Water Treatment Processes

Operation units of water treatment depend on :

Water resource quality
Application
4 stages of water/wastewater treatment process:
preliminary, primary, secondary & tertiary
(advanced) treatments

Conventional Wastewater Treatment Process

Pretreatment
involves:
Screening
Removal
Grit
Oil separation
Flow equalization

Disinfection can use:

Chlorine compounds
Chloride
Bromine
Ozone
UV Radiation

Chemical Treatment is
used in conjunction with
the physical and chemical
processes:
precipitation
Chemical
Adsorption

Sludge Treatment and Disposal

involves:
grinding, degritting, blending,
thickening, stabilization, conditioning,
disinfection, dewatering, heat drying,
thermal reduction, ultimate disposal

Preliminary Treatment Process

Aim: to protect the operation of wastewater treatment
plant from big suspended or floating matters carried in
with the wastewater that can interfere, clog, & damage
equipments and piping.

How: screen coarse solids (gravel, plastics, rags) out

and substances dissolved in raw water
Unit operations involved:
Screening
Pre-sedimentation
Pre-aeration

Preliminary Treatment ProcessScreening

Specific aims:
- Remove objects such as solids, plastics, paper, rags,
metals.
Screening devices:
- Coarse screen (clear opening of 0.25 in or larger)
- Fine screen (clear opening of 0.06 to 0.25 in)
- Very fine screen (clear opening of 0.01 to 0.06 in)

The bars may be cleaned manually or mechanically.

Attention: as debris collected on bars, it blocks the
channel.

bar rack

bar screen

 In addition to the screening classification based on

the screen size, other design consideration is
proposed.

Preliminary Treatment ProcessGrit removal

Grit is defined as particles larger than 0.21 mm with specific gravity

> 2.65 (US. EPA, 1987). Equipment design was traditionally based
on tremoval of 95% of these particles. However, modern design is
capable to remove 75%of 0.15 mm material.
Specific aims:
- Remove grits (sand, gravel) & other heavy solid materials that are
heavier than the organic biodegradable solids in the wastewater.
This includes eggshells, seeds, food waste.
- This can prevent unnecessary abrasion, grit deposition in pipelines,
accumulation of grit in anaerobic digesters & aeration basins.
There are several types of grit removal systems. Factors such as
grit quantity, grit characteristics, head loss requirements, removal
efficiency, organic content, and cost are considered when selecting
a system.

Grit removal systems:

a. Vortex grit chamber
b. Centrifugal separator
c. Aerated grit chamber
d. Horizontal flow grit chambers (velocity-controlled
channel)

Vortex grit chamber

Centrifugal separator

Aerated grit chamber

Horizontal flow grit chamber

Vortex grit chamber

Remove high percentage of fine grit, up to
73% of 140-mesh size
The system has a consistent removal
efficiency over a wide flow range
However, modification to the design is
difficult, paddles tend to collect rags,
require deep excavation due to its depth

Centrifugal separator
Remove high percentage of fine
grit, up to 73% of 140-mesh
size
Commonly used for grit
washing

 As fluid spirals inward, centrifugal force pushes the grit toward

the walls. The accumulated grit slides spirally down & then

discharge into outlet point.

The separation efficiency is influenced by:

- particle size

- specific gravity of particles

- differential pressure across the cone. For sludge less than
1.5% solids, a pressure drop of 10-13 psi has been
suggested
- diameter of the cone

Aerated grit chamber

Tank with slopping bottom & hopper
Air is introduced along one side to create a
perpendicular spiral velocity pattern
Injected air lowers specific gravity of fluid
resulting in better grit settlement
Heavier particles drop to the bottom side,
while lighter particles are suspended &
carried out of the tank
However, harmful volatile organics & odors
may be released, require more power &
labor to maintain the aeration system

FOG (Fats, Oils, Grease) Pollution

FOG (Fats, Oils, Grease) Pollution = Foam Pollution

FOG (Fats, Oils, Grease) Pollution = Foam Pollution

Horizontal flow grit chamber

The oldest type of grit removal system
Grit is removed by maintaining a constant
upstream velocity of 0.3 m/s by controlling
weirs or rectangular control sections such
as Parshall flumes.
However, sometimes it is difficult to
maintain the velocity (1 ft/s) over a wide
range of flows

Grit washing
Remove excess organic materials from the grit &
return it to process stream

Grit disposal

Preliminary Treatment ProcessPre-sedimentation

Specific aims:
To reduce the load on the coagulation/flocculation
basin and on the sedimentation chamber
To reduce the amount of coagulant chemical
required to treat the water
To homogenize water quality entering the
plant/system

