Liquid and Gas Pipeline Hydraulics

Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics
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Introduction to Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics

This online course on liquid pipeline hydraulics covers the steady state transportation of
liquids in pipelines. These include water lines, refined petroleum products and crude oil
pipelines. This course will prove to be a refresher in fluid mechanics as it is applied to real
world pipeline design. Although many formulas and equations are introduced, we will
concentrate on how these are applied to the solution of actual pipeline transportation
problems.
First, the liquid properties are discussed and how they vary with temperature and pressure
are analyzed. The pressure in a liquid and liquid head are explained next. Then the classical
Darcy equation for determining pressure drop due to friction in liquid flow is introduced and
a modified more practical version is explained. Common forms of equations relating flow
versus pressure drop due to friction are introduced and applications illustrated by example
problems. In a long distance pipeline the need for multiple pump stations and hydraulic
pressure gradient are discussed.
Next the pumping horsepower required to transport a liquid through a pipeline is calculated.
Centrifugal and positive displacement pumps are discussed along with an analysis of the
pump performance curves. The impact of liquid
specific gravity and viscosity on pump
performance is explained with reference to the Hydraulic Institute charts. The use of drag
reduction as a means to improving pipeline throughput is explored. Batching of different
products in a pipeline simultaneously, with minimum commingling, is discussed next. The
internal design pressure in a pipeline and the hydrostatic test pressure for safe operation
are explained with illustrative examples.
SYSTEK Technologies, Inc
November 24, 2005
1. Properties of Liquids
Mass is the amount of
matter contained in a substance. It is sometimes interchangeably
used in place of weight.
Weight however, is a vector quantity and depends upon the
acceleration due to gravity at the specific location. In the English or US Customary System
of units (USCS), mass and weight are generally referred to in pounds (lb). Strictly speaking
we must refer to mass as pound-mass (lbm) and weight as pound force (lbf).
independent of temperature and pressure.
Mass is
In SI or Metric units, mass is measured in
kilograms (kg). As an example, a 55 gal drum of crude oil may weigh 412 lbf or has a
mass of 412 lbm.
For the purpose of discussion in this course, when lb is used, it is
intended to mean lbm.
Volume is the space occupied
by a particular
mass. It depends upon temperature and
pressure. For liquids, pressure has very little effect on volume compared to gases. Volume
of a liquid increases slightly with increase in temperature. In USCS units volume may be
expressed in gallons (gal) or cubic feet (ft3). One ft3 is equal to 7.481 US gal. In the Oil and
Gas industry, volume of petroleum products is measured in barrels (bbl). One bbl is equal
to 42 US gal. In SI or Metric units, volume is expressed in liters (L) or cubic meters (m3).
One m3 is equal to 1000 L. A useful conversion is 3.785 L to a gal of liquid. Volume flow
rate in a pipeline may be stated in gal/min, bbl/h, bbl/day or m3/h.
Density of a liquid is defined as mass per unit volume. Therefore, like volume, density also
depends upon temperature and pressure. Density decreases with increase in liquid
temperature and vice versa. In USCS units density is stated in lb/gal or lb/ft3.
In the
petroleum industry, sometimes density is expressed in lb/bbl. In SI or Metric units, density

is expressed in kg/L or kg/m3. If the mass of a 55 gal drum of crude oil is 412 lb, the
density of the crude oil is 412/55 = 7.49 lb/gal. In contrast water has a density of 8.33
lb/gal or 62.4 lb/ ft3. In SI units, the density of water is approximately 1000 kg/m3 or 1
metric tonne/m3.
The term specific weight is also sometimes used with liquids. It is
calculated by dividing the weight by the volume.
Specific Gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a liquid to that of water at the
same temperature. It is therefore a measure of how heavy the liquid is compared to water.
Being a ratio, specific gravity is dimensionless. Considering the density of water as 8.33
lb/gal and a sample of crude oil with a density of 7.49 lb/gal
we calculate the specific
gravity of the crude oil as 7.49/8.33 = 0.899. Sometimes, specific gravity is abbreviated to
gravity. Since the density of a liquid changes with temperature, the specific gravity also
depends on temperature.
Since density decreases with temperature rise, the specific
gravity also decreases with increase in temperature. For example, if the specific gravity of a
petroleum product is 0.895 at 60 degF, its specific gravity at 100 degF may be 0.815. The
variation of specific gravity with temperature is approximately linear as shown in the
equation below.
ST = S60 - a (T-60)
(1.1)
where, ST is the specific gravity at temperature T and S60 is the specific gravity at 60oF and
a
is a constant that depends on the liquid. Charts are available that show the specific
gravity versus temperature variation for various liquids. See Flow of Fluids through Valves,
Fittings and Pipes, Crane Company, 1976.
In the petroleum industry, the term API Gravity is used often to describe the gravity of
crude oils and refined petroleum products. It is based upon a standard of 60 degF and API
gravity of 10.0 for water. For lighter liquids such as gasoline and crude oil, the API gravity is
a number higher than 10.0. Therefore, the heavier the liquid is compared to water, lower is
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the API value. A typical crude oil is said to have a gravity of 27 deg API. Consider for
example, gasoline with a specific gravity of 0.74 (compared to water = 1.00). The
corresponding API gravity of gasoline is 59.72 deg API. Similarly diesel with a specific
gravity of 0.85, has an API gravity of 34.97. Conversion between specific gravity and API
gravity can be done using the following equations.
or
Specific gravity Sg = 141.5/(131.5 +API)
(1.2)
API = 141.5/Sg - 131.5
(1.3)
Substituting API of 10.0 for water results in a specific gravity of 1.0 for water. It must be
noted that API gravity is always defined at 60 degF. Therefore, the specific gravity used in
the above equations must also be at 60 degF.
Example 1
(a) Calculate the specific gravity of a crude oil that has an API gravity of 29.0.
(b) Convert a specific gravity of 0.82 to API gravity.
Solution
(a) From equation 1.2 we get
Sg = 141.5/(131.5 + 29.0) = 0.8816
(b) From equation 1.3 we get
API = 141.5/0.82 - 131.5 = 41.06
Viscosity of a liquid represents the resistance to flow and is defined by the classical
Newtons equation that relates the shear stress in the liquid to the velocity gradient of flow.
When liquid flows through a pipeline the velocity of liquid particles at any cross-section
varies in some fashion depending upon the type of flow (laminar or turbulent). Generally the
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particles close to the pipe wall will be at rest (zero velocity) and as we move towards the
center of the pipe the velocity increases. The velocity variation may be considered to be
approximately trapezoidal for turbulent flow or close to a parabola for laminar flow.
Considering one half cross section of the pipe the liquid velocity varies from zero to a
maximum of umax. If the distance measured from the pipe wall to a point within the pipe
cross section is y, the velocity gradient is du/dy. This is depicted in Figure 1.1.
y
u
Maximum Velocity
Laminar Flow
Maximum velocity
Turbulent Flow
Figure 1.1 Velocity variation in pipe flow
Newtons Law states that the shear stress between successive layers of liquid is
proportional to the velocity gradient du/dy. The constant of proportionality is known as the
dynamic or absolute viscosity of liquid .
= du/dy
(1.4)
The absolute viscosity is measured in lb/ft-s in USCS units and in Poise (P) or centipoise
(cP) in SI units. A related term known as the kinematic viscosity, denoted by is defined as
the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the liquid density at the same temperature.
= /
(1.5)
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In USCS units is stated in ft2/s and in SI units, it is expressed in m2/s,
Stokes (S) or
centistokes (cSt). Water has an approximate viscosity of 1.0 cP or 1.0 cSt at 60 deg F.
When dealing with petroleum products, kinematic viscosity in cSt is used
in both USCS
units and SI units. However, sometimes, in testing petroleum products in the laboratory,
kinematic viscosity is stated in units of SSU and SSF.
SSU stands for Saybolt Universal
Seconds and SSF is for Saybolt Furol Seconds. SSU is used for heavy crude oils and SSF for
heavy fuel oils. For example, the viscosity of Alaskan North Slope Crude (ANS) is 200 SSU
at 60 degF. Viscosity conversion from SSU and SSF to cSt and vice versa can be done using
the following formulas.
cSt = 0.226(SSU) 195/(SSU)
(1.6)
for 32 SSU 100

cSt = 0.220(SSU) 135/(SSU)
(1.7)
for SSU > 100

cSt = 2.24(SSF) 184/(SSF)
(1.8)
for 25 < SSF 40

cSt = 2.16(SSF) 60/(SSF)
(1.9)
for SSU > 40
For example, a viscosity of 200 SSU can be converted to cSt as follows:

cSt = 0.220 x 200 135/200 = 43.33
Similarly, viscosity of 200 SSF can be converted to cSt as follows:
cSt = 2.16 x 200 60/200 = 431.7
It can be observed from equations above that converting kinematic viscosity from SSU and
SSF into cSt is fairly easy. However, to convert from cSt to SSU or SSF is not straight
forward. You will have to solve a quadratic equation. This will be illustrated using an
example. A rule of thumb is that the SSU value is approximately 5 times the cSt value.
Example 2
Convert a viscosity of 150 cSt to SSU.
Assuming the viscosity in SSU will be approximately 5 x 150 = 750, we can then use
equation 1.7 as follows
150 = 0.220 x SSU 135/SSU
Transposing we get a quadratic equation in SSU
0.22x2 150x 135 = 0
where x is viscosity in SSU
Solving for x, we get
x = 682.72 SSU
Similar to density and specific gravity, the viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase in
temperature. However, the variation is not linear as will be shown next.
For example, the viscosity of a crude oil at 60 degF is 40 cSt and at 100 degF, the viscosity
decreases to 20 cSt. The viscosity temperature variation is approximately as follows:
Loge() = A B(T)
(1.10)
Where is the viscosity in cSt at an absolute temperature T. The absolute temperature is

measured in degrees Rankin (deg R) in USCS units or Kelvin (K) in SI units. A and B are
constants. The absolute temperature scale is defined as follows:
In USCS units, deg R = deg F + 460.
In SI units, K = deg C + 273.
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It can be seen from Equation 1.10 that a plot of log (viscosity) versus absolute temperature
T is a straight line. Generally, from laboratory data, the viscosity of a crude oil or petroleum
product is given at two different temperatures. From this data a plot of viscosity versus
temperature can be made on a special graph paper known as ASTM D341. Once we plot the
two sets of points, the viscosity at any intermediate temperature can be determined by
interpolation.
Vapor Pressure of a liquid is defined as that pressure at a certain temperature when the
liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium. Consequently, the boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which its vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure. In a laboratory,
the liquid vapor pressure is generally measured at 100 degF and referred to as the Reid
Vapor Pressure (RVP).
The vapor pressure of a liquid increases with increase in
temperature. Therefore if the Reid Vapor pressure of a liquid 10.0 psig, the vapor pressure
at 70 degF will be a lower number such as 8.0 psig. The actual vapor pressure of a liquid at
any temperature may be obtained from charts, knowing its Reid vapor pressure. The vapor
pressure of a liquid is important in determining the minimum suction pressure available for
a centrifugal pump. This is discussed in further detail under centrifugal pumps.
Bulk Modulus of a liquid is a measure of the compressibility of the liquid. It is defined as

the pressure necessary to cause a unit change in volume. Generally, liquids are considered
practically incompressible, compared to gases
Bulk modulus =
P
V V
(1.11)
In differential form,
K=
V (dP dV )
(1.12)
where V is the volume change for a pressure change of P.
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For water, K is approximately 300,000 psig whereas for gasoline it is 150,000 psig. It can
be seen from the values of K that fairly large pressures are required to cause small volume
changes in liquids. In USCS units bulk modulus K is stated in psig. Two types of K values
are used: isothermal and adiabatic.
The following formulas are used to calculate the
isothermal and adiabatic bulk modulus.
The adiabatic bulk modulus of a liquid of given API gravity and at pressure P psig and
temperature T deg R is
Ka = A + B(P) C(T)
D(API) E(API) + F(T)(API)
(1.13)
where constants A through F are defined as follows:

6
A = 1.286x10
B = 13.55
C = 4.122x10
E = 10.59
F = 3.228
D = 4.53x10
The isothermal bulk modulus of a liquid of given API gravity and at pressure P psig and
temperature T deg R is
Ki = A + B(P) C(T)
3/2
+ D(T)
3/2
E(API)
(1.14)
where constants A through E are defined as follows:

6
B = 9.203
D = 73.05
A = 2.619x10
C = 1.417x10
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E = 341.0
10
Example 3
Calculate the two values of bulk modulus of a liquid with an API gravity of 35, at 1,000 psig
pressure and 80 deg F.
Solution
The adiabatic bulk modulus is
6
Ka = 1.286x10 + 13.55 (1000) 4.122x10 (80+460)
4.53x10 (35) 10.59(35) +
3.228(80+460)(35)
Solving for the adiabatic bulk modulus, we get
Ka = 231,170 psig
Similarly, The isothermal bulk modulus is

6
Ki = 2.619 x 10 + 9.203 x 1000 1.417 x 10 (80+460)
3/2
+ 73.05 x (80+460)
341.0
3/2
x (35)
Substituting the values of A through E, we get

Ki = 181,450 psig
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2. Pressure Drop Due To Friction

