ARTICLE IN PRESS

Building and Environment 42 (2007) 26512659

www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Durability of concrete incorporating non-ground blast furnace slag and

bottom ash as ne aggregate
Isa Yuksela,, Turhan Bilirb, Omer Ozkanc
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Zonguldak Karaelmas University, 67100 Zonguldak, Turkey

b
Department of Civil Engineering, Osmangazi University, 26480 Eskisehir, Turkey
c
Department of Technical Programs, Alapl Vocational School, Zonguldak Karaelmas University, 67850 Alapl, Zonguldak, Turkey
Received 28 February 2006; received in revised form 12 June 2006; accepted 3 July 2006

Abstract
The paper presents investigation of how the usage of bottom ash (BA), granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS), and combination of both
of these materials as ne aggregate in concrete affects the concrete durability. To assess durability characteristics of concrete, durability
tests were conducted and the results were evaluated comparing with reference concrete. Three series concrete were produced. GBFS, BA
and GBFS+BA are replaced the 37 mm-sized aggregate. Five test groups were constituted with the replacement percentages as 10%,
20%, 30%, 40% and 50% in each series. These by-products were used as non-ground form in the concrete. Durability properties of the
concretes were compared in order to study the possible advantages of different replacement ratios. According to results, GBFS and BA
affects some durability properties of concrete positively in case of it is used as ne aggregate. Resistance to high temperature and surface
abrasion are positively affected properties. Capillarity, drying-wetting and freezing-thawing resistance of the concrete can be accepted to
some extent. Properties of by-products and its replacement ratio are controlling the inuence level and direction. Comparison of the
SEM images and test results show that chemical and physical properties of GBFS and BA are the main factors affecting the concrete
durability. It is concluded that it is possible to produce durable concrete by using GBFS and BA as ne aggregate.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Aggregate; Bottom ash; Concrete; Durability; Granulated blast furnace slag; Replacement

1. Introduction
High consumption of natural sources, high amount
production of industrial wastes and environmental pollution require obtaining new solutions for a sustainable
development. There are also some kinds of studies to
obtain such solutions in the eld of concrete technologies.
In recent years, durability is one of the critical issues to
develop concrete technologies and construct reinforced
concrete structures with long service life due to some
economical and environmental reasons [15]. Huge
amounts of natural sources such as sand, gravel, cement
and water are used in concrete technology. Also, 3 billion
tons of raw materials are used in each year for cement
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 372 2574010; fax: +90 372 2574023.

E-mail addresses: yukselisa@yahoo.com, yuksel@karaelmas.edu.tr

(I. Yuksel).
0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.07.003

production in the world [5]. Carbon dioxide, primary

greenhouse gas, concentration has risen up to 50% during
the 20th century and it is the major by-product of two
industries. One of them is the cement industry [4]. Besides
this, a sustainable development can be achieved if only the
resource efciency increases. The resource efciency increment is possible by the reduction in use of energy and
materials [5]. If concrete structures are constructed with
longer service life, this objective can be done. To build
environmentally sustainable structures, durability considerations must be taken into account for concrete practise
[4]. Durability is so important to built structures which
have 250 years or more service lives. Rehabilitation and
maintenance costs of concrete structures can also be
decreased by building durable structures. So, concrete
technologies must be developed by using three criteria such
as cost of materials and construction, durability and
environmental friendliness for the future of concrete

ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Yuksel et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 26512659

2652

industry, humanity and world [1]. The solution is to use or

utilizations of industrial by-products or solid wastes in
producing concrete such as y ash (FA), bottom ash (BA),
slag, silica fume, waste glass, etc. [19]. These concrete
technologies reduce negative effects on economical and
environmental problems of concrete industry by having
low costs, high durability properties and environmental
friendliness.
Durability of concrete is dened as; its ability to resist
chemical and physical attacks that lead deterioration of
concrete during its service life [10]. These attacks are
leaching and eorence, sulphate attack, acid attack,
carbonation, alkali-aggregate reaction, freezingthawing
and abrasion. Durability of concrete is as important as
compressive strength. The environmental conditions such
as temperature, humidity and the mechanism of chemical
transports are the major factors causing chemical and
physical attacks [11]. Water ingress is the most important
reason that increases the deterioration of concrete. Durable
concrete is a quality product that meets predetermined
expectations like impermeability. According to Richardson
[12], key issues of durability should include the design life
of structure, the serviceability requirement, a quantiable
description of the criteria that dene serviceability, the
acceptable level of risk and the permissible extent of
maintenance. GBFS is currently used in cement industry by
grinding it. However, the total quantity of used material is
not enough to spend all stocks. Grinding process is also an
energy consuming process. Therefore some new usage
forms should be developed for these industrial wastes or
by-products. Usage of BA and granulated blast furnace
slag (GBFS) as ne aggregate also improves some
durability properties of concrete [68].
In this study, it is aimed to investigate how the usage of
BA and GBFS, single or mutually as ne aggregate in
concrete affects the concrete durability. Durability tests
such as high temperature effect, freezingthawing, drying