 How? By precipitating the water for

certain period
Presedimentation devices:
- Settling ponds
- Concrete basins
Presedimentation can also be
called plain sedimentation
River water suspended solids can
be reduced from 500 to 200 ppm

Preliminary Treatment ProcessPreaeration

Specific aim:
- Remove volatile compounds
- Promote flotation of fat, grease, soap
- Reduce the amount of Fe2+ and Mn2+
- Freshen wastewater
How? By passing the air through the water

A skimmer is employed to
remove the floated substances

Removal mechanisms:
Stripping off dissolved gases
CO2(aq) CO2(g)
H2S(aq) H2S(g)
NH3(aq) NH3(g)

Oxidation of metals
4Fe2++O2+10H2O 4Fe(OH3)(s)+8H+
2Mn2++O2+2H2O 2MnO2(s)+4H+

Primary Treatment Process

 Aim: remove suspended solids by sedimentation

How: by allowing the water in a tank for certain period to
obtain clear water escapes over a V-notch weir.
Equipment: settling tank or clarifiers (circular or
rectangular), typically 3-5 m deep with detention time is
up to 8 h. The tank operate as plug-flow reactor &
turbulence is kept to a minimum.

Types of Settling
Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually
without interaction with neighboring particles.
Type II: Flocculent Particles Flocculation causes the particles
to increase in mass and settle at a faster rate.
Type III: Hindered or Zone settling The mass of particles tends
to settle as a unit with individual particles remaining in fixed
positions with respect to each other.
Type IV: Compression The concentration of particles is so high
that sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the
structure.

Types of Settling
Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually
without interaction with neighboring particles.
Type II: Flocculent Particles Flocculation causes the particles
to increase in mass and settle at a faster rate.
Type III: Hindered or Zone settling The mass of particles tends
to settle as a unit with individual particles remaining in fixed
positions with respect to each other.
Type IV: Compression The concentration of particles is so high
that sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the
structure.

 Advantage:
- Low energy consumption.
- Easy maintenance.
Disadvantage:
- Treatment capacity is small.
- Fails to satisfy the requirements for environmental
quality associated with particulates/colloidal
matter.

Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment (CEPT)

CEPT
The use of chemical treatment to obtain additional solid
removal in a sedimentation process.
Coagulation is the destabilization of colloids by
neutralizing the forces that keep them apart. Cationic
coagulants provide positive electric charge to reduce
the negative charge (zeta potential) of the colloids.
Care must be taken not to overdose the coagulant as
this can re-stabilize the colloid complex.
Flocculation is the action of polymers to form bridges
between the flocs & bind the particles into large
agglomerates or clumps

The chemistry of coagulation/flocculation process:

Most particles dissolved in water have a negative charge. As a

result, they stay dispersed and dissolved or colloidal in the water
Positively charged coagulant attracts the negatively charged
particles due to electricity. As a result, the particles no longer
repel each other
Naturally, the neutrally charged particles attract each other due to
van der Waals force. As a result, the particles drift toward each
other and join together into a group (= floc)

 After coagulation/flocculation, gravity sedimentation is

performed to separate flocs from the water prior to
filtration stage
In addition to remove turbidity, coagulation/flocculation
process removes bacteria suspended in the water as
well as remove color from the water
Turbidity and color are more common in surface water
than in groundwater

How is in practical field?

1. Coagulant is added in a flash mixer
The mixture is mixed quickly and violently
Mixing speed: 100-150 rpm
Mixing time: 30-60 s
- Less than 30 s : not properly mixed
- More than 60 s : the mixer blades will shear the newly forming
flocs back into small particles

2. After flash mixing, coagulation occurs.

Two types of coagulants: primary coagulants & coagulant aids
Primary coagulant neutralizes the electrical charges of the fine
particles, bringing the particles together to create a very small
(pinpoint) floc that is invisible.
Examples of primary coagulants:
- metallic salts such as aluminium sulfate (alum), ferric sulfate,
ferric chloride
- polymer: poly aluminium chloride (PAC)

3. A process of gentle (10-25 rpm) mixing brings the particles

formed by coagulation into with each other so the particle size
increases from submicroscopic floc to visible suspended
particles
How is in practical field?
The flocculation basin has a number of compartments
with decreasing mixing speeds as the water advanced
through the basin
How long? 1 h
The floc will then settled out
in the sedimentation basin,
with remaining floc being removed
in a filter.

 Coagulant aids add density to slow-settling flocs so they will not

break up during the mixing and settling process. Consequently,
the chemicals are generally used to reduce flocculation time

Examples of coagulant aids: Ca(OH)2 (lime), CaO, CaCO3,

bentonite (clay)
Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4
alum
lime
floc
In contrast to the primary coagulants, coagulant aids are not
always required. It will be used during emergency treatment of
water which has not been adequately treated in the flocculation
& sedimentation basins.