Pressure, at any point in a liquid, is the force per unit area. Considering a body of liquid
such as a storage tank, the pressure at a depth of H feet below the liquid surface is the
same at all points in the liquid in all directions. This is known as Pascals Law. As the depth
increases, the liquid pressure also increases. In USCS units, pressure is measured in lb/in2
or psi. In SI units, pressure is stated in kilopascal (kPa), megapascal (MPa) or Bar.
The pressure measured by a pressure gauge is known as the gauge pressure and does not
include the atmospheric pressure. When the atmospheric pressure at a location is included,
the pressure is referred to as the absolute pressure. The relationship between the gauge
pressure and absolute pressure is as follows:
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
(2.1)
Absolute pressure is stated in psia while the gauge pressure is represented as psig.
Similarly, in SI units, pressure is expressed either kPa absolute or kPa gauge.
Throughout this course, psi means gauge pressure or psig. Similarly, pressure in kPa means
gauge pressure.
At sea level, in USCS units the atmospheric pressure is approximately 14.7 psia. Therefore
the absolute pressure in a pipeline where the pressure gauge reading is 1,000 psig is
Pabs = 1000 + 14.7 = 1,014.7 psia
In SI units, the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101 kPa. Therefore, a gauge pressure
of 5,000 kPa is equal to an absolute pressure of
Pabs = 5000 + 101 = 5,101 kPa absolute.
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Some conversions between USCS and SI units should be noted:

1 psi = 6.895 kPa
1 Bar = 100 kPa = 14.5 psi
1 MPa = 1,000 kPa = 145 psi
Consider liquid contained in a tank with the liquid level at a height of H feet above the tank
bottom. Due to the density of the liquid, all points within the liquid at the bottom of the tank
will experience a pressure due to the column of liquid of height H. At the surface of the
liquid the pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. If a pressure gauge is used to
measure the liquid pressure at the tank bottom, it will register the pressure equivalent to
the liquid height H. This is referred to as the liquid head when expressed in ft. The
conversion between the liquid head H in ft and pressure P in psi, is related by the liquid
specific gravity Sg as follows:
Pressure, P = H x Sg/2.31
(2.2)
Thus a liquid head of 100 ft is equivalent to a pressure of

P = 100 x 1.0/2.31 = 43.3 psi for water
and
P = 100 x 0.74/2.31 = 32.03 psi for gasoline (Sg = 0.74)
It is clear that the lighter the liquid, the lower the pressure in psi for the same liquid head in
ft.
From a given pressure P in psi we may also calculate the equivalent liquid head H in ft,
using Equation 2.2 as follows
H = 2.31 x P / Sg
(2.3)
Therefore, a pressure of 500 psi may be converted to the equivalent head for each liquid as
follows:
H = 2.31 x 500 / 1.0 = 1,155 ft for water
and
H = 2.31 x 500 / 0.74 = 1,561 ft for gasoline
It can be seen that for a given pressure in psi, the equivalent head in ft will increase with
decrease in specific gravity. This is because the lighter liquid has to rise to a higher level to
equal the given pressure in psi compared to the heavier liquid. The concept of pressure in
psi and liquid head in ft may be further illustrated by considering a pipeline which has a
liquid pressure of 500 psi as shown in Figure 2.1.
1561 ft
gasoline
1155 ft
water
500 psi
500 psi
Figure 2.1 Liquid Pressure in a Pipeline
It can be seen that the pressure gauge reading of 500 psi equates to a manometric head of
1,561 ft when the liquid is gasoline. Replacing the liquid with water will create a manometric
head of 1,155 ft.
In most liquid hydraulics calculations, pressure is stated in psig as measured using a
pressure gauge. However, when dealing with centrifugal pumps the pressure generated by
the pump is stated in feet of liquid head. Also in the basic pressure drop equation known as
the Darcy equation the term head loss is used, as will be explained shortly.
Consider a pipeline of inside diameter D inch and length L ft in which a liquid of specific
gravity Sg flows from point A to point B at a flow rate of Q gal/min. If the flow rate is
steady, at every cross-section of the pipe such as A, B or any point in-between C, the same
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14
amount of liquid flows per minute. This means that the liquid molecules move at the same
average velocity at A, B or C. Since the diameter is constant, this uniform velocity can be
calculated from the flow rate as follows
Velocity = Flow rate/ area of flow
(2.4)
After some simplification, the velocity V in ft/s is given by

V = 0.4085 Q/D2
(2.5)
In the above, the flow rate Q is in gal/min. When Q is in bbl/h, the velocity becomes
V=
0.2859 Q/D2
(2.6)
The corresponding velocity in SI units, is calculated as follows:

V = 353.6777 Q/D2
(2.7)
where Q is in m3/h, D is in mm and V is in m/s
It must be remembered, however, that the liquid molecules at any cross section have
velocities ranging from zero at the pipe wall to a maximum at the centerline of the pipe as
discussed earlier in Figure 1.1. The velocity variation approximates a parabola at low flow
rates (laminar flow) and resembles a trapezium at high flow rates (turbulent flow).
The
Equations 2.4 through 2.7 give the average velocity at any pipe cross section.
For example, consider gasoline flowing through a pipeline with an inside diameter 15.5 inch
at a flow rate of 5,000 bbl/h. The average velocity can be calculated from Equation 2.6, as
V=
0.2859 x 5000 / (15.5)2
= 5.95 ft/s
Similarly, water flowing through a 394 mm inside diameter pipe at 800 m3/h has an average
velocity, using Equation 2.7, as follows
V = 353.6777 x 800 / (394)2
= 1.82 m/s
15
The Reynolds number of flow is a non-dimensional parameter that characterizes the flow
as laminar or turbulent. The Reynolds number depends upon the liquid velocity, viscosity
and pipe diameter. It is calculated from the following equation
R = VD/
(2.8)
where the velocity V is in ft/s, pipe inside diameter D is in ft and the liquid viscosity is in
ft2/s. With these units R is a dimensionless parameter.
Using common pipeline units, the Reynolds number equation becomes

R = 2214 Q/(D)
(2.9)
where Q is the flow rate in bbl/h, D is the inside diameter of pipe in inches and is the
kinematic viscosity of the liquid in cSt.
When Q is in bbl/day
R = 92.24 Q/(D)
(2.10)
When Q is in gal/min, the Reynolds number equation becomes

R = 3160 Q/(D)
(2.11)
In SI units, the Reynolds number is calculated from

R = 353,678 Q/(D)
(2.12)
where Q is in m3/h, D is in mm and is in cSt.
Example 4
Calculate the Reynolds number of flow for a crude oil pipeline, 20 inch outside diameter and
0.500 inch wall thickness at a flow rate of 200,000 bbl/day. Viscosity of the crude oil is 15
cSt.
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16
Solution
The Reynolds number is calculated from Equation 2.10 as follows
R = 92.24 (200000) / (15 x 19.0) = 64,723
Depending upon the value of R calculated from Equations 2.9 through 2.12, the flow may
be categorized as laminar flow, critical flow or turbulent flow as follows:
Laminar flow for
R <= 2,000
Critical flow
R > 2,000 and R < 4,000
for
Turbulent flow for
R >= 4,000
The upper limit for laminar flow is sometimes stated as 2,100 in some publications.
Laminar flow is defined as steady state flow in which the liquid flows through the pipe
smoothly in laminations. This type of flow is also known as low friction or viscous flow in
which no eddies or turbulence exist. As the flow rate increases, more and more disturbance
or eddies are formed due to friction between the adjacent layers of the liquid as well as
friction between the pipe wall and the liquid. Due to friction, the pressure in the liquid
decreases from the inlet of the pipe to the outlet. This is called pressure loss due to friction
in pipe flow.
The amount of pressure loss due to friction, also known as head loss, depends upon many
factors.
The classical equation for head loss due to friction
in pipe flow is the Darcy
equation expressed as follows

h = f (L/D) V2/2g
(2.13)
In the above equation the head loss h is in ft of liquid head. The pipe length L and inside
diameter D are both in ft. The velocity of flow V is in ft/s. The constant g is the acceleration
due to gravity and is equal to 32.2 ft/s2. The dimensionless parameter f is known as the
Darcy friction factor that depends upon the internal roughness of the pipe, the Reynolds
November 24, 2005
17
number R and the inside diameter of the pipe. Its value ranges from approximately 0.008 to
0.10 depending upon many factors. For laminar flow, f depends only on R.
In turbulent
flow, f also depends upon the internal roughness of the pipe and pipe inside diameter.
In laminar flow, the friction factor f is calculated from
f = 64/R
(2.14)
Thus, for a Reynolds number of 1,800, the flow being laminar, the friction factor is
calculated as
f = 64/1800 = 0.0356
If the velocity of flow in this case is 1.5 ft/s in a pipe 13.5 inch inside diameter and the
pipe length is 1,000 ft, we can use the Darcy equation to calculate the head loss due to
friction from Equation 2.13 as
h = f (L/D) V2/2g
h = 0.0356 (1000 x 12 /13.5) (1.5) 2/(2 x 32.2) = 1.106 ft
If the liquid specific gravity is 0.74 we can convert this head loss into psig as follows
Pressure drop due to friction = 1.106 x 0.74 / 2.31 = 0.35 psi
The calculation of the friction factor f used in the Darcy equation for turbulent flow is more
complex and will be discussed next.
The ColebrookWhite equation is used to calculate the friction factor in turbulent flow, as
follows.
1/ f = -2 Log10[ (e/3.7D) + 2.51/(R f )]
(2.15)
where f is the Darcy friction factor, D is the pipe inside diameter and e is the absolute pipe
roughness. Both D and e are in inches. R is the dimensionless Reynolds number. In SI
units the same equation can be used as long as both D and e are in mm.
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18
It is clear that the equation for f has to be solved by trial and error since f appears on both
sides of the equation. An initial value (such as 0.02) is assumed for f and substituted into
the right hand side of the equation. A second approximation can then be calculated, which
in turn can be used to obtain a better value of f and so on. The iteration is stopped when
successive values of f are within a small value such as 0.001.
Example 5
Calculate the friction factor for a Reynolds number of 50,000 for flow in an NPS 20 pipe,
0.500 inch wall thickness and an internal roughness of 0.002 inch.
Solution
The NPS 20 pipe has an inside diameter
D = 20 2 x 0.500 = 19.0 inch
1/ f = -2 Log10[ (0.002/(3.7 x 19.0)) + 2.51/(50000 f )]
Assume f = 0.02 and calculate the next approximation as
1/ f = -2 Log10[(0.002/(3.7 x 19.0)) + 2.51/(50000 0.02)]
= 6.8327
Therefore, f = 0.0214 as the second approximation.
Using this value the next approximation for f is
1/ f = -2 Log10[(0.002/(3.7 x 19.0)) + 2.51/(50000 0.0214 )]
= 6.8602
Therefore, f = 0.0212 which is close enough.
In the critical zone where the Reynolds number is between 2000 and 4000 the flow is
unstable and the friction factor is calculated considering turbulent flow using the ColebrookWhite equation discussed above.
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19
Another method of calculating the friction factor in turbulent flow is using the Moody
Diagram shown in Figure 2.2
Figure 2.2 Moody Diagram
The Moody Diagram is used to read off the value of friction factor, from the Reynolds
number plotted on the horizontal axis and the relative roughness (e/D) plotted on the
vertical axis to the right. It is a quick way of determining the friction factor in turbulent flow
without resorting to the trial and error approach using ColebrookWhite equation.
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20
Similar to the non-dimensional friction factor f, another parameter F known as the

transmission factor is used in pipeline hydraulics. The dimensionless term, transmission
factor has an inverse relationship to the friction factor as indicated below:
F
= 2/ f
(2.16)
The friction factor f has a value between 0.008 and 0.10. Therefore, using Equation 2.16
we can deduce that the transmission factor F will have values approximately in the range of
6 to 22. Since the pressure drop due to friction is proportional to the friction factor, the
pressure drop will decrease with increase in the value of transmission factor, and vice versa.
The Darcy equation discussed earlier is not convenient for pipeline calculations since it does
not use common pipeline units, such as pressure in psi and flow rate in bbl/h. Therefore,
the following equation is used when dealing with pipelines transporting crude oils and
refined petroleum products.
The pressure drop Pm, in psi per mile of pipe length, is calculated from a given flow rate,
pipe inside diameter, liquid specific gravity and the transmission factor from
Pm = 0.2421 (Q/F)2 Sg/D5
(2.17)
Where Q is the flow rate in bbl/day and F is the transmission factor. The liquid specific
gravity is Sg and the pipe inside diameter D is in inches.
In terms of the friction factor f, the equation for pressure drop becomes
Pm = 0.0605 f Q2 (Sg/D5)
(2.18)
When the flow rate is in bbl/h and gal/min, the equations for Pm are as follows:
Pm = 139.45 (Q/F)2 Sg/D5
for Q in bbl/h
(2.19)
Pm = 284.59 (Q/F)2 Sg/D5
for Q in gal/min
(2.20)
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In SI units, the pressure drop due to friction Pkm expressed in kPa/km is calculated from the
following equations
Pkm = 6.2475 x 1010 f Q2 (Sg/D5)
(2.21)
Pkm = 24.99 x1010 (Q/F)2 (Sg/D5)
(2.22)
where the liquid flow rate Q is in m3/h and the pipe inside diameter D is in mm.
Remember that in all these equations F and f are related by Equation 2.16. Since F and f are
inversely related we observe that
higher the transmission factor, higher will be the
throughput Q. In contrast, higher the friction factor lower the value of Q. Thus flow rate is
directly proportional to F and inversely proportionate to f.
Example 6
Calculate the pressure drop per mile in an NPS 20 pipeline, 0.500 inch wall thickness flowing
diesel (Sg = 0.85 and viscosity = 5.0 cSt) at 8,000 bbl/h. Assume pipe absolute roughness
= 0.002 inch.
Solution
First calculate the Reynolds number
R = 92.24 (8000 x 24)/(5.0 x 19.0) = 186,422
Since the flow is turbulent we can use Colebrook-White equation or the Moody diagram to
determine the friction factor.
The relative roughness = (e/D) = 0.002/19 = 0.000105
For this value of (e/D) and R = 186,422 we read the friction factor f from the Moody
diagram as follows: f = 0.0166
Therefore, the transmission factor is, using Equation 2.16
F = 2/(0.0166)1/2 = 15.52
November 24, 2005
22
The pressure drop per mile is, using Equation 2.19

Pm = 139.45 (8000/15.52)2 x 0.85/(19.0)5
= 12.72 psi/mi
Therefore, for every mile of pipe, starting at the pipe inlet, the friction causes the pressure
to decrease by 12.72 psi. If the inlet pressure is 200 psi, after 10 miles, the liquid pressure
will have dropped to 200 12.72x10 = 72.8 psi.
The Hazen-Williams equation is commonly used in hydraulic analysis of water pipelines.