wetting, capillarity, and surface abrasion tests were

attempted to make this objective done and determine the
optimum replacement ratio of by-products.
2. Experimental study
2.1. Materials
The cement used was CEM-I (42.5 N) type Portland
cement described in TS EN 197-1 [13]. River aggregates
having fractions 03 and 37 mm sizes were used. The
results of sieve analysis of these fractions, GBFS and BA
are given in Fig. 1. The other physical properties of GBFS
and BA are shown in Table 1.
GBFS was provided by Eregli Iron and Steel Works
Company. BA and FA were provided by a power plant in
which bituminous coal is burning. Chemical composition
of GBFS and BA is presented in Table 2. FA used in this
study can be classied as F type according to ASTM C618.
Some properties of BA are given in Table 3.
Water used in this study was the drinkable water
provided from city waterworks of Zonguldak. Its pH value
is 7.6 and its degree of hardness is 1.28 mmol/l (soft water).
Table 1
Physical properties of aggregate, GBFS and BA
Property

Unit

Aggregate
(07 mm)

GBFS

BA

Loose unit weight

Compact unit weight
Specic gravity
Absorption capacity
Clay lumps and friable
particles
Very ne particles
Organic impurities
(NaOH sol.)

kg/m3
kg/m3

%
%

1930
1950
2.68
11.30
5.00

1052
1236
2.08
10.00

620
660
1.39
12.10
2.40

%
Colour

4.00
Light
yellow

3.00
Light
yellow

7.00

100
0-3 mm
3-7 mm
BA
GBFS

90
80

% passing

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01

0.1

1
Sieve size (mm)

Fig. 1. Sieve analysis results of GBFS, BA, and aggregate fractions.

10

ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Yuksel et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 26512659

2653

Table 2
Chemical composition of GBFS and BA
By-product

SiO2 (%)

CaO (%)

MgO (%)

Al2O3 (%)

Na2O (%)

S (%)

MnO (%)

TiO2 (%)

Fe (%)

P2O3 (%)

GBFS
BA

35.09
57.90

37.79
2.00

5.50
3.20

17.54
22.60

0.30
0.086

0.66
0.604

0.83

0.68

0.70
13.0

0.37

Table 3
Properties of BA
Property

Unit

Value

Loss on ignition
SO3
Cl
45 sieve residue (by weight)
7 day strength activity index
28 day strength activity index
90 day strength activity index

%
%
%
%
%
%
%

1.67
0.08
0.006
25.8
76.9
85.7
100

High-range water-reducing concrete admixture is used at

the amount of 0.7% of cement by weight. FA was also used
as mineral admixture at 10% ratio of cement by weight.
2.2. Method
Firstly, a reference concrete group (R) was produced
according to mix proportions shown in Table 4. Then,
three concrete series were produced replacing ne aggregate by GBFS, BA and GBFS+BA. These series are coded
as C, K, and CK, respectively. In C series GBFS, and in K
series BA was replaced 03 mm ne aggregate by weight.
Five test groups were produced in each series by selecting
the replacement ratios as 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%.
In CK series GBFS and BA were replaced together by
being blended at same ratios. For instance, in CK5 group
which have 10% by-product replacements, 37 mm ne
aggregate was replaced with GBFS and BA which has 5%
volume of ne aggregate. Mix proportions of reference
concrete and the other series are given in Table 4.
These by-products (GBFS and BA) were used as nonground form in the mixture. Durability properties of the
concretes were compared in order to study the possible
advantages of different replacement ratios. High temperature effect, freezingthawing, dryingwetting, capillarity,
surface abrasion and alkalisilica reactions were done on
15 groups and reference concrete. The durability tests were
attempted on cube specimens that have 7 cm dimensions.
High-temperature effect, freezingthawing, dryingwetting
are compared to reference concrete by compressive
strength for each 10% replacement ratio increment. Each
test group was constituted with three samples. Arithmetic
averages of the results of these samples were used for
representation of corresponding group.
Abrasion resistance is measured with volume loss of
specimens for each group. Abrasion resistance test was
done according to Turkish Standard TS 699 [14] by using