How to choose the coagulant?

Alkalinity
- Importance factor to select metal salt coagulant because these
materials need some alkalinity to provide OH to drive the
hydrolysis reactions that allow the coagulants to function.
- The degree of alkalinity: > 50 ppm
Low alkalinity (< 50 ppm): acidic metal salts may be precluded
& high basicity coagulant such as PAC is used. Optionally, add
artificial alkalinity (NaOH, Ca(OH)2, Na2CO3)

- Very low alkalinity : add artificial alkalinity supplement.

In such a case, it might be useful to try a combination of acidic
and basic coagulants such as PAC or alum together with
sodium aluminate

 pH
- If the pH is > 8.5 and Dissolved Organic Carbon
(DOC), often referred to as colour, has to be removed, a
highly acidic coagulant that will drive the pH down to 7
need to be considered. Soda ash may be necessary to bring
the Langlier Stability Index back to zero after such treatment
- In acidic condition, care should be taken to ensure that the
chemical reactions occur as desired. Ferric salts often
performed well in acidic conditions. Water with a colour
will coagulate better at low pH (4-6) with alum.

 Turbidity
- Turbidity can be classified as being anionically
charged silica particles
- Inorganic coagulant

 Temperature
- The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction, and
more effective is the coagulation.
- Almost all coagulants work well at 10 < ToC < 25
- Wet season temperature will slow down the reaction rate
which can be helped by an extended detention time. Mostly,
it is naturally provided due to lower water demand.
- It is unusual for a water plant to heat the raw water to a
minimum of 8oC in winter to maintain adequate finished
water quality. The non-sulphated polyhydroxy aluminium
chloride choice does not appear to be as temperature
sensitive.

Four zones in sedimentation basins:

Inlet zone
Settling zone
Sludge zone
Outlet zone
Zones can be seen most easily in a rectangular
sedimentation basin.
However the four zones can still be found within the
clarifier.

Four zones in sedimentation basins:

Inlet zone
Settling zone
Sludge zone
Outlet zone
Zones can be seen most easily in a rectangular
sedimentation basin.
However the four zones can still be found within the
clarifier.

1. Inlet zone
- The incoming flow must be evenly distributed
across the width of the basin to prevent shortcircuiting
- Short-circuiting is a problematic circumstance in
which water bypasses the normal flow path
through the basin & reaches the outlet in less
than the normal detention time
- The velocity of the incoming flow must be
controlled to prevent short-circuiting, i.e. < 0.5
ft/s

Two types of inlets are

- stilling wall or perforated baffle wall
- channel

Baffle
helps to
evenly
distribute
the
incoming
water

2. Settling zone
- After passing through the inlet zone, water
enters the settling zone where the velocity is
greatly reduced
- Floc settling is occur in this zone
- Tube settlers and lamella plates may be
introduced in the settling zone
Water flows up along slanted tubes (plates)
Floc settles out in the tubes & drifts back

down into the lower portion of the basin.

Clarified water passes through the tubes &

flows out of the basin

- Tube settlers and lamella plates increase the

settling speed & thus, the settling efficiency
- Each tube or plate acts as a miniature
sedimentation basin
- The tube & plate are very useful where the site
area is limited

a.
b.
c.

Circular solid contact clarifier

Parallel inclined plates in a circular clarifier
Tube settler in a rectangular clarifier

TUBE SETTLER

LAMELLA SETTLER

Tube settlers VS lamella settlers

Tube settlers are based on different theory that states that settling is dependent on
settling area rather than detention time. We keep the angle of inclination of Tubes
between 45 degree and 60 degree. since above 60 degree angle will cause them to
be ineffective and below 45 degree angle will cause choking problems.
Advantages of tube settlers over plate settlers are numerous. 1. Tube settlers are
self supporting block, plates need specific grooves with fixing mechanism. 2. Tube
settler can be easily fitted into a circular/square/rectangular tank, plates are
suitable for rectangular/square tank only. 3. Tube settler made of UV stabilised
PVC are more economical than plates. 4. mechanical strength of TS block is more
than plates. 5. TS block allows foot traffic. 6. Choking chances are less as
compared to plates. 7. Efficiency is more than plates. 8. Provides higher settling
area compared to plates
Advantages of plate settler. 1. Plates made of SS have longer life. 2. Plates can
be removed from the slots for cleaning and packing them back into grooves. 3.
Plates can be ordered as per design and delivered by the manufacturing
company for ready to fit in. 4. Needs less storage space at site during installation.
5. FRP plates are easily available in the market. 6. FRP plates are comparable in
price against Tube settler made of UPVC. 7. FRP plates have higher thickness
than Tube settler. 8. FRP plates can be easily resized at site during installation

