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Wahyu Widoretno is
Nunung Harijati is
Plant Physiology
A practical guide for understanding humanplant interaction in tropical environment
Wahyu Widoretno
Nunung Harijati
Retno Mastuti
Department of Biology
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
University of Brawijaya
3
CONTENTS
Water and Solutes in Plants
Discussion Question..........................................
112
4
6
7
10
13
Transpiration
Food issues.......................................................
28
30
31
32
33
35
35
36
37
38
Assimilation of Nitrogen
Discussion Question............................................
64
Mineral Nutrition
Discussion Question.............................................
17
19
23
27
39
41
42
48
Discussion Question.............................................
49
54
59
63
5
64
66
71
73
75
Glossarium
Index
Chapter 1
Plant Cell Water Relations
Figure 2.
at liquid phase. In other words, in any place life can only occur
between a temperature of 0 and 100 C. Temperatures below 0
C will inhibit a significant chemical metabolism, while
temperatures above 100 C tend to damage / break the chemical
bonds.
Water has a high heat of vaporization. Large quantities of
energy (about 44 kJ mol-1) is required to change water from
liquid phase to gas phase at constant temperature. Those high
energy is required to break hydrogen bonds between water
molecules. When large quantities of heat from radiant of the sun
captured by the leaf surfaces are used to form gas phase
consequently the plant temperature will decrease. These
properties are responsible for the use of water as an evaporative
cooling system. This may explain why the leaves transpiration
has an important role in plants temperature regulation. In is
noted that the water in liquid phase seemed to 'postpone'
evaporation.
Water has a high specific heat (heat capacity). Heat capacity is
the capacity of water to raise the temperature of a substance.
Heat capacity shows the capability of substance to absorb heat
energy. While specific heat is the specific amount of heat in
calories needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1
degree celsius. The raise of temperature is required to break the
hudrogen bonds between water molecules. Water has a quite
large specific heat. This means that liquid water can absorb a
relatively large amount of heat before boiling and evaporating.
A lot of energy (4.184 J g-1 C-1, or the unit non - SI is the
calories that 1 cal = 4.184 J) is required to raise the temperature
of water to break the hydrogen bonds.
Both of high specific heat capacity and high heat of vaporization
of water result of the strong hydrogen bonds between the
molecules. Thus, water is slow to heat up and cool down, or in
other words the water 'slow' changes in temperature. This trait is
important in the role of water as a thermal buffer. So it is not
surprising that the desert plant is a succulent that can tolerate
against temperature fluctuations.
11
12
13
= + + +
w
= +
Water potential can change by changes in pressure potential or
solute potential. Water potential gradient between soil and root
hair cells is important to move the water into the cells.
w
Water transport
To fulfill the water needs of plants the water must flow from soil
at the out side into plant cells and finally released out to
atmosphere through transpiration processes involving stomata.
In plant body water movement occurs in two ways due to the
differences of concentration and pressure. Water movement in
plants is driven by three processes: diffusion, mass flow and
osmosis.
A. Diffusion
Diffusion is the random movement of individual molecules
caused by the difference in concentration. Diffusion of
molecules will move from high concentration to the low
concentration. Dye dripped into the water in the area has a high
concentration of the first droplet (Figure 6). Gradually, the dye
will spread moving toward areas that do not contain dye. The
movement will stop when the dye concentration is the same in
all areas so that the water is initially colorless changes into
corresponding colored dye dripped.
Jv =
(C1 - C2)
r
18
Recent studies show that water movement into the plants cells
not only involves phospholipid bilayers through diffusion but
also involves aquaporines membrane integral proteins which
develop selective pore through bulk flow.
20
Summary
Chemical and physical properties of water support
continuation of the physiological processes in plant. Therefore
understanding the properties of water are very important for
studying other physiological processes in plants.
The movement of water is due to the difference in pressure
and or difference in concentration. Direction of movement is
from high concentration / high pressure to low concentration /
pressure. Transfer speed is affected by the pressure, the speed of
the molecules, and solute temperature in the system.
Quis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
22
Chapter 2
Water Pathways in Plants
23
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/X/Xyle
m.html#The_Pathway_of_Water
Gambar 9. Root cells in water transport
Water transport across roots through three pathways (Fig. 10),
namely:
1. apoplast - pathway consisting of the extracellular part of the
cell death, namely cell wall and intercellular spaces.