It is used to calculate the pressure drop in a water pipeline given the pipe diameter and flow
rate, taking into account the internal condition of the pipe using the dimensionless
parameter C. This parameter is called the Hazen-Williams C factor and is a function of the
internal roughness of the pipe. Unlike the friction factor, the C factor increases with the
smoothness of the pipe. In this regard it is more comparable to the transmission factor F
discussed earlier.
Values of C range from 60 to 150 or more depending upon the pipe
material and roughness as indicated in Table 2.1
Pipe Material
C-factor
Smooth Pipes (All metals)
130-140
Smooth Wood
Smooth Masonry
Vitrified Clay
Cast Iron (Old)
Iron (worn/pitted)
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Brick
120
120
110
100
60-80
150
100
Table 2.1 Hazen-Williams C factors
November 24, 2005
23
Although the Hazen-Williams equation is mostly used in water pipelines, many companies
today use it to calculate the pressure drop in pipelines transporting refined petroleum
products, such as gasoline and diesel. For example, when used with water pipelines a C
value of 100 or 120 may be used. With gasoline and diesel, typical values for C are 150 and
125 respectively. Historically the value of C used is based on experience with the particular
liquid and pipeline and therefore varies from pipeline to pipeline and with the company.
However, the Colebrook-White equation is also used for most liquids and a comparison can
be made with Hazen-Williams equation as illustrated in an example later. The classical form
of the Hazen-Williams equation for pressure drop in water pipelines is as follows:
h = 4.73 L (Q/C)1.852 / D4.87
(2.23)
where h is the head loss due to friction in ft of water. The pipe length L and diameter D are
both in ft and the flow rate Q is in ft3/s
A more commonly used version of the Hazen-Williams equation is as follows:

Q = 6.7547 x 10-3 (C) (D)2.63 (h )0.54
where Q is in gal/min, D is in inches and h
(2.24)
is the head loss due to friction in ft of liquid per
1000 ft of pipe
It can be seen that as C increases, so does the flow rate. Also the head loss h is
approximately inversely proportional to the square of C.
Another version of the Hazen-Williams equation in common pipeline units is as follows:

Q = 0.1482(C) (D)2.63(Pm /Sg)0.54
(2.25)
where Q is in bbl/day, D is in inches and Pm is the pressure drop due to friction in psi/mi of
pipe. The specific gravity Sg is included so that the equation can be used for liquids other
than water.
24
In SI Units, the Hazen-Williams formula is as follows

Q = 9.0379x10-8 (C)(D)2.63(Pkm/Sg)0.54
(2.26)
where Q is in m3/h, D is in mm and Pkm is the pressure drop due to friction in kPa/km.
Although Equations 2.24 through 2.26 express the flow rate in terms of pressure loss, these
equations can be easily transposed to solve for the pressure drop in terms of the flow rate.
Example 7
Calculate the pressure drop per mile in an NPS 20 pipeline, 0.500 inch wall thickness flowing
water at 7,500 gal/min. Use Hazen-Williams equation and C = 120.
Solution
Substituting the given values in Equation 2.24, the head loss h can be calculated as follows:
7500 = 6.7547 x 10-3 (120) (19.0)2.63 (h )0.54
Solving for h, we get
h = 13.09 ft/1000 ft of pipe
Therefore, the pressure drop per mile, Pm is
Pm = (13.09 x 1.0 / 2.31) x (5280/1000) = 29.92 psi/mi
For comparison, we will also calculate the pressure drop using Colebrook-White equation as
follows
First, calculate the Reynolds number, considering the viscosity of water as 1.0 cSt.
R = 3160 x 7500 / (1.0 x 19.0) = 1,247,368
November 24, 2005
25
Since the flow is turbulent, we can use Colebrook-White equation or the Moody diagram to
determine the friction factor. We will also assume an absolute pipe roughness of 0.002 in.
For this value of (e/D) and R = 1,247,368 we get the friction factor f from the Moody
diagram as follows:
f = 0.0135
Therefore, the transmission factor is, from Equation 2.16
F = 2/(0.0135)1/2 = 17.21
The pressure drop per mile is, using Equation 2.20
Pm = 284.59 (7500/17.21)2 1.0/(19.0)5
= 21.83 psi/mi
Obviously, the Hazen-Williams method gives higher pressure drop than Colebrook-White
equation. This may be because the C value used was too low.
So far, we have discussed the two popular pressure drop formulas used in the pipeline
industry. The ColebrookWhite equation for friction factor is applicable for all liquids over a
wide range of Reynolds numbers in turbulent flow. The Hazen-Williams equation originally
developed for water pipelines is now used with refined petroleum products as well. Several
other pressure drop equations, such as Miller and MIT equations, are used in the crude oil
and petroleum industry and it would be useful to summarize them here.
The Miller equation is used in crude oil pipelines and does not consider Reynolds number
or pipe roughness. It requires an iterative solution to calculate the pressure drop Pm from a
given flow rate, liquid properties and pipe diameter.
The most common form of Miller
equation is as follows.
Q = 4.06 (M) (D5Pm/Sg)0.5
(2.27)
The parameter M is defined as follows:

M = Log10(D3SgPm/cp2 ) + 4.35
November 24, 2005
(2.28)
26
where the flow rate Q is in bbl/day and the liquid viscosity cp is in centipoise
All other symbols have been defined before.
From Equations 2.27 and 2.28, it can be seen that M depends on Pm and is also found in the
equation connecting Q and Pm. Therefore, from a given value of pressure drop Pm, M can be
calculated from Equation 2.28 and Q can be found using equation 2.27. However, if Pm is
unknown, to calculate Pm from a given value of flow rate, pipe diameter and liquid
properties we must use a trial and error approach for solving for Pm using the intermediate
parameter M. First, assume a value of Pm and calculate the corresponding value of M using
Equation 2.28. Substituting this value of M in Equation 2.27 we can solve for a new value of
Pm. This forms the second approximation which can then be used to calculate a new value of
M using Equation 2.28 and then a better value of Pm from Equation 2.27. The process is
repeated until successive values of Pm are within a small value such as 0.001.
In SI Units, the Miller Equation is expressed as follows:

Q = 3.996 x 10-6 (M) (D5Pm/Sg)0.5
(2.29)
And the parameter M is defined as follows:

M = Log10(D3SgPm/cp2 ) - 0.4965
(2.30)
where all items have been defined previously.
The MIT equation developed jointly by Shell and MIT, sometimes known as Shell-MIT
equation is used in heavy crude oil pipelines in which the crude oil is heated to reduce the
viscosity and enhance pipe flow.
This equation considers pipe roughness and uses a
modified Reynolds number.
November 24, 2005
27
The Reynolds number is first calculated and then a modified Reynolds number obtained by
dividing it by 7742 as follows:
R = 92.24(Q)/(D)
(2.31)
Rm = R/(7742)
(2.32)
where the flow rate Q is in bbl/day and Viscosity is in cSt.

Next, depending upon the type of flow (laminar or turbulent) a friction factor is calculated
using the following equations.
For laminar flow,
f = 0.00207/Rm
(2.33)
For Turbulent flow
f = 0.0018 + 0.00662(1/Rm)0.355
(2.34)
The friction factor f calculated above is not the same as the Darcy friction factor f
calculated using the Colebrook-White equation.
The pressure drop due to friction, Pm is then calculated from
Pm = 0.241 (f SgQ2)/D5
(2.35)
All symbols have been defined previously.
In SI Units, the MIT Equation is stated as follows

Pm = 6.2191 x 1010 (f SgQ2)/D5
(2.36)
where all symbols have been defined previously.
Example 8
Calculate the pressure drop per mile in an NPS 16 pipeline, 0.250 inch wall thickness,
flowing crude oil (Sg = 0.895 and viscosity = 15.0 cSt) at 100,000 bbl/day. Assume pipe
absolute roughness = 0.002 inch. Compare results using Colebrook-White, Miller and MIT
equations.
November 24, 2005
28
Solution
Pipe inside diameter D = 16.0 2 x 0.250 = 15.50 in.
Next, calculate the Reynolds number
R = 92.24 x 100000/(15.0 x 15.50) = 39,673
Since the flow is turbulent we use the Colebrook-White equation in the first case to
The relative roughness = (e/D) = 0.002/15.5 = 0.000129
1/ f = -2 Log10[(0.000129/3.7) + 2.51/(39673 f )]
Solving for f by trial and error we get
f = 0.0224
The pressure drop due to friction using Colebrook-White equation is
Pm = 0.0605 x 0.0224 x (100000)2 (0.895/(15.5)5)
=13.56 psi/mi
For the Miller equation we assume Pm = 14 psi/mi as the first approximation. Then
calculating the parameter M
M=
Log10((15.5)3 0.895 x 14 /(15 x 0.895)2 ) + 4.35
where viscosity in cP = 15 x 0.895 = 13.425

Therefore, M = 6.7631
Next calculate the value of Pm from Equation 2.27
100000 = 4.06 x 6.7631 x [(15.5)5Pm/0.895]0.5
Solving for Pm, we get
Pm = 13.27 psi/mi, compared to the assumed value of 14.0
Recalculating M from this latest value of Pm, we get
M=
Log10((15.5)3 0.895 x 13.27 /(15 x 0.895)2 ) + 4.35
Therefore, M = 6.74
Next calculate the value of Pm from Equation 2.27
November 24, 2005
29
100000 = 4.06 x 6.74 x [(15.5)5Pm/0.895]0.5

Solving for Pm, we get
Pm = 13.36 psi/mi
Repeating the iteration once more, we get the final value of the pressure drop with Miller
Equation as
Pm = 13.35 psi/mi
Next we calculate the pressure drop using MIT equation.

The modified Reynolds number is
Rm = R/7742 = 39673/7742 = 5.1244
Since R>4,000, the flow is turbulent and we calculate the MIT friction factor from Equation
2.34 as
f = 0.0018 + 0.00662(1/5.1244)0.355 = 0.0055
The pressure drop due to friction is calculated from Equation 2.35
Pm = 0.241 x 0.0055 x 0.895 x (100000)2/(15.5)5
= 13.32 psi/mi
Therefore, in summary, the pressure drop per mile using the three equations are as follows:
Pm = 13.56 psi/mi
using Colebrook-White equation
Pm = 13.35 psi/mi
using Miller equation
Pm = 13.32 psi/mi
using MIT equation
It is seen that in this case all three pressure drop equations yield approximately the same
value for psi/mi, the Colebrook-White equation being the most conservative (highest
pressure drop for given flow rate).
30
Using the previously discussed equations such as Colebrook-White, Hazen-Williams, etc. we

can easily calculate the frictional pressure drop in a straight piece of pipe. Many
appurtenances such as valves and fittings installed in pipelines also contribute to pressure
loss. Compared to several thousand feet (or miles) of pipe, the Pressure Losses through
fittings and valves are small. Therefore, such pressure drops through valves, fitting and
other appurtenances are referred to as minor losses.
These pressure drops may be
calculated in a couple of different ways.
Using the equivalent length concept, the valve or fitting is said to have the same frictional
pressure drop as that of a certain length of straight pipe. Once the equivalent length of the
device is known, the pressure drop in that straight length of pipe can be calculated. For
example, a gate valve is said to have an equivalent length to the diameter ratio of 8. This
means that a 16 inch gate valve has the same amount of pressure drop as a straight piece
of 16 inch pipe with a length of 8 x 16 or 128 inches. Therefore, to calculate the pressure
drop in a 16 inch gate valve at 5,000 bbl/h flow rate we would simply calculate the psi/mi
value in 16 inch pipe and use proportion as follows:
Let pressure drop in 16 inch pipe = 12.5 psi/mi
Pressure drop in the 16 inch gate valve =12.5 x 128 /(5280 x 12) = 0.0253 psi/mi
It can be seen that the minor loss through a gate valve is indeed small in comparison with,
say, 1,000 ft of 16 inch pipe (12.5 x 1000/5280 = 2.37 psi)
November 24, 2005
31
Table 2.2 shows the equivalent length to pipe diameter ratio L/D for various valves and
fittings.
Description
L/D
Gate Valve
Globe valve
340
Ball valve
Swing check valve
50
Standard Elbow 90 o
30
Standard Elbow 45
16
Long Radius Elbow 90o
16
Table 2.2 Equivalent length to pipe diameter ratio
The second approach to calculating the minor losses is using the K factor method. According
to the Darcy Equation 2.13, the head loss due to friction is proportional to the velocity head
V2/2g. Therefore, the minor loss through valves and fittings may be represented by
K(V2/2g). The coefficient K depends upon the particular device such as valve, fitting etc.
Typical K values are listed in Table 2.3
November 24, 2005
32
Description
Gate Valve
0.2
Globe Valve
10.0
Angle Valve
5.0
Butterfly Valve
0.4
Check Valve, Swing type
2.3
Check Valve, Lift type
12.0
Check Valve, Ball type
70.0
Elbow, 45 deg
0.4
Elbow long radius, 90 deg
0.6
Elbow medium radius, 90 deg
0.8
Elbow short radius, 90 deg
0.9
Close return bend, 180 deg
2.2
Table 2.3 Typical K values
It must be noted that the K factor method is applicable only for turbulent flow in valves and
fittings. This is because all experimental data on minor losses using K factor is available
only for turbulent flow.
November 24, 2005
33
3. Pressure Required to Transport