3. Sludge zone
- Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent
resuspension of sludge
- The bottom shape should slope toward the drains to
facilitate sludge removal
- A drain at the bottom allows the sludge to be easily
removed from the basin
- In some plants, sludge removal is achieved continuously
using automated equipment
- The sludge built up on the bottom may become septic
(decay anaerobically odour problems & may float to
the top of the water and become scum)

4. Outlet zone
- outlet zone controls the water
flowing out of the basin
- the zone is design to prevent shortcircuiting of water in the basin
- the outlet can be used to control
the water level in the basin by
setting up a baffle in front of the
effluent
- the baffle prevents floating
materials from escaping the
sedimentation basin and clogging
the filter

Improper coagulation related to coagulant may

result from:
Using old chemicals
Using the wrong coagulant
Using the wrong concentration of coagulant

 Primary treatment can remove up to 60% of

solids, 30% demand for oxygen, and perhaps 20%
of phosphorus. If the removal is adequate & the
water dilution factor is such that the adverse effects
are acceptable, then a primary treatment plant is
sufficient wastewater treatment. After addition of
alum, the effluent BOD can be reduced to about 50
mg/L, and this BOD level may be able to meet
required effluent standard.

Testing & control of coagulation and flocculation

 The sludge is primarily composed of water

The solid part is mainly excess coagulant
Sludge is typically dried before it is trucked away. The
drying process is known as dewatering or thickening
Alum sludge is difficult to thicken
FeCl3, CaO & polymers may be added to improve sludge
dewatering process by acting as coagulant. Treating the
sludge to aid in thickening is called as conditioning the
sludge
Once the sludge has been conditioned, it may be thickened
in a lagoon or drying bed

Lagoons
After a few months, gravity &
evaporation will have reduced the
sludge to a 30-50% solid state
The sludge can then be covered
with soil and left on site OR may
be trucked to a landfill off-site

Secondary Treatment Process

In this topic we will learn the following:
How does secondary treatment processes fit
into the water treatment process?
How does the secondary treatment processes
clean water?
What types of reactors are used?
How are sludge treated?

Secondary Treatment Process.Biological

Why? Water leaving the sedimentation tank sometimes still

contains a high demand for oxygen due to dissolved
biodegradable organics.
Aim: remove the demand for oxygen (or BOD).
In most cases, secondary treatment involves the biological
treatment processes. Thus, the performance of the
secondary treatment plants is measured the demand for
oxygen in term of BOD.
How? by performing aerobic biological treatment to
metabolize organic matters (from food processing,
beverage, dairy, fermentation, & certain pharmaceutical
industries) to inorganic end-products such as CO2, NH3 &
H2O.

 General speaking, in wastewater, N is found in the

form of ammonia. When secondary treatment is
used, a great deal of NH3 is discharged in the effluent.
It also contains phosphorous (P). In addition, N & P
are ingredients in fertilizers.
When excess amount of N & P are discharged, plant
growth in the receiving waters may be accelerated
Algae growth may be stimulated causing blooms
which are toxic to aquatic life as well as unpleasing
odour.

 Nitrogen removal by nitrification/denitrification

processes:
aerobic

NH3 >

anoxic

NO3- >

NO3- (nitrification)
N2 (denitrification)

 Phosphorous removal by chemical process:

alum, sodium aluminate, ferric chloride, ferric sulfate,
lime, etc.

Secondary treatment systems are classified as:

1. Fixed-film reactors (trickling filters, rotating biological contactor)
Principally, biomass grows on media & the water passes
over its surface that suspended solid & dissolved organic
matter are used as food for production of new cells, while
other is oxidized to CO2, NH3 & H2O.
The tower is filled with support
media such as rocks or various
plastic shapes
Oxygen is supplied by natural
air flow or forced by blower
Scrapped off the biofilm periodically

Advantages

Disadvantages

Simplicity of operation
Good quality (80-90%
BOD5 removal) for 2stage efficiency could
reach 95%
Moderate operating costs
(lower than activated
sludge)
Low sludge yield

High capital costs

Clogging of distributors or
beds
Snail, mosquito and
insect problems

Typical loading rate:

STANDARD-RATE FILTER
Media (rock): 6-8 ft depth, growth sloughs periodically
Hydraulic loading: 25-100 gal/day/sq ft.
BOD loading: 5-25 lbs BOD/day/1000 cu ft
HIGH-RATE FILTER
Media (rock): 3-5 ft depth, growth sloughs periodically
Hydraulic loading: 100-1000 gal/day/sq ft.
BOD loading: 25-100 lbs BOD/
Media (synthetic): 15-30 ft depth, growth sloughs periodically
Hydraulic loading: 350-2100 gal/day/sq ft.
BOD loading: 50-300 lbs BOD/day/1000 cu ft day/1000 cu ft