Bohme Surface Abrasion Test Method. Loss in volume of

specimen due to surface abrasion was calculated.
In high temperature resistance test, specimens were
placed in mufe furnace at 20 1C and waited until the
furnace temperature rises to 800 1C. Then, specimens were
air-cooled slowly and nally compressive strength tests
were done. The average heating rate of the furnace was
6 1C/min.
Freezingthawing resistance was measured by freezing
and thawing the specimens in water. Specimens were settled
completely under water in a tray. The specimens in the tray
were freezed at 20 1C during 18 h. After 18 h, the tray was
placed in 20 1C water pool and specimens were thawed at
6 h. These cycles were repeated 50 times. Since dimensions
of specimens are relatively high, the thawing temperature is
selected as 20 1C. Then, weight losses of the specimens were
determined and compressive strength tests were made on
specimens.
In dryingwetting test, specimens were rstly wetted
under water during 6 h at 20 1C and dried at 40 1C. The
cycles were repeated 25 times and compressive strengths of
the specimens were measured.
Some specimens were prepared to be observed by
scanning electron microscope (SEM). The images were
observed at 90 days age by a LEO-435VP type SEM. Thus,
microstructures of concrete having GBFS and BA replacements were compared with the microstructure of reference
concrete.
3. Discussion of results
3.1. High-temperature effect
Fig. 2 shows the percentage of the residual compressive
strength after applying 800 1C to the specimens with respect
to 90 day concrete strength. Compressive strength losses
are about 75% for all series of concrete because of
deterioration of CSH in cement paste. Relative increases
were observed for 1030% replacement ratios for all series
in different rates. Only a slight decrease was observed in C
series at 30% replacement ratio. The residual strength is
higher than the strength of reference concrete for replacement ratios up to 40%. This means that replacement of
GBFS and/or BA does positive effects on resistance to high
temperature. Therefore, GBFS and BA can be used single
or mutual as ne aggregate and this type of concrete shows
similar performance against high temperature like reference concrete. The performance of CK series is between C
and K series as expected. The K series shows the best

ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Yuksel et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 26512659

2654

Table 4
Mix proportions of concrete specimens (for 1 m3)
Code

Description

Cement
(kg)

Water
(lt)

FA (kg)

Coarse agg.
(37) (kg)

Fine agg.
(03) (kg)

GBFS (kg)

R
C 10
C 20
C 30
C 40
C 50

Reference
10% GBFS
20% GBFS
30%GBFS
40% GBFS
50% GBFS

350
350
350
350
350
350

167
167
167
167
167
167

35
35
35
35
35
35

1120
1120
1120
1120
1120
1120

720
648
576
504
432
360

0
72
144
216
288
360

0
0
0
0
0
0

2.45
2.45
2.45
2.45
2.45
2.45

K10
K 20
K 30
K 40
K 50

10%
20%
30%
40%
50%

350
350
350
350
350

167
167
167
167
167

35
35
35
35
35

1120
1120
1120
1120
1120

648
576
504
432
360

0
0
0
0
0

72
144
216
288
360

2.45
2.45
2.45
2.45
2.45

CK5
CK 10
CK 15
CK 20
CK 25

5% GBFS 5% BA
10% GBFS 10% BA
15% GBFS 15% BA
20% GBFS 20% BA
25% GBFS 25% BA

350
350
350
350
350

167
167
167
167
167

35
35
35
35
35

1120
1120
1120
1120
1120

648
576
504
432
360

36
72
108
144
180

36
72
108
144
180

2.45
2.45
2.45
2.45
2.45

Residual strength w.r.t. strength at 90 day (%)

BA
BA
BA
BA
BA

BA (kg)

Chem.
adm. (kg)

35.0

30.0

25.0
C series
K series
CK series

20.0
0

10

20
30
Replacement ratio (%)

40

50

Fig. 2. High-temperature effect test results.