In the previous section we discussed various equations to calculate the pressure drop due to
friction in a pipeline transporting a liquid. In Example 6, we calculated that in an NPS 20
pipeline transporting diesel at a flow rate of 8,000 bbl/h the pressure drop due to friction
was 12.72 psi/mi. If the pipeline were 50 miles long, the total pressure drop due to friction
will be
12.72 x 50 = 636 psi.
686 psi
Pres
sure
varia
tion
50 psi
Flow rate 8,000 bbl/h
A
50 miles
Figure 3.1 Total pressure required to pump liquid
Suppose the buried pipeline originates at Point A and terminates at Point B, 50 miles away.
Assume the delivered product at Point B is required to be at an minimum pressure of 50 psi
to account for pressure drop in the delivery tank farm and for the tank head. If the ground
elevation is essentially flat, the total pressure required at A, the origin of the pipeline, is
636 + 50 = 686 psi. The pressure of 686 psi at A will decrease to 50 psi at B due to the
friction in the 50 mile length of pipe as shown in Figure 3.1. If the ground profile were not
flat, and the pipeline elevation at A is 100 ft and that at B is 500 ft, additional pressure is
November 24, 2005
34
needed at A to overcome the elevation difference of (500-100) ft.
Using the head to
pressure conversion equation, the 400 ft elevation difference translates to 400 x 0.85/2.31
or 147.2 psi, considering the specific gravity of diesel as 0.85. This elevation component of
147.2 psi must then be added to the 686 psi resulting in a total pressure of 833.2 psi at A in
order to deliver the diesel at the terminus B at 50 psi pressure. This is illustrated in Figure
3.2
833.2 psi
636 psi
Hyd
r au
lic P
res
sur
eG
rad
ien
t
D
50 psi
50 psi
500 ft Elev
400 ft = 147.2 psi
Elevation Profile
100 ft
Elev
B
Figure 3.2 Components of total pressure
Thus we conclude that the total pressure required to transport a liquid from Point A to Point
B consist of three different components
1. Friction Head
2. Elevation Head
3. Minimum Delivery Pressure
November 24, 2005
35
A graphical representation of the pressure variation along the pipeline from Point A to Point
B is depicted in Figure 3.2 and is known as the Hydraulic pressure gradient, or simply the
hydraulic gradient.
PA
E
Hyd
Pressure in ft of head
ra u
lic P
res
sur
Pmin
eG
rad
ien
C
t
Peak
PB
Elevation Profile
D
Flow
B
Terminus
Figure 3.3 Hydraulic Pressure Gradient with peak
Since the liquid pressure in the pipeline is shown along with the pipe elevation profile, it is
customary to plot the pressures in ft of liquid head instead of pressure in psi. At any point
along the pipeline, the liquid pressure is represented by the vertical intercept between the
hydraulic gradient and the pipeline elevation at that point. This is shown as ED in Figure
3.3. Of course, the pressure ED is in ft of liquid head and can be converted to psi, using the
specific gravity of the liquid.
November 24, 2005
36
In addition to the elevation difference between the origin A and the terminus B, there may
be many elevation changes along the pipeline, with peaks and valleys. In this case, we must
also ensure that the liquid pressure in the pipeline at any location does not fall below zero
(or some minimum value) at the highest elevation points. This is illustrated in Figure 3.3
where the peak in pipeline elevation at C shows the minimum pressure
Pmin to be
maintained.
The minimum pressure to be maintained, depends upon the vapor pressure of the liquid at
the flowing temperature. For water, crude oils and refined petroleum products, since vapor
pressures are fairly low and we are dealing with gauge pressures, zero gauge pressure
(14.7 psia) at the high points can be allowed. However, most companies prefer some non
zero gauge pressure at the high points such as 10 to 20 psig. For highly volatile liquids with
high vapor pressures such as LPG or propane, the minimum pressure along the pipeline
must be maintained at some value such as 200 to 250 psig to prevent vaporization and
consequent two-phase flow.
As the liquid flows through the pipeline its pressure decreases due to friction. The pressure
also increases or decreases depending upon the elevation change along the pipeline profile.
At some point such as C in Figure 3.3, the elevation is quite high and therefore the pressure
in the pipeline has dropped to a small value (Pmin) indicated by the vertical intercept
between the hydraulic gradient and the pipeline elevation at point C. If the pressure at C
drops below the specified minimum pressure for the liquid pumped, vaporization of the
liquid occurs and results in an undesirable situation in liquid flow. Two-phase flow damages
the pump impellers and must be avoided.
37
Due to the complexity of thermal hydraulics, we have restricted our analysis to steady
state isothermal flow only. This means that a constant flowing temperature of liquid is
assumed throughout the pipeline. Thermal flow occurs when the liquid temperature in the
pipeline varies from inlet to outlet. An example of thermal flow is the transportation of a
heated, heavy crude oil. Due to high viscosity, the crude oil is heated before pumping to
reduce its viscosity and improve pipeline throughput. Therefore, at the beginning of the
pipeline, the liquid may be heated to 140 degF or higher and pumped through the pipeline.
As the heated liquid flows through the pipeline, heat is transferred from the liquid to the
surrounding soil (buried pipeline) or ambient air (above ground pipeline) since the
surrounding soil (or ambient air) is at a lower temperature than the liquid in the pipeline.
This heat transfer results in the liquid temperature dropping from the inlet temperature of
140 degF as it flows along the length of the pipeline, closely approaching the ambient soil
temperature as shown in Figure 3.4
Liquid Temperature
140 degF liquid inlet
Te m
pera
ture
grad
ient
Soil temperature - 60 degF
Distance along pipe
Figure 3.4 Temperature variation in thermal flow
November 24, 2005
38
It can be seen that due to the temperature change along the pipeline, the liquid properties
such as specific gravity and viscosity also vary, resulting in change in Reynolds number and
pressure drop, even when the flow is constant. Thus, the pressure drop (Pm) in a thermal
flow situation varies along the pipeline compared to constant pressure drop in isothermal
flow. A typical hydraulic gradient for thermal flow is shown along with that for isothermal
flow in Figure 3.5 for comparison.
Ther
mal
Pres
sure
grad
ientvaria
ble
Pressure, psi
Iso
the
rm a
l pr
e ss
ure
gra
di
e nt
slop
e
- co
n st
ant
slop
e
Distance along pipe
Figure 3.5 Hydraulic pressure gradient isothermal and thermal flow
November 24, 2005
39
In the preceding discussions, we considered constant flow throughout the pipeline.

Whatever volume of liquid entered the pipeline, the same amount exited the pipeline at the
terminus. In the real world of pipeline transportation, it is common to find volumes of liquid
entering the pipeline (injection) and exiting the pipeline (deliveries) at various point along
the pipeline as shown in Figure 3.6
Q2
Q1
A
Q3
(Q1-Q2+Q3)
(Q1-Q2)
Flow
Figure 3.6 Injection & Deliveries
Liquid enters the pipeline at Point A at a flow rate Q1 and at some intermediate Point C a
certain volume Q2 is delivered out of the pipeline. The remaining volume (Q1-Q2) continues
on until at Point D a new volume of Q3 enters the pipeline. The resultant volume (Q1-Q2+Q3)
then continues to the terminus B where it is delivered out of the pipeline. The pressure drop
due to friction in each section of the pipeline such as AC, CD and DB must be calculated by
considering the individual flow rates and liquid properties in each section. Since flow Q2 is
delivered at C, the pipe sections AC and CD have the same liquid properties but different
flow rates for pressure drop calculations. The last section DB will have a different flow rate
and different liquid properties due to the combination of two different streams of liquid at
Point D. The total pressure required at A will be calculated by adding the pressure drop due
to friction for pipe sections AC, CD and DB and also adding the pressure required for pipe
elevation changes and including the minimum delivery pressure required at the pipeline
terminus.
November 24, 2005
40
Series and Parallel Pipes

Pipes are said to be in series when segments of pipes of different diameters and lengths are
connected end to end and the liquid flows from the inlet of the first pipe to the outlet of the
last pipe. If there are no intermediate injections or deliveries, pipes in series will have flow
as a common parameter in all pipes. The total pressure required to pump a certain volume
of liquid through series pipes can be calculated by simply adding the pressure drop due to
friction in all pipe sections and including the elevation component and delivery pressure
component as before. This is illustrated in Figure 3.7
Q
A
Dia: D1
Length: L1
Dia: D2
Length: L2
Dia: D3
Length: L3
Figure 3.7 Pipes in series

Pipes are said to be in Parallel when the flow in the first section of a pipeline splits into two
or more streams flowing through different pipe sections and later rejoining into a single pipe
as shown in Figure 3.8. This is also referred to as looping a pipeline.
Q1
Q
A
Q
C
D
Q2
Figure 3.8 Pipes in parallel
November 24, 2005
41
Liquid enters the pipeline at Point A at flow rate Q and at some intermediate Point C the
flow divides into two streams Q1 and Q2 flowing in two different pipes CED and CFD as
shown in the Figure 3.8
The two streams later recombine at Point D and the combined flow Q = Q1 + Q2, then
continues through the pipe DB to be delivered out of the pipeline at the terminus B. The
pressure drop in sections AC and DB can be calculated easily considering the flow rate of Q
and pipe diameters and liquid properties. C and D are the common junction points of pipe
segment CED and CFD and therefore cause a common pressure drop for each of these two
pipe segments. Knowing the value of Q1 and Q2, we can calculate the common pressure
drop between C and D. For this we need two equations to calculate Q1 and Q2 from the
known Q. The first equation is known as the conservation of flow at the junction C or D
written as follows:
Q = Q1 + Q2
(3.1)
The other equation connecting Q1 and Q2 comes from the common pressure drop between C
and D applied to each of the two pipes CED and CFD. Using the Darcy equation in the
modified form as indicated in Equation 2.17 we can write the following relationship for the
two pressure drops
PCED = 0.2421(Q1/F1)2 SgL1 /(D1) 5
(3.2)
where subscript 1 applies to the pipe section CED of length L1.

Similarly, for pipe section CFD of length L2 the pressure drop is
PCFD =0.2421 (Q2/F2)2 SgL2 /(D2) 5
(3.3)
42
Since both pressure drops are equal in parallel flow, and assuming the transmission factors
F1 and F2 are approximately equal, we can create the second equation between Q1 and Q2 as
follows:
(Q1)2 L1 /(D1) 5 = (Q2)2 L2 /(D2) 5
(3.4)
using equations 3.1 and 3.4 we can solve for Q1 and Q2. The common pressure drop
between C and D can then be calculated using the equation for PCED. We can then calculate
the total pressure drop for the entire pipeline by adding the individual pressure drops for
pipe segment AC, DB and the looped section CD.
Of course, the elevation component must also be taken into account along with the delivery
pressure at B.
43
4. Pump Stations and Horsepower Required