Rotating Biological Contactor:

Is a fixed media filter which microorganisms are growth
on a series of large discs. The discs are supported on a
single shaft rotated slowly through the wastewater, which
provides food required to grow the microorganisms
Oxygen is supplied naturally when the film is out of the
water and from the liquid when submerged
Produce high quality effluent

Rotating Biological Contactors are covered for several

reasons relating to climatic conditions:
Protect biological slime growths from freezing
Prevent intense rains from washing off some of the slime
growth
Stop exposure of media to direct sunlight to prevent
growth of algae
Avoid exposure of media to sunlight which may cause the
media to become brittle

Advantages

Disadvantages

Short contact periods

Handles a wide range of
flows
Easily separates biomass
from waste stream
Low operating costs
Short retention time
Low sludge production
Excellent process control

Need for covering units

installed in cold climate to
protect against freezing
Shaft bearings and
mechanical drive units
require frequent
maintenance

Since typical effluent characteristics do not meet todays strict

effluent limitations, many systems have converted to activated
sludge

Secondary treatment systems are classified as:

2. Suspended growth reactors

The water is mixed with biomass in the form of activated sludge.
Aeration device is employed for the survival of aerobic organisms
The microorganisms come into contact with dissolved organics &
rapidly adsorbed on their surface. In time, the microorganisms use
the carbon & release CO2, H2O, and stable compounds.
Following the process, microorganisms separated by
sedimentation exist on the bottom without additional food become
hungry waiting for more dissolved organic matter the
microorganisms are said to be activated hence, the term
activated sludge.
Can be operated in a smaller space than trickling filter to treat the
same amount of water. However, fixed-film systems are more able
to cope with drastic changes in the amount of biological matter.

A schematic of an activated sludge process

Advantages

Flexible, can adapt to

minor pH, organic and
temperature changes
Small area required
Degree of nitrification is
controllable
Relatively minor odor
problems

Disadvantages

High operating costs

(skilled labor, electricity,
etc.)
Generates solids requiring
sludge disposal
Some process alternatives
are sensitive to shock
loads and metallic or
other poisons
Requires continuous air
supply

Biological solids removed during secondary

sedimentation, called secondary or biological sludge,
are normally combined with primary sludge for sludge
processing.
Sludge treatments:
Anaerobic digestion (generates CH4, heat the tank &
run engines)
Aerobic digestion
Composting (mixed with carbon source such as
sawdust, straw or wood chips)

Group work

Tertiary Treatment Process

Tertiary treatment may be defined as any treatment

process in which unit operations are added to the flow
scheme following conventional secondary treatment, i.e.
Addition of a filter for suspended solid removal (simple)
Nutrients removal
Addition of unit processes for disease-causing
microorganisms removal

Problems associated with nutrients presence in wastewater:

accelerate the eutrophication
stimulate the growth of algae such as in The Tualatin River
(US) which has proved sensitive to algae bloom (phosphorus is
allowed only 0.07ppm)
aesthetic problems & nuisance
depleting D.O. concentration in receiving waters
toxicity towards aquatic life
increasing chlorine demand
presenting a public health hazard
affecting the suitability of wastewater for reuse

Algae blooms
(irritate, fishy smells)

Red algal bloom

Gulf Coast, Mexico

Red algal bloom

Bondi beach, Australia 2012

Filtration
Aim: to remove suspended particles & other impurities (bacteria,
plankton, cysts) left in water prior to be discharged to the
receiving environment
How? By passing the water through a medium such as sand. As
the water passes through the filter, floc & impurities get stuck in
the sand & the clean water goes through

Location in the treatment process: after sedimentation stage

Up to 99.5% of the suspended solids in the water can be
removed, including flocs & microorganisms

Depend on the presence of flocculation & sedimentation, the

filtration can be divided into three groups: conventional, direct &
in-line filtration

 Conventional filtration: the most common method of

filtration where filtration follows coagulation/flocculation
and sedimentation. This type of filtration results in flexible
& reliable performance, especially when the source water
is very turbid
Direct filtration: if filtration follows coagulation/
flocculation without sedimentation. This method can be
used when raw water has low turbidity
In-line filtration: if operating the filter without coagulation/
flocculation & sedimentation

How does filtration clean water mechanisms

Straining: passing the water through a filter in which the pores
are smaller than the particles to be removed
Flocs cannot fit through the gap between

sand particles & thus, the flocs are captured

The water is able to flow through the sand,
leaving the floc particles behind

Adsorption: gathering of gas or dissolved solids onto the surface

of another material
In filtration, adsorption involves particles

becoming attracted to and sticking to sand

particles
Very small particles can be removed from
water

 Biological action: breaking down the particles in water by

biological processes. This involves decomposition of organic
particles by algae, plankton & bacteria
The biological action is an important part of filtration in slow sand
filtration

In most other filters, the water passes through the filter too
quickly for much biological action to occur

What filter media used in filtration?