performance among the three series. The performance of

concrete is decreasing after 20% replacement ratio. This
state can be explained with the pores in the matrix. The
SEM micrographs shows that the reference concrete has a
dense structure composed of irregular grains and the
hydrated products attach to the aggregate surface strongly
(Fig. 8a). However, in the case of replacing BA as ne
aggregates instead of natural sand, it can be seen that the
microstructure changes its network structure (Fig. 8b,c). It
is becoming more porous than the reference concrete.
Hence, the compressive strength is decreased.
Distribution of cracks on surfaces of the specimens
which were exposed to high temperature show differences
with respect to types and replacement ratios of replaced byproducts. This situation can be observed from photo-

graphs, taken under microscope magnifying 40 times, of

the specimens exposed to same amount of high temperature. Lots of micro-cracks are distributed on the surface of
reference concrete randomly. Whereas, one or two wider
cracks (03 mm) are occurred on the surfaces of C series
concrete specimens. K series concrete specimens have less
and narrow cracks on their surfaces compared to C series
specimens. This can be seen in Fig. 3. K series concrete
shows the best performance on high-temperature effect
with respect to crack formations on the concrete surface.
3.2. Freezethaw resistance
The 90-days compressive strength values are used as
reference values to compare the strength of specimens after

ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Yuksel et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 26512659

2655

Fig. 3. Cracks on specimens due to high temperature (800 1C), (a) reference concrete, (b) C40 concrete, (c) K40 concrete.
7
6.49

6
Loss in strength (%)

6.49
6.36
6.04

6.18
5.51
4.92

4.59

4.91

4.92

4.77
4.11

4
3.60

3.31

3
2.29

2.19

C series
K seris
CK series

1
0

10

20

30

40

50

Replacement ratio (%)

Fig. 4. Freezingthawing test results.

the freezethaw cycles. Compressive strength losses of the

specimens with respect to by-product replacement ratios are
given in Fig. 4. For three series, resistance to freezethaw
increases up to 20% replacement ratio. However, it is
decreases again for the replacement level above 20%. C
series shows the best performance among the three series. For
all series, the loss in strength is below the loss in strength
value for reference concrete. This is a good result for the
replacement idea. It is an expected result for three series that
the best performance is shown by C series. When the
absorbed water frozen in pores, the inner pressure causes
micro cracks in every cycles. From the difference in surface
texture of GBFS and BA; K series absorbs more water than
C series. Therefore, inner pressure is greater than as in the C
series. As the replacement ratio increases, porosity of the
concrete increases in all series relatively. Therefore, the new
concrete produced by using GBFS and BA as partially ne
aggregate is more durable to freezingthawing than reference
concrete. About 2030% replacement ratios can be accepted
as optimum replacement ratios.

dryingwetting cycles. According to test results, dryingwetting effect accelerates the strength decreases for all three series
of concrete. The porous structure of by-product replaced
concrete is effective in these decreases. As the replacement
ratio increases, the structure of hardened concrete is getting
more porous. The microstructure assessments are supported
this idea. Therefore decrease of compressive strength should
be encountered as a normal state. C series are the most
negatively effected series in three series. The differences
between chemical compositions and shapes of GBFS and BA
can be considered as a second reason for the strength losses.
For example, the amount of CaO content is very different for
GBFS and BA (Table 2). More CaO ingress into the concrete
occurs in C series. When CaO reacts with water, heat is
brought out into the open and volume expansion occurs. It is
possible that Ca(OH)2 transforms to CaCO3 during drying.
Also, additional internal vapour pressure occurring due to
evaporation of absorbed free water with respect to temperature change during dryingwetting cycles. This can be said as
another reason of the strength losses.

3.3. Dryingwetting effect

3.4. Capillarity
Compressive strength changes due to dryingwetting
cycles are shown in Fig. 5.
The 90-days compressive strength values are used as
reference values to compare strength before and after

Capillarity test results, shown in Fig. 6, presents that all

replacement ratios except 10% have higher capillarity
coefcients compared to reference group. When the

ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Yuksel et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 26512659

2656

Compressive strength (MPa)

55
50
45
40
35
C-ref before drying-wetting cycles
K-ref before drying-wetting cycles
CK ref before drying-wetting cycles
C after drying-wetting cycles
K after drying-wetting cycles
CK after drying-wetting cycles

30
25
0

10

20

30

40

50

Replacement ratio (%)

Fig. 5. Compressive strength alterations in dryingwetting test.