In the previous sections we calculated the total pressure required to transport a certain
volume of liquid through a pipeline from point A to point B. If the pressure required is P at a
flow rate of Q, a pump will be needed at the origin A to provide this pressure. This pump will
be driven by an electric motor or engine that will provide the necessary horsepower (HP).
The pump HP required can be calculated from the pressure P and flow rate Q as follows:
HP = Q x P / Constant
(4.1)
The constant will depend upon the units employed. Also, since the pump is not 100%
efficient, we will need to take the efficiency into account to calculate the HP. Using common
pipeline units, if the pressure P is in psi and flow rate Q in bbl/day, the pump HP required is
given by
HP = Q x P /(58776 x Effy)
(4.2)
where the pump efficiency Effy is a decimal value less than 1.0. This HP is also called the
pump brake horsepower (BHP).
Strictly speaking, the pressure generated by the pump will be the difference between liquid
pressure on the suction side of the pump (Psuct) and the pump discharge pressure (Pdisch).
Therefore P in the HP equation must be replaced with (Pdisch Psuct). This is called the
differential pressure generated by the pump.
The hydraulic horsepower (HHP) represents the pumping HP when the efficiency is
considered to be 100%. The BHP on the other hand is the actual HP demanded by the pump
taking into account the pump efficiency. The term water horsepower(WHP) is used when
the BHP calculated is based on water as pumped liquid.
November 24, 2005
44
Example 9
The suction and discharge pressures at a pump station are 50 psi and 875 psi respectively
when the liquid flow rate is 4,200 bbl/h. If the pump efficiency is 85%, calculate the pump
BHP required.
Solution
From Equation 4.2
BHP = (4200 x 24) x (875 50) /(58776 x 0.85) = 1,665
With centrifugal pumps, the pressure developed by the pump is referred to as pump head
and expressed in ft of liquid head. The flow rate through the pump, also known as pump
capacity, is stated in gal/min. Most pump companies use water as the liquid to test the
pump and the pump performance curves are therefore plotted in terms of water. The HP
equation discussed earlier can be modified in terms of pump head H in ft and flow rate Q in
gal/min for an efficiency of E (a decimal value) as follows:
Pump HP = Q x H x Sg /(3960 x E)
(4.3)
where the liquid specific gravity is Sg.
Suppose the pump develops a head of 2,500 ft at a flow rate of 1,800 gal/min with an
efficiency of 82%, the pump HP required with water is calculated as
HP = 1800 x 2500 x 1.0/(3960 x 0.82) = 1,386
If the pump is driven by an electric motor, the closest standard motor HP required in this
case is 1,500 HP. It must be noted, that the motor efficiency would determine the actual
electrical power in Kilowatts (kW) required to run the 1,500 HP motor that is used to drive
the pump that requires 1,386 HP.
November 24, 2005
45
In a short pipeline such as the one discussed in an earlier example, the 50 mile pipeline
transporting diesel at 8,000 bbl/h required an originating pressure of 686 psi at A. Suppose
the pipeline were 120 miles long from Ashton to Beaumont and calculations show that at
8,000 bbl/h flow rate, the originating pressure at Ashton is 1,576 psi. If the pipe material
was strong enough to withstand the discharge pressure of 1,576 psi at Ashton, only one
pump station at Ashton will be needed to transport diesel at this flow rate from Ashton to
Beaumont. However, if the pipe material was such that the maximum allowable operating
pressure (MAOP) is limited to 1,440 psi, we would not be able to operate at 1,576 psi
discharge at Ashton. Therefore, by limiting the discharge pressure to the MAOP value, the
diesel throughput will fall below 8,000 bbl/h. If the throughput must be maintained at 8,000
bbl/h while limiting pipeline pressures to MAOP, we can accomplish this by installing a
second pump station at some point between Ashton and Beaumont as shown in Figure 4.1
1576 psi
Pdisch
Pdisch
50 psi
120 mile
Ashton
Pump Station
8,000 bbl/h
Hampton
Pump Station
Beaumont
terminus
Figure 4.1 Multiple pump stations
November 24, 2005
46
The Ashton pump station will pump the liquid from Ashton to Hampton first. The pump at
Hampton will boost the liquid pressure to some value sufficient to reach Beaumont at the
required delivery pressure. The intermediate pump station at Hampton is called the booster
pump station and will be located for hydraulic balance such that the same amount of energy
is input into the liquid at each pump station. In other words, the total HP required will be
equally distributed between the Ashton pump station and Hampton pump station. Since the
flow rate is constant throughout the pipeline (no intermediate injections or deliveries)
hydraulic balance would imply that each pump station discharges at approximately the
same pressure as shown in Figure 4.1.
Neglecting for the moment elevation difference along the pipeline and assuming the
minimum suction pressure at each pump station and the delivery pressure at Beaumont to
be equal to 50 psi we can calculate the discharge pressure at each of the pump station as
follows:
Pdisch + (Pdisch 50) = 1576
or, Pdisch = 813 psi.
Therefore, each pump station will be operating at a discharge pressure of 813 psi.
Comparing this with the pipeline MAOP of 1,440 psi, we see that there is considerable room
to increase the discharge pressure and hence the flow rate.
The maximum pipeline flow
rate will occur when each pump station discharges at a pressure of 1,440 psi. It can be seen
that increasing the discharge pressure to 1,440 psi causes the hydraulic gradient to be
steeper than that at 813 psi which corresponds to 8,000 bbl/h. If Hampton pump station is
located at a distance of 60 mi from Ashton, we can calculate the pressure drop due to
friction corresponding to the steeper gradient when discharging at 1,440 psi .
November 24, 2005
47
Since the hydraulic gradient is plotted in ft of head, the slope of the hydraulic gradient
represents the frictional head loss in ft/mi, which can also be expressed in psi/mi. From this
psi/mi, we can calculate the flow rate using Colebrook-White Equation as follows:
Pm = (1440 50) /60 = 23.17 psi/mi
This is the maximum slope of the hydraulic gradient when each pump station operates at
MAOP of 1,440 psig and elevation profile is neglected.
To calculate the flow rate from a given pressure drop we have to use a trial and error
approach. First calculate an approximate flow rate using the fact that Pm is proportional to
square of the flow rate Q from Equation 2.17. At 8,000 bbl/h the pressure drop is 12.72
psi/mi and at the unknown flow rate Q, Pm = 23.17
23.17/12.72 = (Q/8000)2
Solving for Q we get
Q = 10,797 bbl/h
Next using this flow rate we calculate the Reynolds number and friction factor using the
Colebrook-White Equation
R = 92.24 (10797 x 24)/(5.0 x 19.0) = 251,600
Since the flow is turbulent we can use Colebrook-White Equation or the Moody diagram to
For this value of (e/D) and R = 251,600 we get the friction factor f from the Moody diagram
as follows:
f = 0.0159
Therefore, the transmission factor is
F = 2/(0.0159)1/2 = 15.86
The pressure drop per mile is then calculated from Equation 2.19
Pm = 139.45 (10797/15.86)2 x 0.85/(19.0)5
48
= 22.19 psi/mi
Compare this with 23.17 psi/mi calculated from the pressure gradient. Therefore, the flow
rate has to be increased slightly higher to produce the required pressure drop.
Next approximation for the flow rate is, since flow rate is proportional to the square root of
the pressure drop.
Q = 10797(23.17/22.19) 1/2 = 11,033 bbl/h
Recalculating the Reynolds number and friction factor we finally get the required flow rate
as 11,063 bbl/h. Thus, in the two pump station configuration the maximum flow rate
possible without exceeding MAOP is 11,063 bbl/h. The pump HP required depends upon the
liquid properties such as gravity and viscosity. It can be seen from Equation 4.3 that the
pump HP is directly proportional to liquid specific gravity. The effect of viscosity can be
explained by realizing that the pressure drop with a high viscosity liquid is generally higher
than when pumping a low viscosity liquid such as water. Therefore the pressure required to
pump a high viscosity liquid is greater than that required with a low viscosity liquid. It
follows then that the HP required to pump a heavy product will also be higher. When we
discuss centrifugal pump performance curves in the next section, the effect of viscosity will
be explained in more detail.
49
Pipeline System Head Curve

In the previous sections we calculated the total pressure required at the beginning of a
pipeline to transport a liquid at a certain flow rate to the pipeline terminus at a specified
delivery pressure. This pressure at the pipeline origin will increase as the flow rate is
increased, and hence we can develop a curve showing the pipeline pressure versus flow rate
for a particular pipeline and liquid pumped. This curve is referred to as the pipeline System
Head Curve or simply the System Curve for this specific product. The pressure is plotted
in psi or ft of liquid head. The latter units for pressure is used when dealing with centrifugal
pumps. Figure 4.2 shows typical System Head Curves (in psi) for a pipeline considering two
products, gasoline and diesel.
It can be seen that at any flow rate the pressure required
for diesel is higher than that for gasoline.
Diesel
Pressure
Gasoline
Flow Rate
Figure 4.2 Pipeline System Head Curves
November 24, 2005
50
Example 10
Develop a system head curve for the 50 mi pipeline described in Example 6 for diesel flow
rates ranging from 2,000 bbl/h to 10,000 bbl/h.
Solution
At each flow rate from Q = 2,000 bbl/h to Q = 10,000 bbl/h, in increments of 2,000 bbl/h,
we can calculate the Reynolds number Pm and then calculate the originating pressure as we
did at Q = 8,000 bbl/h. Elevation profile of the pipeline has been neglected. The results are
as follows:
Q bbl/h
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
Pt
102
230
426
686
1011
psi
The system head curve is plotted below:
System Head Curve

1200
Pressure, psi
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
Flow rate, bbl/h
November 24, 2005
51
5. Pump Analysis
Pumps are used to produce the pressure required to transport a liquid through a pipeline.
Both centrifugal pumps and reciprocating pumps are used in pipeline applications.
Reciprocating pumps, also known as positive displacement or PD pumps produce high
pressures at a fixed flow rate depending upon the geometry of the pump. Centrifugal pumps
on the other hand are more flexible and provide a wider range of flow rates and pressures.
Centrifugal pumps are more commonly used in pipeline applications and will be discussed in
more detail. Typical centrifugal pump performance curves are shown in Figure 5.1
w
Flo
H vs
NPS
e
rat
vs
Ef
fic
ie
nc
y
Head - ft
Fl
ow
ra
te
Hea
d vs
Flow
rate
BHP vs Flow rate
Flow rate - gal/min
Figure 5.1 Centrifugal pump performance curves
There are four curves that comprise the performance of a particular centrifugal pump. These
are as follows:
1. Head versus Flow Rate
2. Efficiency versus Flow Rate
3. BHP versus Flow Rate
4. NPSH versus Flow Rate
November 24, 2005
52
Pump vendors use the term capacity when referring to the flow rate. It can be seen that in a
typical centrifugal pump, the head (or differential pressure) generated by the pump
decreases as the flow rate (or pump capacity) increases. This is known as a drooping head
versus flow characteristic. The efficiency, on the other hand, increases as the
flow rate
increases and reaches a peak value (known as the best efficiency point or BEP) and falls off
rapidly with further increase in flow rate. The BHP also increases with increase in flow rate.
As
mentioned
before,
centrifugal
pump
performance
curves
are
generally
plotted
considering water as the liquid pumped. Therefore, the BHP is calculated considering specific
gravity = 1.0.
The NPSH curve also increases with increase in flow rate. The term NPSH refers to Net
Positive Suction Head and is a measure of the minimum suction head required at the suction
of the pump impeller at any flow rate. NPSH is a very important parameter when dealing
with centrifugal pumps particularly when pumping volatile liquids. It will be discussed in
more detail later.
53
When pumping highly viscous liquids the centrifugal pump performance curves (for water)
must be adjusted or corrected for the liquid viscosity. This is done using the Hydraulic
Institute charts.
For details, refer to the Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data Book
described in the Reference section. Typical viscosity corrected performance curves are
shown in Figure 5.2. Commercial software programs are available, that can easily correct
pump performance for high viscosity liquids. One such program is PUMPCALC, developed by
SYSTEK Technologies, Inc (www.systek.us).
Figure 5.2 Viscosity corrected pump performance
It can be seen that the effect of viscosity is to reduce the head and efficiency at any flow
rate compared to that for water. On the other hand the BHP required increases with the
viscosity.
November 24, 2005
54
When selecting a centrifugal pump for a particular application the objective would be to pick
a pump that provides the highest efficiency at the desired flow rate. Hence, the pump curve
would be selected such that the head and flow requirement is satisfied close to and to the
left off the BEP on the pump curve.
Typically, in a centrifugal pump, the pump impeller has a certain diameter but for the same
pump case, the impeller may be replaced with a smaller or larger impeller within certain
limits. For example, a centrifugal pump may have a rated impeller diameter of 10 inch and
produce a certain head versus flow characteristics similar to that depicted in Figure 5.3
Head
Head - ft
12"
8"
10"
Flow rate - gal/min
Figure 5.3 Pump performance at different impeller diameters
November 24, 2005
55
The same pump may be outfitted with an impeller as small as 8 inch diameter or as large as
12 inch diameter. Each of these impellers will reduce or increase the performance
characteristics, in some fashion.
The performance of a centrifugal pump at a different
impeller diameter generally follows the Affinity Laws. This means that when going from a
10 inch impeller diameter to a 12 inch diameter the flow and head follow the Affinity Laws
as described below.
For impeller diameter change from D1 to D2 :
Q2/Q1 = D2/D1
and
H2/H1 = (D2/D1)2
for flow rates
(5.1)
for heads
(5.2)
Thus, the flow rate is directly proportional to the impeller diameter and the head varies
directly as the square of the impeller diameter. The efficiency curves at the two different
impeller sizes will remain practically the same. Similar to impeller diameter variation, pump
speed changes also follow the Affinity laws as follows:
For impeller speed change from N1 to N2
Q2/Q1 = N2/N1
and
H2/H1 = (N2/N1)2
for flow rates
(5.3)
for heads
(5.4)
Thus the flow rate is directly proportional to the pump speed while the head is proportional
to the square of the pump speed.
An example using the Affinity Laws will illustrate the concept.
The Affinity laws for impeller diameter variation are applicable for small changes in diameter
only. However,
the Affinity laws can be applied for wide variation in pump speeds. For
example, we may apply the Affinity laws for impeller size variation from 8 inch to 12 inch
with a rated impeller of 10 inch. Extrapolation to 6 inch or 16 inch will not be accurate. On
the other hand if the pump is rated at a speed of 3,500 rpm, we can apply the Affinity laws
for speed variations from 800 rpm to 6,000 rpm. However, the higher speeds may not be
November 24, 2005
56
possible from a design stand point due to high centrifugal forces that are developed at the
high speeds.
Example 11
Using Affinity laws determine the performance of a pump at an impeller diameter of 11
inches given the following performance at 10 inch impeller diameter.
Q
500
1000
1500
2000
2000
1800
1400
900
Solution
Impeller diameter ratio = 11/10 = 1.10
The flow rate multiplier is 1.10 and the head multiplier is 1.10 x 1.10 = 1.21
Applying the Affinity laws we get the following performance for 11 inch impeller.
550
1100
1650
2200
2420
2178
1694
1089
Earlier, we briefly discussed the NPSH required for a centrifugal pump.
As the flow rate
through the pump increases, the NPSH requirement also increases. It is therefore important
to calculate the available NPSH based upon the actual piping configuration for a particular
pump installation. The calculated NPSH represents the available NPSH and hence must be
greater than or equal to the minimum NPSH required for the pump at a particular flow rate.
We will illustrate this using an example
November 24, 2005
57
Example 12
The bottom of a storage tank containing a liquid (Sg = 0.85, visc = 2.5 cSt) is located at an
elevation of 20 ft above the centerline of the pump as shown in Figure 5.4
Pa = 14.7 psi
Tank head H = 30 ft
4,000 gal/min
Suction piping = 180 ft

16 inch/0.250" wall
Liquid vapor pressure = 5 psi

Specific gravity Sg = 0.85
Viscosity = 2.5 cSt
20 ft
Figure 5.4 NPSH Available
The total equivalent length of 16 inch, 0.250 inch wall thickness pipe (including pipe, fittings
etc.) between the tank and the pump is 180 ft. The liquid level in the tank is 30 ft and the
vapor pressure of the liquid at pumping temperature of 70 deg F is 5 psia. Considering an
atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia, calculate the NPSH available for the pump at a flow rate
of 4,000 gal/min.
November 24, 2005
58
Solution
The pressure drop in the 180 ft equivalent length of 16 inch pipe at 4,000 gal/min is
calculated first.
Reynolds number R = 3160 x 4000 / (2.5 x 15.5)
= 326,194
Assuming e/D = 0.002/15.5 = 0.000129
Friction factor f is calculated using Colebrook-White equation as follows
1/ f = -2 Log10 [0.000129/3.7 + 2.51/(326194 f )]
Solving for f by trial and error
f = 0.0155 and F = 2/0.0155 = 16.06
Therefore, from Equation (2.20)
Pm = 284.59 (4000/16.06)2 x 0.85/(15.5)5
= 16.77 psi/mi
Total frictional pressure drop in 180 ft of 16 inch pipe is
Pf = 16.77 x (180/5280) = 0.57 psi
The NPSH available at pump suction is
NPSHA
= 14.7 psia + (30+20) ft 5 psia 0.57 psig