Desirable characteristics for filter media:

Good hydraulic characteristics (permeable)

Does not react with substances in the water (inert & easy to clean)
Hard & durable
Free of impurities
Insoluble in water

What filter media used in filtration?

Granular filter classification based on its media:
Single medium filter: sand or crushed antrachite coal
Dual media filter: sand & crushed antracite coal
Multimedia filter: sand, crushed antracite coal & garnet
The media have varying density as well as varying the pore size
Sand can medium or coarse
Anthracite coal is a very light coal
Garnet is a very dense sand
Other media: activated carbon & diatomaceous earth
The former is used in association with tastes, odours & organic substances
The latter is used primary for removal of Giardia cysts & Cryptosporidium
oocysts in potable water treatment

Media arrangement

The gravel at the bottom of the filter is not part of the media,
merely provides a support between the media & the underdrain to
allow an even flow of water during filtering & backwashing

The media are arranged so that the

water moves through media with
progressively smaller pores
The largest particles or floc are

removed by the anthracite coal

The medium particles size are
removed by the sand
The smallest particles are removed
by the garnet

Since the particles are filtered out at various depths of

media, the filter does not clog quickly

Filter classification
Based on the velocity of water being filtrated:
Rapid filter standard: 2-5 & high: 5-15 gpm/sqft
Slow filter 0.05-0.15 gpm/sqft

Based on the operational methods:

Gravity filter
Pressure filter

Slow sand filtration (in-line filtration)

Constitute a simple, efficient design and may be constructed
using local resources
An old technology: entails a porous bed of graded sand fortified
by an underlying layer of gravel. Raw water enters the filter bed
and undergoes purification
Mechanisms for removing impurities: adsorption, straining &
biological processes
Principal application: low turbidity water (<20 NTU)
Filter run time: 2-20 weeks, variation depends upon raw water
turbidity

Construction

If the tank is being

fed by pumps:
situated at a higher
elevation than the
filter to allow for a
generous operating
range

Filtration rate is expressed as m3/m2/h or m/h

Ideal filtration rate: 0.2 m/h
Maximum recommended rate: 0.3 m/h

Inlet to the treated

water tank should be
slightly more elevated
than top of filter sand;
prevents filter from
being accidentally
drained if treated
water tank is emptied

Method of operation
Slow sand filters work through the formation of a gelatinous layer
(biofilm) called Schmutzdecke in the top 0.5-2 cm of the fine sand
layer. Usually the film will be formed in few days of operation &
ripens within 2-3 weeks (depend on the turbidity level)

The Schmutzdecke layer explanation

The Schmutzdecke is a biologically active layer that initiates the
process of breaking down pathogens into inorganic, innocuous
molecules 90-99% bacterial reduction
Also works as a fine, mechanical filter by trapping particles and
then metabolized by bacteria, fungi & protozoa
Note: the Schmutzdecke is only one example of a biologically active
zone. Further biological activity occurs below the Schmutzdecke (at
a depth up to ~ 0.4-0.5m)
Slow sand filters are very efficient in microorganism removal
from water

 The filter loses the performance as the Schmutzdecke layer

grows and thereby reduces the water flow rate
How to refurbish the filter?
- scrapped off (dont forget to replace the removed sand)
- wet harrowing: lowering the water level to just above the
Schmutzdecke layer, stirring the sand & running the water to
waste
Process limitation: land availability, higher initial cost (3x higher
than rapid sand filter), difficult to maintain the operation during
cold season, certain types of algae may interfere with filter that
result in being premature choking

Rapid Sand Filtration

Provides greater filtration rate up to 40 times than slow sand filter
(due to coagulation/ flocculation & sedimentation) & ability to
clean automatically using backwashing technique
Rapid filters are used primarily to remove turbidity in large water
treatment plants
Mechanisms for removing impurities:
- adsorption
- straining
The tank is constructed of concrete or other corrosion-resistant
materials

Rapid sand filters can be rapid gravity filter or pressure filter

 Coarse sand is the most commonly used

The sand size is larger than in slow sand filtration.
Generally it is 0.4-0.6 mm in diameter
Filtration rate designed to operate 4 12 m/h
Filter aid may be added to strength the floc and prevent
its breakup. Generally the filter aid is polymer because it
creates strong bonds with the floc
There should be over 90% reduction in turbidity
Check whether there is a sand in the clear water,
indicating underdrain problems which may need to be
replaced

Pressure Sand Filter

Extensively used to remove iron & manganese removal
The water is first aerated to oxidise the iron & manganese, then
pumped through the filter to remove suspended materials
The tank may be vertical or
horizontal, depending on
the space available
Cracking of the filter bed can
occur quite easily

How are the filters cleaned?