Capillarity coefficient (cm2/s)x10-6

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
C-series
K-series
CK series

1.5
1
0

10

20

30

40

50

Replacement ratio (%)

Fig. 6. Capillarity test results.

replacement ratio increases, the amount of by-product

(GBFS, BA or GBFS+BA) increases. Hence the structure
of concrete is getting more porous. This state can be the
reason of increase in capillarity. However, the results for
the 10% replacement does not obey this trend.
The reason of lower capillarity coefcients of groups
containing 10% replacement ratio, compared to other
groups containing different replacement ratios, can be
consisted in the pozzolanic reaction. GBFS and BA have
reacted with free lime (CaO) during hydration and
occurred additional tobermorite gels to the silicate gels of
cement. Thus, capillary pores of 10% by-product replaced
groups are lled. Therefore, capillarity of these specimens
is lower than the other groups due to decrement of
capillary pores. Higher capillarity of other specimens
containing 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% replacement ratios
has consisted because of porous structure composed by the
usage of GBFS and BA. The reason of this state is the
GBFS and BA at higher amounts. All of GBFS and BA

does not occur pozzolanic reactions when they are used at

higher amounts. Consequently, higher capillarity coefcients are obtained.
3.5. Surface abrasion
Surface abrasions of concrete specimens are shown in
Fig. 7. Replacement of GBFS and/or BA does not
decreases the surface abrasion in all series. GBFS and
BA shows similar behaviour for surface abrasion. The iron
content of BA is greatly higher than GBFS, and it shows
better performance than GBFS. Upper limit values given in
TS 2824 as 13/50 cm2 and in ASTM C 936 as 15/50 cm2 are
not exceeded for all series. CK series shows the best
performance against to surface abrasion.
Surface abrasion resistance is inuenced by crushing
strength of aggregate, strength and porosity of concrete,
contact area of specimens surface. Porosity of concrete
and the contact area of specimen are interrelated. The

ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Yuksel et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 26512659

2657

14

Loss in mass (cm3/50 cm2)

13

12

11

10
C series
K series
CK series
Allowable limit value

8
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Replacement ratio (%)

Fig. 7. Surface abrasion test results.

greater porosity the smaller contact area. Therefore, the

greater stress on the contact area causes rapid abrasion.
However, always the rapid abrasion does not mean that the
total loss of mass due to abrasion is maximum. Crushing
strength of aggregate is getting importance in this stage.
For lower replacement ratios such as 20%, porosity is not
high and the contact area is enough for decrease the stress
on the surface. However, for the high replacement ratios
such as 50%, porosity increases and the crushing strength
of aggregate particles is exceeded. Hence, loss of mass is
decreasing slightly for low replacement ratios and it
increases again for high replacement ratios.
Abrasion resistance is related with compressive strength
of concrete. There are researches [15,16] correlating
abrasion resistance and compressive strength. When FA
is replaced ne aggregate in concrete, compressive strength
is increased. It is known that the compressive strength is
decreasing as replacement ratio is increases [17]. Therefore
the results obtained from this study are consistent with the
results in literature.
3.6. Microstructure
The SEM images were observed for the concrete
specimens at 90-days age. The reference concrete specimen
where the natural sand (Fig. 8a) is used only for ne
aggregate shows a dense structure. There is no indication of
porous structure. The C series concretes with low-rate
replacement are similar to reference concrete with regard to
microstructure (Fig. 8b). When the replacement ratio is
greater than 30% it shows porous structure. In the case of
replacing BA as ne aggregate replaced with sand (K
series), it can be seen that the microstructure changes its
network structure. The structure is becoming more porous
than the reference concrete (Fig. 8c). As the percentage of
BA in the replacement increases the concrete structure is
becoming more and more porous, having much more pores

distributed around the aggregate surfaces. In addition, the

detachments of the grains are observed in the network
structure with the increase of BA replacement. Therefore,
the formation of discrete grains and porous area close to
the aggregate surfaces might be the main cause in reducing
the compressive strength values with an increase in the
percentage of BA in the ne aggregate replacement [8].
It can be seen from Fig. 8 that GBFS grains larger than
30 mm in diameter combined with the hydration products
as in a similar way of aggregates.

4. Conclusions
In this study, the effects of BA and GBFS, as ne
aggregate in concrete without no pre-processes at various
replacement ratios, to concrete durability are investigated.
As a general result, GBFS and BA affects durability
properties of concrete positively when it is used as
ne aggregate. Mainly, properties of the replaced byproduct and the replacement ratio are controlling the
inuence level and direction.
High-temperature affects the concrete types which
contain GBFS or/and BA ne aggregate replacement like
reference concrete even if for the 50% replacement.
Amount of surface cracks also decrease when these byproducts are used. So, it is possible to replace GBFS and
BA with ne aggregate in concrete exposing high temperature.
Compressive strength loss due to freezingthawing effect
decreases for low replacement ratio (1030%). Therefore
durability against freezethaw cycles increases for these
replacement levels. Compressive strength loss starts to
increase after this level. After all, it is still on the same level
as well as in reference concrete for the maximum level of
replacement (50%). Therefore GBFS or BA replaced
concretes have better durability than reference concrete.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2658

I. Yuksel et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 26512659

Fig. 8. (a) SEM micrograph of reference concrete specimen, (b) SEM micrograph of C30 concrete specimen, (c) SEM micrograph of K30 concrete
specimen.