= (14.7 - 5 0.57) x 2.31/0.85 + 50, all in feet of liquid head
= 24.8 + 50 = 74.8 ft
If the tank level drops to one ft, the NPSH will drop to 74.8 29 = 45.8 ft
It is important to ensure that in any piping installation, the NPSH available, as calculated
above is more than the minimum NPSH required by the pump at any flow rate. Otherwise,
the pump will cavitate and cause damage to the impeller.
November 24, 2005
59
Pump curve and system curve

Consider a pipeline with a system head curve AB as shown in Figure 5.5
4500
C
Pump Head
K
3200
Head - ft
3000
m
ste
Sy
ad
He
D
Q1
2000
2500
4000
Flow Rate - gal/min
Figure 5.5 Pump curve and system curve operating point
The pressure required at each flow rate is shown in ft of liquid head. At 2,000 gal/min the
head required is 3,000 ft whereas 4,000 gal/min requires 4,500 ft. A centrifugal pump head
curve CD shown superimposed on the system curve intersects the system curve at point E
as shown. At E, both the pump head and system head match and is equal to 3,200 ft. If
the corresponding flow rate is 2,500 gal/min we can say that the system requirements and
the pump capability at 2,500 gal/min are exactly equal. Hence point E represents the
operating point when this particular pump is used to pump the liquid through this pipeline.
If a lighter product is pumped instead, its system head curve will be lower than the first
liquid and hence will intersect the pump head curve at point F which represents a higher
flow rate and lower head. By plotting the pump efficiency curve along with the head curve,
November 24, 2005
60
we can also determine the pump efficiency at the operating point and hence the HP required
to pump the product.
Suppose the operating point E represents a pressure that exceeds the allowable pipeline
pressure. In order to reduce the pressure to that represented by point G we have to reduce
the flow rate through the pump to some value Q1. This is accomplished by using a control
valve on the discharge of the pump. The reduced flow rate causes a difference in pump
head curve and system head curve equal to the length GK. This head represents the throttle
pressure at the flow rate Q1. The pump case pressure is the pressure developed by the
pump at flow rate Q1 and represented by point K on the pump head curve.
Since the
throttle pressure is the amount of pump head wasted (GK), a certain amount of pump HP is
wasted as well. This HP lost due to throttling can be calculated easily knowing the flow rate
Q1, the throttle pressure and the pump efficiency at Q1.
HP lost due to throttling at flow rate Q1 = Q1 x HGK x Sg/(3960 x Effy)
(5.5)
If the pump were driven by a variable speed motor we could lower the pump speed and
match the system head required at flow rate Q1. This is shown as a lower pump head curve
in Figure 5.5. Obviously, with a variable speed pump throttling is eliminated and therefore
no HP is lost. The system head curve requirement at point G at the flow rate of Q1 is exactly
matched by the lower pump head curve at the reduced speed.
61
Example 13
Calculate the HP lost in throttling when the operating point is moved from point E to point K
in Figure 5.5 If the original pump speed were 3,500 rpm, at what reduced speed using a
variable speed drive must the pump be run to minimize throttle pressure.
Solution
Suppose the flow rate corresponding to the point K on the pump head curve is 2,300
gal/min, head is 3,500 ft and efficiency is 78%. The system head at G is 3,100 ft.
Therefore, the throttled head = 3500 3100 = 400 ft
The HP lost in throttling is
HP lost = 2300 x 400 x 1.0/(3960 x 0.78) = 298, considering water.
If the motor efficiency is 95% and the electrical energy cost is 10 cents/KWH, assuming 24
hour a day operation, 350 days per year, the energy cost attributed to the throttling is
298 x 0.746 x 24 x 350 x 0.10/0.95 = $204,991 per year
In order to determine the reduced pump speed at which the system head requirement
(3,100 ft at 2300 gal/min) matches the pump curve, we can create pump head curves at
various speeds below 3,500 rpm using Affinity laws. Thus, the reduced speed pump head
curve that matches the system head requirement can be found.
An approximate reduced speed can be calculated from
(N2/3500)2 = (3100/3200)
Solving for N2, we get
N2 = 3,445 rpm
This is only an approximate value. We must plot the pump head curves at various speeds in
the vicinity of 3,445 rpm (say 3,400 3,500 rpm) to find the correct speed.
November 24, 2005
62
6. Drag Reduction Effect
We have seen that the pressure drop due to friction at a certain flow rate depends upon the
pipe diameter, pipe roughness and liquid properties. It has been found that continuously
injecting small amounts (in parts per million or ppm) of certain hydrocarbons in the liquid
being pumped results in lower pressure drops as long as the flow is turbulent. This is
referred to as drag reduction and the product injected is called the drag reduction agent
(DRA). The effectiveness of DRA decreases as the treated liquid flows through pipeline
restrictions such as valves, meters and pump stations. The mechanism of drag reduction is
very complex and is not fully understood. Suffice it to say that under certain conditions, as
long as flow is turbulent and the viscosity of the pumped liquid is not too high, lower
frictional drop (psi/mi) is experienced at the same flow rate when DRA is injected into the
pipeline.
As an illustration, in a previous example, we found that in an NPS 20 pipeline, transporting

diesel at 8,000 bbl/h the pressure drop due to friction was 12.72 psi/mi. By injecting 10
ppm of a certain DRA, we may be able to obtain 20% drag reduction. This means that the
pressure drop will reduce from 12.72 psi/mi to 10.18 psi/mi (a 20% drop). This reduction
will cause a reduction in the pressure required to pump diesel at the same flow rate. This in
turn will also reduce the actual HP required to pump the liquid. However, the application of
DRA is to increase pipeline flow rate by a certain amount by increasing the pressure drop
back to the original value of 12.72 psi/mi with DRA. This is illustrated in the Figure 6.1
November 24, 2005
63
Pum
p
B
Head
Curv
e
Head
ste
Sy
A
Sys t
em
cu
DR
o
n
erv
ith
e-w
v
r
u
c
DRA
BHP
Flow Rate
Figure 6.1 Drag Reduction effect on system head curve
Without DRA, the operating point for the pipeline system curve and the pump curve is
shown as the point E. With DRA injection, the system curve slides to the right and below as
shown. The operating point thus shifts to the point G. At G, the flow rate is higher than at E.
However, at the increased flow, the pump HP required will also increase. The drive motor HP
must also be adequate to operate at this increased flow rate.
November 24, 2005
64
The quantity of DRA injected is in ppm. For example, if the pipeline flow rate is 8,000 bbl/h
and we are using 10 ppm of DRA, the actual DRA injection rate can be calculated as follows:
DRA ppm = 10 = (10/106) x 8000 = 0.08 bbl/h = 0.08 x 42 x 24 gal/day
or DRA injection rate = 80.64 gal/day
Therefore, for 10 ppm, we need to continuously inject DRA at the rate of 80.64 gal/day to
achieve the desired drag reduction.
One application of drag reduction is in a pipeline with multiple pump stations, that has a
bottleneck segment. Suppose there are three pump stations with stations two and three
discharging below MAOP while the first pump station discharges at MAOP as shown in Figure
6.2.
MAOP
MAOP
MAOP
Pd
Pd
Figure 6.2 Pipeline bottleneck and DRA application
Due to this MAOP limit in the pipe segment AB, the pipeline throughput is limited to some
value Q. If we increase the flow rate above Q, the discharge pressure at the critical pump
station (A) will exceed MAOP. Since this is not allowable, DRA can be injected into the
bottleneck pump station segment immediately downstream of A
November 24, 2005
to reduce friction and
65
hence the discharge pressure as the flow rate is increased. Since the effectiveness of the
DRA diminishes from pump station to pump station, the other two pump stations (B and C)
will operate at higher discharge pressures than before at the increased flow rate. This may
be permissible to some extent since originally, these two pump stations were operating at
Pd, below MAOP and there is still room left for the discharge pressure to reach the MAOP
limit as indicated by the lighter lines in the hydraulic gradient in Figure 6.2.
Once these two pump stations reach the MAOP limit, at some flow rate higher than Q, these
two segments BC and CD become the bottleneck segments. Any further increase in pipeline
throughput is possible only by using DRA in these two segments as well. Note that with
DRA injection in segment AB at the higher flow rate, the hydraulic gradient for AB will be
different from that of segment BC and CD, since the DRA effectiveness is only in segment
AB. As the DRA treated liquid flows through pump stations B and C, the DRA effectiveness is
lost due to degradation of DRA.
The amount of DRA required in ppm to achieve a certain flow increase depends upon many
factors. For a particular pipeline, depending upon the liquid viscosity and gravity and the
Reynolds number, DRA effectiveness varies with flow rate.
DRA vendors such as Baker
Petrolite and Conoco-Phillips have their own algorithms to calculate the percentage drag
reduction possible for a given DRA injection rate. In general, the percentage drag reduction
will increase with ppm of DRA up to some point known as maximum drag reduction (MDR).
For further details contact one of the DRA vendors.
66
7. Batching different products

So far in our hydraulic analysis we considered a single product flowing through a pipeline at
any time. When we discussed flow injection and deliveries we also looked at two streams of
liquid commingled and transported through the pipeline as a single product. When
commingling of products is not acceptable, but multiple products have to be transported
simultaneously in a pipeline, we have what is known as batching. Consider a pipeline 100
mi long, that has a line fill (total volume) capacity of 150,000 bbl. In a typical batching
situation, 80,000 bbl batch of gasoline may be followed by a 30,000 bbl batch of diesel and
40,000 bbl batch of jet fuel as shown in Figure 7.1
Jet fuel
Diesel
40 Mbbl
30 Mbbl
Gasoline
80 Mbbl
Figure 7.1 Batched pipeline
At the boundary of any two products there will be some commingling which will have to be
separated as the products reach the pipeline terminus. Generally, the commingled liquid is
switched to a slop tank while the pure products gasoline, diesel and jet fuel will be diverted
to their respective tanks at the pipeline destination. It can be seen from Figure 7.1 that at
any instant in the batched movement of products, the flow rate versus pressure drop will
depend upon the frictional pressure drops for each liquid that occupies a certain section of
the pipeline.
If gasoline occupied the entire pipeline, the pressure drop in the 100 mi
pipeline segment will be calculated considering the specific gravity and viscosity of gasoline.
Being the lightest product of the three, the pressure drop at any flow rate will be the lowest
for gasoline. In comparison if diesel filled the pipeline completely, the pressure drop will be
November 24, 2005
67
the highest at the same flow rate. Finally, with jet fuel filling the entire pipeline, the
pressure drop at the same flow rate will be a value between those for gasoline and diesel. If
we were to calculate separately the maximum flow rate possible for each product within the
MAOP limit of the pipeline, we may come up with the following flow rates
Qmax = 8,700 bbl/h
for gasoline
Qmax = 6,500 bbl/h
for jet fuel
Qmax = 5,200 bbl/h
for diesel
In the batched configuration, the maximum flow rate possible will depend upon the amount
of each product filling the pipeline. As a rough approximation, we could use a weighted
average depending upon the batch volumes. If each product occupies a third of the pipeline
at any instant, the maximum flow rate in the batched configuration is approximately,
Qmax = (8700 + 6500 + 5200)/3 =
6,800 bbl/h
Of course, this is a simplistic approach to determining batched hydraulics of pipelines, and a

more accurate method is required to determine the flow rate possible in a batched pipeline.
Before we pursue this more accurate approach it will be instructive to determine the
approximate flow rate with the batched volumes defined earlier, shown in Figure 7.1.
The weighted average flow rate in this case can be calculated as follows:
Fraction of line fill for gasoline = 80000/150000 = 0.5333
Fraction of line fill for jet fuel = 40000/150000 = 0.2667
Fraction of line fill for diesel = 1 (0.5333 + 0.2667) = 0.20
Qmax = 8700 x 0.5333 + 6500 x 0.2667 + 5200 x 0.20
= 7,413 bbl/h
Admittedly, the above approach to calculating the batched hydraulics is too simplistic. The
actual flow rate will depend upon the dynamics of the various batches due to their different
properties. The correct approach to determining the pressure drop in a batched pipeline is
to calculate the individual pressure drops for each batch of liquid and summing up these
68
values to obtain the total pressure drop. Then the elevation component and minimum
delivery pressure can be included to determine the total pressure required at any flow rate
in a batched configuration. The actual calculations of pressure and flow rates as the
batches move through the pipeline is a complex phenomenon that does not lend itself to
manual calculations. Several commercial computer programs are available to perform
batched hydraulics. One such program is LIQTHERM developed by SYSTEK Technologies, Inc
(www.systek.us).
69
8. Pipe Analysis
In the previous sections, we calculated the pressure needed to pump a certain flow rate of
liquid through a pipeline. We also briefly discussed that if the pressure required exceeds the
maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) of the pipeline, we will need to install
additional booster pump stations to provide the total pressure to pump the liquid, without
exceeding MAOP.
The MAOP of a pipeline is the maximum safe internal pressure that the pipeline can
withstand without failure.
This will depend upon the pipe material, diameter and wall
thickness. As the internal pressure is increased, the pipe material gets stressed more and
more and ultimately, will undergo permanent deformation and will rupture. Therefore it is
very important to determine the safe internal pressure that the pipe can withstand, without
rupture, so that we may operate the pipeline safely.
The Barlows equation in a modified form is used to calculate this allowable internal pressure
as follows:
In USCS units, the internal design pressure in a pipe is calculated as follows:
P=2TxSxExF
D
(8.1)
Where P is the internal design pressure in psig. The pipe outside diameter D and wall
thickness T are in inches. S is the Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS) of pipe material
in psig and E is the Seam Joint Factor, 1.0 for seamless and Submerged Arc Welded (SAW)
pipes . F is the Design Factor, usually 0.72 for liquid pipelines, except that a design factor
of 0.60 is used for pipe, including risers, on a platform located off shore or on a platform in
inland navigable waters, and 0.54 is used for pipe that has been subjected to cold
expansion to meet the SMYS and subsequently heated, other than by welding or stress
November 24, 2005
70
relieving as a part of the welding, to a temperature higher than 900 F (482 C) for any
o
period of time or over 600 F (316 C) for more than one hour.
The above version of Barlows equation is described in Part 195 of US DOT code of Federal
Regulations, Title 49 and ASME/ANSI standard B31.4 for liquid pipelines.
In SI units, the internal design pressure equation can be written as:

