cell needs in order to function
Chromosome contains the genetic code for the cells heredity and biochemical function
Ribosome converts the genetic code into working catalysts for the cells reaction
Enzymes proteins that acts as catalysts for the cells reactions

Anatomical Features of Bacterial Cell

Capsule, slime layer protection

Cell wall provides structural strength and protection against mechanical and osmotic
injury
Cytoplasmic membrane - regulates transport in and out of the cell and site of many
enzymes
Flagella convert chemical energy into kinetic energy for locomotion
Nuclear zone carries and transfers genetic information
Ribosomes sites of protein synthesis
Chromatophores convert radiant energy into chemical energy
Endospores preservation under adverse conditions

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus, while

prokaryotic cells do not. Differences in cellular structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
include the presence of mitochondria and chloroplasts, the cell wall, and the structure of
chromosomal DNA.
Prokaryotes are usually much smaller than eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes also differ from eukaryotes in that they contain only a single loop of stable
chromosomal DNA stored in an area named the nucleoid, while eukaryote DNA is found on
tightly bound and organised chromosomes. Although some eukaryotes have satellite DNA
structures called plasmids, these are generally regarded as a prokaryote feature and many
important genes in prokaryotes are stored on plasmids.
Prokaryotes have a larger surface area to volume ratio giving them a higher metabolic
rate, a higher growth rate and consequently a shorter generation time compared to
Eukaryotes.

Differentiation and Evolution

Some cells may undergo change in form through the process of differentiation.
Cells within the body act differently depending upon whether they form part of an
eye, a muscle or strand of hair.
As part of differentiation, cells can interact with one another through various chemical
signals.
They can evolve into organisms that are markedly different from the parent. -> slow
process
Important to the formation of new organisms or to the development of new
capabilities that may aid in the survival of the organism.

Essential Substances in the Cell and the Process of Growth

Chemical analysis of cell-material indicates

What elements are required to synthesize the cell
What compounds have to be synthesized
Essential components of living material:
In large amounts: C, H, O, N, P, S
In smaller amounts: K, Mg, Mn, Ca, Fe
In trace amounts: Co, Cu, Zn, Mo, etc.
Variation in composition of living material is due to
Hereditary properties of species (what compounds the cell can synthesize)
Variation in composition of growth medium and conditions (e.g. T, pH, light, etc.)

Process of Growth

The integration of dissimilation and assimilation leads to the process of growth.

General equation for growth of chemotrophs:
Nutrients cell material + waste product
Split this reaction into two parts:
Dissimilation
Part of nutrients + ADP + PO43- ATP + waste products
Assimilation
Rest of nutrients + ATP cell material + ADP + PO43- + waste of products

Cellular Metabolism

Microorganisms derive energy from their substrate.

Substrate cell functioning and maintenance + new cells (biomass) + waste (byproducts) + heat

Cell Yield

Efficiency of microbial growth (yield of cell material per mole of substrate consumed)
Related to the amount of ATP produced per mole of substrate
Depends on:
Its thermodynamic properties
Type of ATP generating pathway

Biological Growth

Cellular metabolism involves a series of reduction-oxidation reactions.

The available electron donor and electron acceptor determine what microorganisms will
grow and the products of degradation.

Bacteria classified according to type of electron donor

Heterotrophic: organic material as electron donor and source of carbon for cell synthesis
Chemoautotrophic (autotrophs): inorganic material as electron donor and CO 2 as carbon
source.
Heterotrophs predominate in wastewater containing mainly organic matter.

Microorganisms classified according to type of electron acceptor

Obligately aerobic: oxygen as terminal electron acceptor

Obligately anaerobic: functions only in the absence of molecular oxygen
Facultatively anaerobic: use O2 as electron acceptor when present in sufficient quantity,
but can shift to alternative acceptor when O 2 is absent

Ecosystems and factors affecting the growth of microorganisms in different biological

treatment processes
Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment Systems

Bacteria: primary and secondary degraders of organic substances, N and P removal, S

cycle
Archaeabacteria: can grow in extreme environment
Algae photosynthetic production of oxygen, symbiotic relation with bacteria
Protozoa prey on bacteria, fungi and algae
Fungi degradation of organic matter for some industrial wastewater

Photosynthetic

Algae
Photosynthetic, produces O2, some motile by means of flagella
Bacteria (cyanobacteria)
Photosynthetic, produces O2, some motile by means of gliding movement on solid
surfaces, many can fix N2, some can use H2S as e- donor