A 20% replacement level is ideal level for the best

performance.
All concrete types, which by-products are used as ne
aggregate single or mutual, are durable against abrasion.
BA, used as ne aggregate, increases the degree of
porosity of concrete. GBFS also increases porosity but this
increment occurs less than BA. K series is the most porous
concrete. C series has porosity like reference concrete till
30% replacement ratio and replacement ratio increment
also increases the porosity for all concrete types. Thus,
reference concrete has always a denser structure than byproduct concretes. This is the reason of high capillarity
coefcient and weak dryingwetting resistance of K series.
Besides this, by-product concretes are durable against some
exposure conditions because the losses in compressive
strengths are similar or slightly lower than reference
concrete. Consequently, comparison of these SEM images
and test results show that chemical and physical properties
of GBFS and BA as ne aggregate single or mutually are
the main factors affecting the concrete durability.
It is possible to produce durable concrete by using GBFS
and BA as ne aggregate. The replacement ratio is
changing according to the type and properties of concrete
that will be produced. For normal concretes, 20%
replacement is an optimum ratio with regard to the test

results obtained in this study. This means that industrial

by-products can be used in concrete technologies at
maximum amounts. So, this study helps concrete industry
to develop concrete technologies that have technical,
economical and ecological advantages for a sustainable
development like normal strength, durability and environmental friendliness.
Acknowledgements
This study is a part of the research project (project no.
ICTAG I687) which is nancially supported by the
Scientic and Technological Research Council (TUBITAK) of Turkey. Authors are gratefully acknowledged for
this support.
References
[1] Mehta PK. Advancements in concrete technology. Concrete International 1999;21(6):2733.
[2] Mehta PK. Reducing the environmental impact of concrete. Concrete
International 2001;23(10):615.
[3] Mehta PK. Durability critical issues for the future. Concrete
International 1997;19(7):6976.
[4] Mehta PK. Building durable structures in the 21st century. Concrete
International 2001;23(11):5763.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Yuksel et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 26512659
[5] Mehta PK. Greening of the concrete industry for sustainable
development. Concrete International 2002;24(7):237.
[6] Yuksel I, Ozkan O, Bilir T. Usage of granulated blast furnace slag as
ne aggregate in concrete. In: Ozkul MH, editor. Fifth national
congress on concrete (durability of concrete). Turkish Chamber of
Civil Engineers; 2003. p. 47181.
[7] Ghafoori N, Bulholc J. Investigation of lignite-based bottom ash for
structural concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
1996;8(3):12837.
[8] Yuksel I, Bilir T. Usage of blast furnace slag to produce concrete
pavement blocks and kerbs. In: Ozer MF, editor. Kocaeli national
symposium on earthquake. Kocaeli University; 2005. p. 87080 (CD)
(in Turkish).
[9] Topc- u IB, Canbaz M. Properties of concrete containing waste glass.
Cement and Concrete Research 2004;34(2):26774.
[10] Erdogan TY. Materials of construction. Ankara: Metu Press; 2002.

2659

[11] Baradan B. Durability of reinforced concrete structures. Izmir:

Dokuz Eylul University Engineering Faculty Press; 2002 (in Turkish).
[12] Richardson MG. Fundamentals of durable reinforced concrete.
London: Spon Press; 2002.
[13] TS EN 197-1. Turkish standard for cementPart 1: compositions
and conformity criteria for common cements, Ankara, 2002 (in
Turkish).
[14] TS 699 Turkish standard for natural building stonesexamination
and test methods, Ankara, 1987 (in Turkish).
[15] Siddique R. Effect of ne aggregate replacement with class F y ash
on the abrasion resistance of concrete. Cement and Concrete
Research 2003;33(11):187781.
[16] Horszczaruk E. Abrasion resistance of high-strength concrete in
hydraulic structures. Wear 2005;259(1):629.
[17] Yuksel I, Ozkan O, Bilir T. Use of granulated blast-furnace slag in
concrete as ne aggregate. ACI Materials Journal 2006;103(3):2038.