Apoplast pathway is non-selective so that all water and
dissolved minerals can traverse cellulose as a component of
the cell wall constituent by diffusion. Through this pathway
water does not across any membranes except in the non
growing part of root, endodermis which has casparian strip.
The casparian strip is a band of radial cell wall containing
hydrophobic suberin. Water and solute movement and then
force to move into cytoplasm through symplast. However,
remember that the plasma membrane is selective and not all
solutes can freely pass through. In other words, the caspary
bands have a role in regulating the amount and type of
mineral ions which is transported into the xylem.
2. symplast - a pathway that consists of the life part of cell that
is in the cytoplasm of the cell, via plasmodesmata
(selective). In simplas pathway water and mineral flowing
from the cell wall then to cytoplasm through the plasma
membrane, and it will continue through the path between
cells through plasmodesmata in cell walls (Figure 11). Water
27
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Alevel_Biology/Transport/multicellular_plants
http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/exam-1/deck/2057463
28
http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/226/226F08_9print.html
30
Rangkuman
Lintasan transport air dari tanah melintasi tumbuhan menuju
ke atmosfir melalui sistem apolas dan simplas secara transport
aktif dan osmosis. Pergerakan air ini disebabkan karena adanya
31
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Apa fungsi rambut akar pada penyerapan air dan nutrisi dari
dalam tanah?
Sebutkan secara berurutan sel-sel akar yang dilalui lintasan
transport air dan nutrisi.
Apakah yang diimaksud dengan apoplas dan simplas?
Struktur khusus apa yang membuat lintasan apoplas harus
berpindah ke lintasan simplas?
Sebutkan struktur sel yang mendukung lintasan simplas.
Faktor apa saja yang menyebabkan berlangsungnya
transport air dari akar sampai keluar ke atmosfer?
32
Chapter 3
Transpiration
33
Transpiration pathways
Transpiration is the evaporation of water through the leaf organs
due to water vapor concentration gradient. Therefore, the
process of transpiration the water movement occurs mainly by
diffusion. Transpiration serves to provide water for
photosynthesis, transport of minerals from the soil to all parts of
the plant, the plant set temperature by cooling the surface of the
leaves and the leaves around 10-15 C, and maintain the shape
and structure of the plant to keep turgid conditions.
Transpiration through leaves influenced by two main factors,
namely: 1) the difference between concentration of water vapor
in the air spaces in the leaf and the air outside the leaf wich
strongly influenced by temperature: the higher the temperature
the greater the difference in leaf water vapor concentration, and
2) resistance diffusion which consists of two components,
namely, internal and external factors. Internal factors includes
the leaf surface anatomy and morphology including (spine,
hairy, waxy coating), leaf area and shape, the position and
density of stomata and stomatal pore width. The higher density
of stomata or widen the stomata pore size, the higher the rate of
diffusion of water vapor. The external factors are the thickness
of the boundary layer. The bounday layer means a set of ' disk '
water vapor coming out of the pores of stomata on the leaf
surface. The thicker boundary layer, the lower the rate of
diffusion of water vapors to the atmosphere. The wind will move
34
the air and can reduce the thickness of the boundary layer. Air
temperature and light intensity are also external factors that
affect transpiration rate. In addition to the above factors the
guard cells on the opening and closing of stomata are actively
involved in the regulation of leaf transpiration.
Pembukaan dan penutupan stomata
Stomata on the leaf organs play an active role in the process of
transpiration. The opening and closing of stomata on the leaf
had a role in regulating the availability of water in plants (Figure
17). Stoma is a space bounded by two special epidermal cells
called guard cells. Soil and environmental conditions that
contain less water can cause plants deficit water. To prevent this,
the guard cells ' shrink ' so that the stoma is closed and there is
no gap for evaporating water. Conversely, stoma will open when
guard cells become turgid due to maximum amount of water
content. What are the mechanisms that regulate the opening and
closing of the stoma? Regard to the structure of guard cells it
can be understood why during turgid each curved guard cells '
separate ' from each other to form a stoma space as a place of
entry and exit of H2O and CO2. Each guard cells attaches to one
another at the ends. Cell wall next to the 'inside' that forms a
stoma is thicker than the outer wall. Besides that, the guard cells
have microfibil cellulose with radially oriented perpendicular to
the axis of the elongated cells ( Figure 18 ).