P=
2TxSxExF
D
(8.2)
Where P is the pipe internal design pressure in kPa. The pipe outside diameter D and wall
thickness T are in mm. S is the Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS) of pipe material
in kPa and E and F are the same as before.
Once we know the safe internal working pressure for the pipe, a hydrostatic test pressure is
established.
Generally, for liquid pipelines this test pressure is 125% of the allowable
working pressure. The hydrostatic test pressure is the pressure at which the pipeline is
tested for a specified period of time, usually 4 to 8 hours, depending upon the design code.
For above ground piping, 4 hours is used while buried pipelines are tested for 8 hours. In
the USA, Department of Transportation (DOT) Code Part 195 applies for liquid pipelines.
Therefore, if the MAOP is 1,000 psig, the hydrotest pressure will be 1.25x1000 = 1250 psig
The SMYS of the pipe material depends on the type of steel used in constructing the pipe.
The API 5L standard for pipe covers many grades: X-42, X-52, X-60, X-65, X-70 and X-80.
The number after the X represents the SMYS in thousands of psi. Thus X-60 pipe has an
SMYS of 60,000 psi.
71
The MAOP for a 16 inch pipeline, 0.250 inch wall, constructed of X-52 pipe material is
P = ( 2 x 0.250 x 52000 x 1.0 x 0.72 ) / 16 = 1,170 psig
The hydrotest pressure is therefore

1.25 x 1170 = 1,463 psig
72
References
1. Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics, E. Shashi Menon, Marcel Dekker, Inc. 2005
2. Piping Calculations Manual, E. Shashi Menon, McGraw Hill, 2005
3. Elementary Fluid Mechanics, Vennard & Street. Sixth Edition. John Wiley and Sons,
1982.
4. Handbook of Hydraulics, Brater & King. McGraw-Hill, 1982
5. Pipeline Design for Hydrocarbons, Gases and Liquids. American Society of Civil
Engineers, 1975.
6. Cameron Hydraulic Data. Ingersoll-Rand, 1981
7. Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings and Pipes. Crane Company, 1976
8. Centrifugal Pumps Design & Application, V.S. Lobanoff and R.R. Ross, Gulf Publishing,
1985
9. Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data Book - Hydraulic Institute, 1979
2005
Gas Pipeline Hydraulics

buyconcepts.biz
Introduction to gas pipeline hydraulics

This course on gas pipeline hydraulics covers the steady state analysis of compressible fluid flow
through pipelines. Mathematical derivations are reduced to a minimum, since the intent is to provide the
practicing engineer a practical tool to understand and apply the concepts of gas flow in pipes. In particular,
we will cover natural gas pipeline transportation including how pipelines are sized for a particular flow rate,
the pressure required to transport a given volume of gas and the compression horsepower required. The
properties of natural gas that affect pipe flow will be reviewed first followed by the concepts of laminar and
turbulent flow and Reynolds number. Frictional pressure loss and the method of calculating the friction factor
using the Moody diagram and the Colebrook and AGA methods will be illustrated with examples. Several
other popular flow equations, such as the Weymouth and Panhandle formulas will be introduced and
explained with example problems. Increasing pipeline throughput using intermediate compressor stations as
well as pipe loops will be discussed. The strength requirement of pipes, allowable operating pressure and
hydrostatic test pressure will be reviewed with reference to the DOT code requirements. Several fully solved
example problems are used to illustrate the concepts introduced in the various sections of the course.
multiple choice quiz is included at the end of the course.
1. Properties of Gas
Gases and liquids are generally referred to as fluids. Gases are classified as compressible fluids because
unlike liquids, gases are subject to large variations in volume with changes in pressure and temperature.
Liquids on the other hand are generally considered to be incompressible. Liquid density and volume change
very little with pressure. However, liquids do show a variation in volume as the temperature changes. The
mass of a gas is the quantity of matter and does not change with temperature or pressure.
Mass is measured in slugs or pound mass (lbm) in the U.S. Customary system of units (USCS). In the
Systeme International (SI) units, mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
Weight is a term that is sometimes
used synonymously with mass. Strictly speaking, weight of a substance is a force (vector quantity), while
mass is a scalar quantity. Weight depends upon the acceleration due to gravity and hence depends upon the
geographical location. Weight is measured in pounds (lb) or more correctly in pound force (lbf) in the USCS
2
units. In SI units weight is expressed in Newton (N). If the weight of a substance is 10 lbf, its mass is said to
be 10 lbm. The relationship between weight W in lb and mass M in slugs is as follows
W = Mg
(1.1)
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the specific location. At sea level, it is equal to 32.2 ft/s2 in
USCS units and 9.81 m/s2 in SI units.
Volume of a gas is the space occupied by the gas. Gases fill the container that houses the gas. The volume
of a gas generally varies with temperature and pressure. However, if the gas occupies a fixed volume
container, increasing the pressure will increase the gas temperature, and vice versa. This is called Charles
Law for gases.
If the gas is contained in a cylindrical vessel with a piston and a weight is placed on the
piston, the pressure within the gas is constant equal to the weight on the piston, divided by the piston area.
Any increase in temperature will also increase the gas volume by the movement of the piston, while the gas
pressure remains constant. This is another form of the Charles Law for gases. Charles law will be discussed
in more detail later in this section.
Volume of a gas is measured in cubic feet (ft3) in the USCS units and
cubic meters (m3) in SI units.
The density of a gas is defined as the mass per unit volume as follows
Density = mass / volume
(1.2)
Therefore density is measured in slug/ft3 or lbm/ft3 in USCS units and in kg/m3 in SI units. Similar to volume,
gas density also varies with temperature and pressure. Since density is inversely proportional to the volume
from Eq (1.2), we can conclude that density increases with pressure while the volume decreases. Similarly,
increase in temperature decreases the density, while volume increases.
Specific weight of a gas refers to the weight per unit volume. It is referred to in lb/ft3 in USCS units and N/m3
in SI units.
Specific weight = weight of gas / volume occupied
The specific weight, like the volume of a gas, varies with the temperature and pressure.
3
(1.3)
3
If the weight of a certain quantity of gas is 10 lb and the volume occupied is 1000 ft , the specific weight is
10
3
3
or 0.01 lb/ft . On the other hand the density of this gas can be stated as 0.01 lbm/ft or
1000
0.01
=
32.2
3
0.00031 slug/ft . Therefore, specific weight and density are closely related. Another term, called the specific
volume is the inverse of the specific weight, expressed in ft3/lb in the USCS units and m3/N in SI units.
Specific volume = volume of gas / weight of gas
(1.4)
The specific gravity of a fluid is defined as a ratio of the density of the fluid to that of a standard fluid such as
water or air at some standard temperature. For liquids, water is the standard of comparison, while for gases
air is used as the basis.
Specific gravity of gas = density of gas / density of air (at the same temperature)
(1.5)
Being a ratio of similar properties, the specific gravity is dimensionless.

Thus the specific gravity of a particular gas may be stated as 0.65 relative to air at 60 OF. Sometimes,
specific gravity is abbreviated to gravity and may be stated as follows:
Gravity of gas = 0.65 (air = 1.00)
Using molecular weights, we can define the gas gravity as the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to that
of air. The molecular weight of air is usually considered to be 29.0 and therefore, the specific gravity of gas
can be stated as follows:
G=
Mw
29.0
(1.6)
Where
G
= specific gravity of gas, dimensionless
Mw
= molecular weight of gas
The specific gravity of a gas like its density varies with temperature and pressure.
Viscosity of a fluid relates to the resistance to flow of the fluid. Higher the viscosity, more difficult it is to
flow. The viscosity of a gas is very small compared to that of a liquid. For example, a typical crude oil may
have a viscosity of 10 centipoise (cP), whereas a sample of natural gas has a viscosity of 0.0019 cP.
Viscosity may be referred to as absolute or dynamic viscosity measured in cP or kinematic viscosity
measured in centistokes (cSt). Both these units are SI units, but commonly used even when working with
4
2
USCS units. Other units of viscosity in USCS units are lb/ft-s for dynamic viscosity and ft /s for kinematic
viscosity.
The specific heat of a gas is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one lb of gas
by one OF. For gases, two specific heats are used: Cp, the specific heat at constant pressure and Cv, the
specific heat at constant volume. The ratio of the specific heats
Cp
is designated as and is an important
Cv
parameter in flow of gases and in expansion and contraction of gases.
Pressure of a gas must be defined before we get on with the other important properties concerning gas flow.
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area acting at any point in the gas. Imagine a container of volume V
occupied by a certain mass of gas M as shown in Fig. 1.1
Temperature T
H
Pressure P
Fig. 1.1 Pressure in a gas
The gas is contained within this volume at some temperature T and pressure P and is in equilibrium. At
every point within the container there is said to be a constant pressure P.
Since the density of gas,
compared to that of a liquid, is very small, the pressure of the gas at a point A near the top of the container
will be the same as that at a point B near the bottom of the container. If the difference in elevations between
the two points is H, theoretically, the pressure of gas at the bottom point will be higher than that at the top
point by the additional weight of the column of gas of height H. However, since the gas density is very small,
this additional pressure is negligible. Therefore we say that the pressure of gas is constant at every point
within the container. In USCS units, gas pressure is expressed in lb/in2 or psi and sometimes in lb/ft2 or psf.
5
2
In SI units, pressure is stated as kilopascal (kPa), megapascal (MPa), bar or kg/cm .
When dealing with
gases it is very important to distinguish between gauge pressure and absolute pressure. The absolute
pressure at any point within the gas is the actual pressure inclusive of the local atmospheric pressure
(approximately 14.7 psi at sea level). Thus in the example above, if the local atmospheric pressure outside
the gas container is Patm and the gas pressure in the container as measured by a pressure gauge is Pg, the
absolute or total gas pressure in the container is
Pabs = Pg + Patm
(1.7)
The adder to the gauge pressure is also called the base pressure. In USCS units, the gauge pressure is
denoted by psig while the absolute pressure is stated as psia. Therefore, if the gauge pressure is 200 psig
and the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi, the absolute pressure of the gas is 214.7 psia. In most equations
involving flow of gases and the gas laws, absolute pressure is used. Similar to absolute pressure, we also
refer to the absolute temperature of gas. The latter is obtained by adding a constant to the gas temperature.
For example, in USCS units, the absolute temperature scale is the Rankin scale. In SI units, Kelvin is the
absolute scale for temperature. The temperature in OF or OC can be converted to absolute units as follows:
O
R = OF + 460
(1.8)
K = OC + 273
(1.9)
Note that degrees Rankin is denoted by OR whereas for degrees Kelvin, the degree symbol is dropped. Thus
it is common to refer to the absolute temperature of a gas at 80 OF as (80 + 460) = 540 OR and if the gas
were at 20 OC, the corresponding absolute temperature will be (20 + 273) = 293 K. In most calculations
involving gas properties and gas flow, the absolute temperature is used.
The Compressibility factor, Z is a dimensionless parameter less than 1.00 that represents the deviation of
a real gas from an ideal gas. Hence it is also referred to as the gas deviation factor. At low pressures and
temperatures Z is nearly equal to 1.00 whereas at higher pressures and temperatures it may range between
0.75 and 0.90. The actual value of Z at any temperature and pressure must be calculated taking into account
the composition of the gas and its critical temperature and pressure. Several graphical and analytical
methods are available to calculate Z. Among these, the Standing-Katz, AGA and CNGA methods are quite
popular. The critical temperature and the critical pressure of a gas are important parameters that affect the
compressibility factor and are defined as follows.
The critical temperature of a pure gas is that temperature above which the gas cannot be compressed into a
liquid, however much the pressure. The critical pressure is the minimum pressure required at the critical
temperature of the gas to compress it into a liquid.
As an example, consider pure methane gas with a critical temperature of 343 OR and critical pressure of 666
psia.
The reduced temperature of a gas is defined as the ratio of the gas temperature to its critical temperature,
both being expressed in absolute units (OR or K). It is therefore a dimensionless number.
Similarly, the reduced pressure is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of the absolute pressure of
gas to its critical pressure.
Therefore we can state the following:
Tr =
T
Tc
(1.10)
Pr =
P
Pc
(1.11)
Where
P
= pressure of gas, psia
= temperature of gas, OR
Tr
= reduced temperature, dimensionless
Pr
= reduced pressure, dimensionless
Tc
= critical temperature, R
Pc
= critical pressure, psia
Using the preceding equations, the reduced temperature and reduced pressure of a sample of methane gas
at 70OF and 1200 psia pressure can be calculated as follows
Tr =
70 + 460
= 1.5452
343
and
Pr =
1200
= 1.8018
666
For natural gas mixtures, the terms pseudo-critical temperature and pseudo-critical pressure are used. The
calculation methodology will be explained shortly. Similarly we can calculate the pseudo-reduced
7
temperature and pseudo-reduced pressure of a natural gas mixture, knowing its pseudo-critical temperature
and pseudo-critical pressure.
The Standing-Katz chart, Fig. 1.2 can be used to determine the compressibility factor of a gas at any
temperature and pressure, once the reduced pressure and temperature are calculated knowing the critical
properties.
Fig. 1.2 Compressibility factor chart
Using the example above, the compressibility factor of the gas at 70 F and 1200 psia is found from the
Standing-Katz chart, Fig. 1.2 as Z = 0.850 approximately.
Another analytical method of calculating the compressibility factor of a gas is using the CNGA equation as
follows:
Z=
1
Pavg 344400(10)1.785G
1 +
T f3.825

