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Abstract
A method is proposed for assisting the commercial electrowinning of copper at current densities up to 600 A m2 . The method
utilises modi.cations to existing electrode feed manifolds to produce an air-electrolyte jet that mixes the cell contents and improves
the copper mass transfer by shrinking the Cu2+ concentration boundary layer around the cathode. A series of design criteria
for the modi.ed manifolds are proposed and utilised to select an appropriate ori.ce diameter (di = 2 mm). Experimental 4ow
modelling studies showed that acceptable mixing performance was possible for current densities in the range 400 600 A m2 ,
with appropriate air and electrolyte pressure operating parameters also provided. Pilot-scale electrowinning trials indicated that for
no air sparging, industrially unacceptable copper cathode was produced at current densities of 600 A m2 . However, the proposed
air-electrolyte system could produce high quality cathode at these conditions with little apparent evidence of unwanted dendrites
or nodules. ? 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Jetting; Bubble generation; High current density electrowinning
1. Introduction
The production of copper in electrowinning reactors
constitutes a major worldwide industry with hydrometallurgical plants generating product annually valued in
excess of US$ 7.5 billion. A signi.cant impediment to
productivity and e?ciency improvements in these electrowinning reactors is the presence of a boundary layer
of diminished Cu2+ ion concentration in the electrolyte
at the plating electrode surface. This boundary layer promotes unwanted dendritic growth, decreases the quality
of the deposited .nal metal surface, and ultimately prevents cell operation at more productive higher current
densities.
The use of gas sparging in electrowinning as an aid to
4uid mixing has been trialed by researchers for over one
century (e.g. see Farmer, 1885, for an original patent).
Subsequent to this patent, signi.cant investigations into
air enhanced copper electrore.ning were conducted by
various researchers, including those associated with Kennecott Copper (e.g. Harvey, Miguel, Larson, & Servi,
1975; Harvey, Randlett, & Bangerskis, 1978). In these
Corresponding author. Tel.: +61-2-4979-2465; fax: +61-24979-2465.
E-mail address: rigby.greg.gd@bhp.com (G. D. Rigby).
0009-2509/01/$ - see front matter ? 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 0 9 - 2 5 0 9 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 3 3 - 0
6330
6331
xm
5:8 ;
di
(4)
(7)
6332
= CC Ai
2OPK3
e
Q2
1 orif 2
2K3 A0
(8)
3. Experimental
Two separate sets of apparatus were used for the experiments conducted in this study. These included: (i) a
model of the single leg of an electrolyte distribution manifold, where liquid and gasliquid 4ow through a novel
venturi bolt ori.ce (BHP Innovation, 2001) could be
observed along the manifold length; and (ii) a pilot-plant
scale copper electrowinning cell that allowed experiments to be conducted using a series of industrially sized
electrodes.
3.1. Manifold apparatus and venturi bolts
The experimental trials relating to the simulation of
the 4ow of electrolyte and gas bubbles out of a cell
manifold through the ori.ces, were conducted in a large
steel-framed tank of dimensions 6 m long by 0:8 m wide
by 1:2 m high. The tank contained clear acrylic viewing
windows along the length of the tank and was not acid
resistant, so an arti.cial electrolyte comprising 0:3 M
NaCl in water was usedthis is comparable to normal
plant electrolyte in density and viscosity, and has the
additional important similarity in that bubbles present in
either medium do not readily coalesce (Craig, Ninham,
& Pashley, 1993). Due to space limitations in the viewing tank, only one of the two arms of the manifold was
simulated, and the total manifold length was slightly
6333
Table 1
Operational parameters for electrowinning trial (stainless-steel cathode, modi.ed TiO2 mesh=PbSnCa anode)
Trial number
Electrolyte temperature ( C)
Ori.ce diameter (mm)
Electrolyte 4ow (106 m3 s1 )
Gas 4owa (106 m3 s1 )
a Per
EW1
EW2
2
130 150
30 40
600
2.0
50
6
37.5
2
130 150
30 40
600
2.0
50
2
37.5
7.5
sharp decrease in the curve for 0 6 di 6 1:9 mm, beyond which there is little variation in the required pressure. Based on the criterion of minimisation of pumping
energy (Criterion 1 in Section 2.1), an ori.ce diameter
of di 1:9 mm should be selected.
In Fig. 4, the eJect of ori.ce diameter on the jet centreline velocity, Um normalised for Qorif and centreline
spatial position, xm , is considered. For the design of the
venturi bolt, the value of Um is considered to be a measure
of the degree of mixing in the 4uid across the cathode
face. The .gure shows that due to the inverse relationship
with di , the centreline velocity, Um decreases rapidly as
di is increased, and the criterion (Criterion 2 in Section
2.1) for maximisation of electrolyte mixing is indicated
to occur for di 2:5 mm.
The equal application of the two criteria (1 and 2)
in Section 2.1 for minimisation of pumping energy and
maximisation of electrolyte mixing Equations (3) and
(5) to all ori.ces along the manifold depends upon an
6334
Fig. 5. Variation in electrolyte 4ow through individual manifold ori.ces. Legend: di = 6 mm; ; QT =2 = 3 103 m3 s1 ;
; QT =2 = 2 103 m3 s1 .
Fig. 7. Schematic of air bubble distribution over cathode face (single
jet only displayed).
6335
Fig. 8. Flow map for bubble coverage over cathode from electrolyte jets (Marker Point Reference: 1, 400 A m2 ; 2, 500 A m2 ;
3, 600 A m2 ).
Table 2
Experimental 4ow
2 gCu2+ kg1 )
conditions
during
electrowinning
(strip =
Flow conditions (A m2 )
400
Electrolyte 4ow (106 m3 s1 )
Gas 4ow (106 m3 s1 ),
QG =QT = 0:2
OPPathway (kPa), excl. nozzle
Static electrolyte head (kPa)
OPL (kPa) for QG = 0
OPL (kPa) for QG =QT = 0:2
OPG (kPa) for QG =QT = 0:2
25
5.0
8
11
98
98
13
500
31
6.2
10
11
126
130
25
600
37.5
7.5
17
11
150
168
32
rounded by regions of marginal performance. The expected target operating conditions for higher current density (QG =Qorif = 0:2; ID = 400; 500; 600 A m2 ) are also
marked in Fig. 8 and fall within the region of acceptable coverage, indicating that the selection of a venturi
bolt ori.ce diameter of di = 2 mm does not preclude operation within a range of industrial conditions. Operating
parameters relating to the total required pressure within
gas and liquid feed systems, and frictional pressure losses
during the 4ow are given in Table 2.
4.3. Electrowinning trials
Following the appropriate design of the venturi bolt
(Section 4.1) and con.guration of electrolyte and air
4ow operating parameters (Section 4.2), pilot scale
electrowinning trials were conducted. Fig. 9 shows the
results of two trials conducted for conditions indicated
in Table 1. In Trial EW1 (Fig. 9a), no gas sparging
was employed, and the electrolyte was introduced into
the cell through ori.ces with di 6 mm (therefore
6336
UO
WM
xm
e
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of
Garry Smith (BHP Minerals Technology) in venturi
bolt design; Scott SciJer with aspects of 4ow modelling; Georgina Mahoney with experimental work; and
Andrew Shook and Mike Eamon for positive discussions
and review of the work.
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