Air dari xilem masuk menuju ruang udara di dain dan berdifusi
ke dalam sel-sel mesofil. Selanjutnya air keluar dari daun secara
difusi terutama melalui stomata. Stomata membuka dan
menutup sebagai respon terhadap lingkungan maupun kondisi
internal daun. Sejumlah kecil air (<5 %) juga berdifusi melalui
epidermis. Proses transpirasi akan mendinginkan daun.
39
Chapter 4
Solute Transport
40
Chapter 5
Mineral Nutrition
41
Mineralelementsdeficiency
The essential elements are needed to obtain a good growth.
Insuficient supply of essential elements will result visible
symptomindicatingnutrientdeficienysuchaschangingincolor
andmorphology.Theability ofelement tobetranslocatedto
other place can be used as an indicator of element deficiency.
Mobile elements are those that are capable of being translocated
within the plant. When a plant is deficient of these elements, the
nutrient that is already within the plant will be transported to
other actively growing tissues, the young tissues. Therefore,
deficiency symptoms of mobile elements are observed on the
older leaves first. N,P,K,Mg,Cl,S,ZnandMoaremobile
elements. Conversely, the deficiency symptoms of immobile
elements areappearedfirstinthenewgrowthoryoungleaves
because those elements can not be translocated from older
leavestootherparts.
Basedonthefunctionofessentialelementsitcanbenotedthat:
plantsrequiredifferentamountsofdifferentelements,different
elementsareabsorbedindifferentform,andmostelementshave
severalfunction(Moore and Clark, 1995) and multiple roles in
plant metabolism (Taiz and Zeiger, 2013).
Air and water are the main source of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. Nitrogen, phosphor and sodium are limited in soil but S,
Ca, Fe and Mg usually common in soil.
Nitrogen is primary macronutirent because plants need it in high
amount to serve a constituent of many plant cell components.
The available nitrogen is in the form of both ammonium (NH 4+)
and nitrate (NO3-). In the nutrient solution such as Hoagland
medium the mixture of those cations and anions is supplied to
reduce the rapid rise of medium pH and to maintain cation-anion
balance (Bloom, 1994). Since N is mobile elements chlorosis is
detected first in older leaves and usually accompanied by purple
coloration in leave due to anthocyanin accumulation. Increasing
anthocyanin biosynthesis is due to excees of carbohydrates that
43
44
Chapter 6
Assimilation of Nitrogen
45
METABOLISME NITROGEN
SIKLUS NITROGEN
Tanaman membutuhkan sumber nitrogen anorganik. Dari
seluruh nitrogen yang ada di biosfer 99,95% terdapat di
atmosfer atau sebagai nitrogen terlarut. Sebagian besar tanaman
memproleh nitrogen selulernya dari nitrat dan amonium di tanah
atau yang terlarut di air.
Di lingkungan, nitrogen terdapat dalam beberapa bentuk.
Siklus nitrogen meliputi interkonversi bentuk-bentuk ini secara
kontinyu melalui proses biologis maupun fisik. N2 cukup
banyak terdapat di atmosfer, tetapi organisme hidup sulit untuk
mendapatkan atom N dari N2 dalam bentuk yang bermanfaat.
Walaupun N2 bergerak ke dalam sel-sel di daun bersama-sama
CO2 melalui stomata tetapi enzim yang ada hanya mampu
mereduksi CO2 saja, sehingga N2 akan dilepaskan lagi. Adanya
46
FIKSASI NITROGEN
Organisme
Organisme yang diketahui melakukan fiksasi N2 adalah
mikroorganisme prokaryot, yaitu : bakteri tanah yang hidup
bebas, sianobakter yang hidup bebas pada permukaan tanah atau
air (ganggang hijau-biru) sianobakter yang bersimbiosis dengan
jamur di lumut, atau paku serta bakteri atau mikroba lain yang
bersimbiotik dengan akar, khususnya legum. Tanaman nonlegum yang dapat memfiksasi N2 diantaranya adalah Alnus dan
Myrica yang merupakan tanaman pioner pada tanah yang
defisiensi nitrogen.