Protozoa

Non-photosynthetic, motile, eukaryotic microbes, animal-like characteristics

Dissimilation: heterotrophic; either osmotrophic (absorbing dissolved nutrients) or
phagatrophic (ingestion)
Grazing on bacteria, algae and fungi in wastewater treatment systems
Serve as food to fish

Aerobic Wastewater Treatment Systems

Aerobic water treatment is a method of treating sewage and wastewater by adding oxygen
to the waste. This process encourages naturally occurring bacteria to break down the
waste and produce a higher quality effluent that may then be treated with chlorine to
remove the remaining bacteria.
Organic matter + O2 CO2, H2O, biomass (cell materials)
N, P, S compounds NO3-, PO43-, SO42Systems in which aerobic degradation of organic matter occurs:
Activated sludge process
Activated sludge is a complex ecosystem composed mainly of bacteria and
protozoa
95% of the BOD is reduced during this stage
There should be a good balance between different species for
An efficient removal of pollutant (organic matter)
A good settleability of flocs in the final clarifier
Low level of suspended solids in the effluent
Waste stabilization ponds
Trickling filters

Factors Affecting Growth of Aerobic Microorganism

Substrate (dissolved oxygen, organic matter)

Concentration
Loading: 0.2-0.5 g BOD/g MLSS/ d
Temperature
Mesophilic: 35-40C
Thermophilic: 45-50C

Anaerobic Treatment Systems

Anaerobic treatment is a process in which microorganisms convert organic matter into

biogas in the absence of oxygen.
Anaerobic treatment is an energy-efficient process that is typically utilized to treat highstrength industrial wastewaters that are warm and contain high concentrations of
biodegradable organic matter (measured as BOD, COD, and/or TSS).
An anaerobic system can be used for pretreatment prior to discharging to a municipal
wastewater treatment plant or before polishing in an aerobic process.
Anaerobic processes use substantially less energy, require less chemicals, and incur lower
sludge handling costs compared to aerobic treatment options.
In addition, the biogas produced in the anaerobic process is a source of renewable energy
that can be used to displace fossil fuels such as oil or natural gas, or to generate
electricity.
Substrate concentration determines the species composition in a wastewater treatment
system.

Factors Affecting Anaerobic Digestion

As in

aerobic bacteria, the growth of anaerobic microorganisms depend on several factors:

Substrate (organic matter) concentration
Substrate competition
Temperature
pH
Fermentative (acidogens): from about 4 to neutral
Methanogens: optimum around neutral 6.5-7.5, inhibited at very low pH
nutrients
inhibitory compounds
O2
NH3, H2S
Aromatic compounds: can be degraded at anaerobic conditions but inhibitory
at high levels

Wastewater Treatment Ponds

Waste Stabilization Ponds

Waste or Wastewater Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are large, man-made water bodies in
which blackwater, greywater or faecal sludge are treated by natural occurring processes
and the influence of solar light, wind, microorganisms and algae.
The ponds can be used individually, or linked in a series for improved treatment.
There are three types of ponds, (1) anaerobic, (2) facultative and (3) aerobic (maturation),
each with different treatment and design characteristics.
WSPs are low-cost for O&M and BOD and pathogen-removal is high. However, large
surface areas and expert design are required.
The effluent still contains nutrients (e.g. N and P) and is therefore appropriate for the reuse
in agriculture, but not for direct recharge in surface waters.

Nitrification

Nitrification is an aerobic process in which bacteria oxidize reduced forms of nitrogen.

Nitrifiers: autotrophic bacteria, aerobic

Factors affecting nitrification

Substrate concentration (depends on ammonium N and O 2 level according to Monod

kinetics)
Temperature (optimum 28-32C)
pH: 7.5-8.6
inhibitory substances (HNO2, NH3)
3-5 mg O2/mg NH4+-N
DO should be > 1mg/L

Denitrification

Denitrification is an anaerobic process by which oxidized forms of nitrogen are reduced to

gaseous forms, which can then escape into the atmosphere.

The necessary conditions for the denitrification process to develop in an activated sludge
process can be summarised as:
Presence of a facultative bacterial mass, capable of using oxygen and nitrate or
nitrite
Presence of nitrate and absence of dissolved oxygen in the mixed liquor (i.e. an
anoxic environment)
Suitable environmental conditions for bacterial growth
Presence of an electron donor (nitrate reductor): i.e. organic material