Clogged filter beds are cleaned by backwashing with
water or combination water air

Filtration is started slowly after a backwash to prevent

breakthrough of suspended material

 What is breakthrough? cracking the filter media and/or

separation of the media from the filter wall
How? caused by running the filter at an excessive
filtration rate or running the filter too long between the
backwashing
Effect? the water flowing through the filter untreated
which in turn results in a sudden high turbidity in the
effluent water

Gravel separation can be caused by

The backwash valve opening too
quickly; as a result, the supporting
gravel is forced to the top of the filter
Filter underdrain being plugged,
causing uneven distribution of the
backwash water. When this happens,
a boil occurs from the increased
velocity in the filter. The filter media
will start washing into the filter
underdrain system and be removed
from the filter
If gravel displacement is occur, the media must be removed from the
filter and rebuilt by placing each medium in its proper place

Disposal of filter backwash water:

Stored in a backwash tank & allowed to settle
The supernatant is pumped back to the treatment plant

The settled material is treated in solid-handling process

of the plant
Check whether there is a sand in the clear water,
indicating underdrain problems which may need to be
replaced

Diatomaceous Earth Filter

Commonly used for the treatment of swimming pool
water, winery products

Slow Sand Filter

Filtration rate
(GPM/ft2)

Rapid Sand Filter

0.015-0.15

Pressure Filter

2-3

Diatomaceous earth filter

(Diatomite filter)

2-3

1-2

Pros

Reliable. Minimum
operation and maintenance
requirements. Usually does
not require chemical
pretreatment. Conserves
water by no backwashing
required. Less trouble with
sludge disposal

Relatively small and

compact

Lower installation and

operation costs in small
filtration plants

Small size. Efficiency. Ease of

operation. Relatively low
cost. Produces high clarity
water. Usually does not
require chemical pretreatment

Cons

Large land area

required. Need to manually
clean filters

Requires chemical
pretreatment. Doesn't
remove pathogens as well
as slow sand filters.
Sludge disposal problems

Less reliable than gravity

filters. Filter bed cannot
be observed during
operation

Sludge disposal problems. High

head loss. Potential decreased
reliability. High maintenance
and repair costs

Filter Media

Sand

Sand OR sand &

anthracite coal OR sand &
anthracite coal & garnet

Sand OR sand &

anthracite coal OR sand &
anthracite coal & garnet

Diatomaceous earth

Gravity or
Pressure?

Gravity

Gravity

Pressure

Pressure, gravity, or vacuum

Filtration
Mechanism

Biological action, straining,

and adsorption.

Primarily adsorption. Also

some straining

Primarily adsorption. Also

some straining

Primarily straining

Cleaning
Method

Manually removing the top 2

inches of sand.

Backwashing

Backwashing

Backwashing

Common
Applications

Small groundwater systems.

Most commonly used type

of filter for surface water

Iron and manganese

removal in small

Beverage and food industries

and swimming pools. Smaller

Operating Parameters

Head loss is an important parameter to determine

whether the filter should be backwashed
Head loss is a loss of pressure (also known as
head) by water flowing through the filter. When
water flows through a clogged filter, friction causes
the water to loose energy so that the water leaving
the filter is under less pressure than the inlet
water
A piezometer connected to the filter above the
media is employed to measure the difference in
the head

 The head loss is higher with more particles

blocked within the bed the filtration efficiency
is decreased

 Headloss filter pada kondisi bersih dapat

ditentukan dengan persamaan Carmen Kozeny
Uniform size Filter
f ' L (1 ) vs
hf
3 g dp

1
f 150
1,75
N re
'

d p vs w
N re
w

(1)

(2)

(3)

 Non uniform size filter

L (1 ) vs
hf

3
g
d p ij
2

where:
hf
L

vs
g
dp

x
w
w

= Head loss
= filter depth
= porosity
= superficial velocity
= gravity
= particle diameter
= particle shape faktor
= weight fraction
= density of water
= viscosity of water

f ij' xij

(4)

 Selain persamaan Carmen Konzeny, juga dapat

digunakan persamaan Rose
Uniform size Filter
1,067 CD L Vs
hf
e4 g d p

(6)