Mikroorganisme yang berperan dalam fiksasi N2 di akar
adalah sianobakter dan sebagian besar organisme seperti
aktinomisetes. Pada legum Rhizobium adalah bakteri yang
cukup efektif. Rhizobia adalah bakteri anaerob yang hidup
secara saprofit di tanah sampai bakteri tersebut menginfeksi
rambut akar atau sel epidermal yang rusak. Rambut akar akan
merespon invasi ini dengan membentuk struktur seperti benang.
Benang ini terdiri dari plasma membran yang memanjang dan
berlekuk-lekuk dan bersamaan dengan ini selulosa baru
terbentuk di sebelah dalam membran ini. Bakteri akan
memperbanyak diri secara ekstensif dan akan meluas ke dalam
dan berpenetrasi melintasi atau diantara sel-sel korteks.
48
C.
Transaminasi
Bila NH4+ yang mengandung 15N radioaktif diberikan ke
tanaman, glutamat dan asam aspartat adalah dua asam amino
yang segera akan terlabel dengan 15N. Selanjutnya 15N
radioaktif akan tampak pada asam amino-asam amino yang lain.
Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa glutamat mentransfer asam
aminonya secara langsung ke berbagai asam-asam -keto
melalui reaksi transaminasi reversibel.
Aspartat yang dibentuk melalui transaminasi mentransfer
asam aminonya ke asam -keto lain untuk membentuk asamasam amino.
56
dan
granul
poly-B-hidroksibutirat
dalam
2)
Reaksi 1
Glutamin dibentuk melalui penambahan satu gugus NH2 dari
NH4+ ke gugus karboksil terjauh
dari karbon di asam glutamat . Enzim yang dibutuhkan adalah
glutamin sintetase.
Hidrolisis ATP menjadi ADP dan fosfat berenergi tinggi
membutuhkan asam glutamat sebagai reaktan
merupakan bentuk nitrogen cadangan yang penting. Organ
penyimpan seperti umbi
62
Reaksi 2
mekanisme yang menyediakan asam glutamat, dikatalisa oleh
glutamat sintase.
mentransfer gugus amida pada glutamin ke karbon karbonil
pada asam -ketoglutarat
membentuk 2 molekul asam glutamat
membutuhkan agen pereduksi yang mampu memberikan
elektron, yaitu feredoksin di kloroplas
dan NADH atau NADPH pada protoplastid di sel
nonfotosintetik
Satu glutamat digunakan untuk mempersiapkan reaksi 1; yang
lain dikonversi secara langsung
63
Reaksi 3
glutamin mendonasikan gugus amidanya ke asam aspartat
untuk membentuk asparagin
hidrolisis ATP menjadi AMP dan pyrofosfat berenergi tinggi;
membutuhkan aspargin sintetase, Nitrogen di aspartat dapar
berasal dari glutamat, tetapi 4 karbonnya mungkinberasal dari
oksaloasetat (reaksi 4, pembentukan asapartat). Sebaliknya,
oksaloasetat dibentuk dari PEP
dan HCO3- dengan bantuan PEP karboksilase (reaksi 5).
Transaminasi
Glutamat mentransfer asam aminonya secara langsung ke
berbagai asam-asam -keto melalui
reaksi transaminasi reversibel.
Aspartat yang dibentuk melalui transaminasi mentransfer asam
aminonya ke asam -keto lain
untuk membentuk asam-asam amino.
64
Index
A
Agroforestry (5)
B
Bamboo (24)
Biodiversity (18, 19)
C
Canopy (15)
Carbohydrates (66)
Climates (13)
Cognitive (9)
Culture (1, 10)
Cultural landscapes (54)
D
Data (41)
E
Ethnobotany (1,6)
Ethnology (10)
F
Fern (20)
Focus group Discussion (29)
Floristic (37)
Food security (5, 64, 73)
Fruit (72)
Fungi (21)
H
Holism (9)
Home gardens (16, 56, 62)
65
I
Informant (33)
Interviews (28)
In-depth Interviewing (29)
Index (44)
ICS (45)
K
Kaleka (73)
Key person (33)
L
Landscapes (49, 51, 53)
M
Malnutrition (65)
Matrix (51)
Mapping (59)
P
Paddy terrace (6, 58)
Participant (29, 33)
Patch (50)
S
Sacred groves (55)
Specimen (40)
Spermatophytes (21)
Starch (66)
Steam (70)
T
Tropics (13)
66