(7)

Non Uniform Filter

(8)

Factors affecting the filtration efficiency:

Influent characteristics
Types of previous treatment processes (conventional,
direct or in-line filtration)
Types of filter used
Water volumetric rate

GAC
adsorbers
Raw
water
Flash mixing
Flocculation
Sedimentation

Filtration
Sump

Sludge

GAC Use in Water Treatment

Carbon
treated
water

 Untuk parameter regenerasi perlu dibuat

breakthrough curve

Tertiary Treatment ProcessDisinfection

FILTRATION, DISINFECTION & STORAGE:
DISINFECTION is a process design to
destroy microorganisms to a safe level
by adding a certain disinfectant
WATER FROM
SEDIMENTATION TANK

FILTRATION. The water passes through filters, some made of

layers of sand & charcoal that help remove smaller particles

STORAGE. Water is placed in a

closed tank or reservoir for
disinfection to take pace. The water
then flows through pipes to home
and business in the community

 Disinfection VS sterilisation ?
- Disinfection (by chlorine) does not destroy all pathogens.
- Sterilisation is a process design for complete destruction of all living
microorganisms

There is no need to destroy all microorganisms

completely as it is unnecessary & extremely costly
- Meet fecal coliform limits for effluent discharge
Inactivation is achieved by altering or destroying
essential structures or functions within the
microorganisms
Inactivation processes include denaturation of proteins,
nucleic acids, and lipids

 3 common disinfection processes in large scale:

Chlorination
UV light radiation
Ozonation

Chlorination
Most common method
Advantages:
- low cost
- effective
Disadvantages: chlorine
residue could be harmful
to environment

 Chlorine may be added in the form of chlorine gas

(Cl2), hypochlorite (OCl) or chlorine dioxide
(ClO2)
All types of chlorine will kill bacteria & some
viruses but only chlorine dioxide effectively kill
Cryptosporidium, Giardia, protozoans & some
viruses
ClO2 is the most powerful substance:
- kill viruses that other systems may not kill
- convert organic matters to CO2 and H2O
- remove sulfide compounds & phenolic tastes and odours
- trihalomethanes would not be formed

So why isnt chlorine dioxide used in all systems?

ClO2 must be generated on site which is a very
costly process requiring a great deal of
technical expertise
ClO2 is highly combustible

Chlorination chemistry
When chlorine is added to water, a variety of
reactions take place
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
HOCl (hypochlorous acid) ionisation to OCl
(hypochlorite ion) is occurred that depends on pH
HOCl H+ + OCl
HOCl is a weak acid & is not dissociated at pH < 6
At pH of 7.3 (depending on T), would be 50%
HOCl & 50% OCl

% distribution HOCl vs pH

HOCl has 40-80 times greater disinfection ability than OCl

Thus, the higher the pH the greater OCl concentration
and the more chlorine required to achieve disinfection
This is an important reaction to understand because HOCl is
the most effective form of free chlorine residual, meaning
that it is chlorine available to kill microorganisms in water
Leave a residual to give protection against further
contamination. This is achieved by ensuring a free residue
0.20.5 ppm of chlorine in the disinfected water after a
contact time of 30 min. Longer time during cold season

 The residual will inhibit any subsequent growth of organisms

within the water distribution system
To achieve good result, water turbidity should be < 5 NTU. It
can be tolerated up to 20 NTU. At high level of turbidiy, some
organisms may survive as well as leaving a strong chlorine
taste
How to add chlorine to a water supply?
- dosing a continuous flow of a 1% solution of chlorine
- adding chlorine tablets or powder directly to water tank (for
emergency chlorination)
How about hypochlorite compounds? It could be
- sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
- calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2)
Reaction with water: NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOH

UV light radiation
When UV radiation penetrates
the cell wall of an organism, it
damages genetic structure of
bacteria, viruses and other
pathogens & prevents the cell
from reproducing
Advantages: no chemicals used
water taste is more natural
Disadvantages: high maintenance for
UV-lamp

Ozonation
Ozone oxidises most pathogenic microorganisms
with less contact time and concentration than
other disinfectants
Ozone (O3) is generated on-site at water
treatment facilities by passing dry oxygen or air
through a system of high voltage electrodes
3O2 2O3

 Advantages:
- safer than chlorination
- more effective than chlorine in destroying viruses & bacteria
- fewer disinfection by-products
- ozonation elevates the dissolved oxygen concentration

Disadvantage:
- high cost due to more complex technology
- cannot maintain a residual in the distribution system, so ozone
disinfection should be coupled with a secondary disinfectant such as
chlorine
- ozone is corrosive, thus, require corrosion-resistant material