(1.12)
Where
Pavg
= Gas pressure, psig.
Tf
= Gas temperature, R
= Gas gravity (air = 1.00)
The CNGA equation for compressibility factor is valid when the average gas pressure Pavg is greater than
100 psig. For pressures less than 100 psig, compressibility factor is taken as 1.00. It must be noted that the
pressure used in the CNGA equation is the gauge pressure, not the absolute pressure.
Example 1
Calculate the compressibility factor of a sample of natural gas (gravity = 0.6) at 80 F and 1000 psig using the
CNGA equation.
Solution
From the Eq. (1.12), the compressibility factor is
Z=
1
1000 344400(10 )1.7850.6
1 +
3.825
(
80
460
)
+
= 0.8746
The CNGA method of calculating the compressibility, though approximate, is accurate enough for most gas
pipeline hydraulics work.
The heating value of a gas is expressed in Btu/ft3. It represents the quantity of heat in Btu (British Thermal
Unit) generated by the complete combustion of one cubic foot of the gas with air at constant pressure at a
9
fixed temperature of 60 F. Two values of the heating value of a gas are used: Gross heating value and Net
heating value. The gross heating value is also called the higher heating value (HHV) and the net heating
value is called the lower heating value (LHV). The difference in the two values represents the latent heat of
vaporization of the water at standard temperature when complete combustion of the gas occurs.
Natural gas mixtures

Natural gas generally consists of a mixture of several hydrocarbons, such as methane, ethane, etc. Methane
is the predominant component in natural gas. Sometimes small amounts of non-hydrocarbon elements,
such as nitrogen (N2), carbon-dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are also found. The properties of a
natural gas mixture can be calculated from the corresponding properties of the components in the mixture.
Kays rule is generally used to calculate the properties of a gas mixture, and will be explained next.
Example 2
A natural gas mixture consists of the following components.
Component
Mole Percent
Molecular weight
Methane C1
85
16.01
Ethane
C2
10
30.07
Propane C3
44.10
________
Total
100
Calculate the specific gravity of this natural gas mixture.
Solution
Using Kays rule for a gas mixture, we can calculate the average molecular weight of the gas, from the
component molecular weights given. By dividing the molecular weight by the molecular weight of air, we can
determine the specific gravity of the gas mixture. The average molecular weight per Kays rule is calculated
using a weighted average.
M = (0.85 16.04 ) + (0.10 30.07 ) + (0.05 44.10 ) = 18.846

Therefore, the specific gravity of the gas mixture is using Eq. (1.6)
10
G=
18.846
= 0.6499
29
Example 3
Calculate the pseudo critical temperature and the pseudo critical pressure of a natural gas mixture containing
85 percent of methane (C1), 10 percent ethane (C2) and 5 percent propane (C3)
The critical temperatures and critical pressures of C1, C2 and C3 are as follows
Component
Critical Temperature, OR
Critical Pressure, psia
C1
343
666
C2
550
707
C3
666
617
What is the reduced temperature and reduced pressure of this gas mixture at 80 OF and 1000 psia?
Solution
Kays rule can be applied to calculate the pseudo-critical temperature and pseudo-critical pressure of the gas
mixture from those of the component gases as follows:
Tpc = (0.85 x 343) + (0.10 x 550) + (0.05 x 666) = 379.85 OR
and
Ppc = (0.85 x 666) + (0.10 x 707) + (0.05 x 617) = 667.65 psia
Therefore, the pseudo critical properties of the gas mixture are
pseudo-critical temperature = 379.85 OR
and
the pseudo critical pressure = 667.65 psia
From Eq. (1.10) and (1.11), we calculate the pseudo-reduced temperature and the pseudo-reduced pressure
as follows:
T pr =
80 + 460
= 1.42
379.85
Ppr =
1000
= 1.498
667.65
Being ratios, both the above values are dimensionless.
11
If the gas composition is not known, the pseudo-critical properties may be calculated approximately from the
gas gravity as follows
T pc = 170.491 + 307.344G
(1.13)
Ppc = 709.604 58.718G
(1.14)
Where G is the gas gravity and other symbols are defined before. Note that Equations 1.13 and 1.14 are
applicable to natural gas only.
Example 4
Calculate the pseudo critical temperature and pseudo critical pressure for a natural gas mixture containing
85 percent methane, 10 percent ethane and 5 percent propane, using the approximate method.
Solution
In Example 2, we calculated the gas gravity for this mixture as 0.6499
Using Eq. (1.13) and (1.14) the pseudo critical properties are calculated as follows
Tpc = 170.491 + 307.344 x (0.6499) = 370.23 OR

Ppc = 709.604 - 58.718 x (0.6499) = 671.44 psia
In a previous example, we calculated the pseudo-critical properties using the more accurate method as
379.85 OR and 667.65 psia. Comparing these with the approximate method using the gas gravity, we find
that the values are within 2.5 percent for the pseudo critical temperature and within 0.6 percent for the
pseudo critical pressure.
Gas Laws
The compressibility of a gas was introduced earlier and we defined it as a dimensionless number close to 1.0
that also represents how far a real gas deviates from an ideal gas. Ideal gases or perfect gases obey Boyles
and Charles law and have pressure, temperature and volume related by the ideal gas equation. These laws
for ideal gases are as follows:
12
Boyles Law defines the variation of pressure of a given mass of gas with its volume when the temperature is
held constant. The relationship between pressure P and volume V is
PV = constant
(1.15)
P1V1 = P2V2
(1.16)
Or
Where P1, V1 are the initial conditions and P2, V2 are the final conditions of a gas when temperature is held
constant. This is also called isothermal conditions.
Boyles law applies only when the gas temperature is constant. Thus if a given mass of gas has an initial
pressure of 100 psia and a volume of 10 ft3, with the temperature remaining constant at 80 F and the
pressure increases to 200 psia, the corresponding volume of gas becomes
Final volume =
100 10
= 5 ft3
200
Charles law applies to variations in pressure-temperature and volume-temperature, when the volume and
pressures are held constant. Thus keeping the volume constant, the pressure versus temperature
relationship according to Charles law is as follows:
P
= constant
T
(1.17)
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
(1.18)
Or
Similarly if the pressure is held constant, the volume varies directly as the temperature as follows:
V
= constant
T
(1.19)
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
(1.20)
Or
Where P1, V1 and T1 are the initial conditions and P2, V2 and T2 are the final conditions. It must be noted that
pressures and temperatures must be in absolute units.
Example 5
13
3
A given mass of gas is at an initial condition of 80 F, 100 psia and 10 ft . If the final conditions are 100 psia
and 100 F, what is the final gas volume?
Solution
Since the pressure remains constant, we can apply Charles law, Eq. 1.20
V2
10
=
80 + 460 100 + 460
Solving for the final volume, V2
V2 = 10.37 ft3
The Ideal Gas equation, or the Perfect Gas Equation, as it is sometimes called combines Boyles law and
Charles law and is stated as follows:
PV = nRT
(1.21)
Where
P
= gas pressure, psia
= gas volume, ft
= number of lb moles of gas (mass/molecular weight)
= universal gas constant, psia ft3/lb mole OR
= gas temperature, OR
The universal gas constant R is equal to 10.73 psia ft3/lb mole OR in USCS units.
If m is the mass of gas and M its molecular weight,
n=
m
M
(1.22)
Therefore, the ideal gas equation becomes
PV =
mRT
M
(1.23)
The constant R is the same for all ideal gases and therefore it is referred to as the universal gas constant.
The ideal gas equation discussed above is accurate only at low pressures. Because, in practice most gas
pipelines operate at pressures higher than atmospheric pressures, the ideal gas equation must be modified
14
when applied to real gases, by including the effect of gas compressibility. Thus, when applied to real gases,
the compressibility factor or gas deviation factor is used in Eq. (1.21) as follows.
PV = ZnRT
(1.24)
where Z is the gas compressibility factor at the given pressure and temperature.
Example 6
Calculate the volume of a 10 lb mass of gas (Gravity = 0.6) at 500 psig and 80F, assuming the
compressibility factor as 0.895. The molecular weight of air may be taken as 29 and the base pressure is
14.7 psia.
Solution
The number of lb moles n is calculated using Eq. (1.22). The molecular weight of the gas
M = 0.6 x 29 = 17.4
Therefore
n=
10
= 0.5747 lb mole
17.4
Using the real gas Eq. (1.24)

(500 + 14.7) V = 0.895 x 0.5747 x 10.73 x (80 + 460)
Therefore,
V = 5.79 ft3
15
2. Pressure Drop Due To Friction

The Bernoullis equation essentially states the principle of conservation of energy. In a flowing fluid (gas or
liquid) the total energy of the fluid remains constant.
The various components of the fluid energy are
transformed from one form to another, but no energy is lost as the fluid flows in a pipeline. Consider an
upstream location A and downstream location B in a pipe transporting a gas, at a flow rate of Q as shown in
Fig. 2.1
Velocity V A
Pressure PA
density A
F lo w
Velocity VB
Pressure PB
density B
Elevation Datum
Fig 2.1 Energy of gas in pipe flow
At point A, the gas has a certain pressure PA , density A , and temperature T A,. Also the elevation of point A
above a certain datum is Z A.
Similarly, the corresponding values for the downstream location B are P B, B,
TB and ZB. If the pressures and elevations at A and B were the same, there would be no driving force and
hence no gas flow. Due to the difference in pressures and elevations, gas flows from point A to point B. The
reason for the pressure difference in a flowing gas is partly due to the elevation difference and more due to
the friction between the flowing gas and the pipe wall. As the internal roughness of the pipe increases the
friction increases. The velocity of the gas, which is proportional to the volume flow rate Q, also changes
depending upon the cross sectional area of the pipe and the pressures and temperature of the gas. By the
principle of conservation of mass, the same mass of gas flows at A as it does at B, if no volumes of gas are
16
taken out or introduced into the pipe between points A and B. Therefore, if VA and VB represent the gas
velocities at points A and B, we can state the following for the principle of conservation of mass.
Mass flow = AAVAA = ABVBB
(2.1)
In the above equation the product of the area A and Velocity V represents the volume flow rate and by
multiplying the result by the density we get the mass flow rate at any cross section of the pipe. If the pipe
cross section is the same throughout (constant diameter pipeline), the mass flow equation reduces to
VAA = VBB
(2.2)
Referring to Fig 2.1, for the flow of gas in a pipeline, the energy of a unit mass of gas at A may be
represented by three components:
Pressure energy
PA
(2.3)
A
2
Kinetic energy
VA
2g
(2.4)
Potential energy
ZA
(2.5)
All energy components have been converted to units of fluid head in feet and g is the acceleration due to
gravity. Its value at sea level is 32.2 ft/s2 in USCS units and 9.81 m/s2 in SI units.
If the frictional energy loss (in ft of head) in the pipeline from point A to point B is hf we can write the energy
conservation equation or the Bernoullis equation as follows
V A2
PB VB2
+
+ ZA =
+
+ ZB + hf
A 2g
B 2g
PA
(2.6)
The term hf is also called the pressure loss due to friction between point A and B. Starting with the Bernoullis
equation, researchers have developed a formula for calculating the pressure drop in a gas pipeline, taking
into account the pipe diameter, length, elevations along the pipe, gas flow rate and the gravity and
compressibility of the gas. This basic equation is referred to as the Fundamental Flow Equation, also known
as the General Flow equation.
17
As gas flows through a pipeline, its pressure decreases and the gas expands. In addition to the gas
properties, such as gravity and viscosity, the pipe inside diameter and pipe internal roughness influence the
pressure versus flow rate. Since the volume flow rate Q can vary with the gas pressure and temperature, we
must refer to some standard volume flow rate, based on standard conditions, such as 60 F and 14.7 psia
pressure. Thus the gas flow rate Q will be referred to as standard ft3/day or SCFD. Variations of this are
million standard ft3/day or MMSCFD and standard ft3/h or SCFH. In SI units gas flow rate in a pipeline is
stated in standard m3/hr or standard m3/day.
Pressure P1
Pressure P2
Flow Q
Length L
Elevation H2
Elevation H1
Fig 2.2 Steady state flow in a gas pipeline
Referring to Fig 2.2, for a pipe segment of length L and inside diameter D, the upstream pressure is P1 and
the downstream pressure P2 are related to the flow rate and gas properties as follows, in USCS units.
T P 2 P22
Q = 77.54 b 1
Pb GT f LZf
0.5
D 2.5
(2.7)
where
3
= gas flow rate, standard, ft /day (SCFD)
= pipe length, mi
= inside diameter of pipe, in.
P1
= upstream pressure, psia.
P2
= downstream pressure, psia.
Pb
= base pressure, psia (usually 14.7 psia)
Tb
= base temperature, R (usually 60+460 = 540 R)
18
Tf
= average flowing temperature of gas, OR
= gas specific gravity (Air = 1.00)
= gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature and pressure, dimensionless
= friction factor, dimensionless
The General Flow Equation, in SI units is as follows
T
Q = 1.1494 10 b
Pb
3
P12 P22

GT f LZf
0.5
D 2.5
(2.8)
where
3
3
= gas flow rate, standard, ft /day (m /day )
= pipe length, km
= inside diameter pipe, mm.
P1
= upstream pressure, kPa (absolute).
P2
= downstream pressure, kPa (absolute).
Pb
= base pressure, kPa (absolute).
Tb
= base temperature, K
Tf
= average flowing temperature of gas, K
= gas specific gravity (air = 1.00)
= gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature and pressure, dimensionless
The pressures in the above equation may also be in MPa or Bar as long as the same consistent unit is used
throughout. Always use absolute pressures, not gauge pressures.
In the preceding equations, we have assumed that for the pipe segment, of length L, from upstream point 1
to the downstream point 2, the flowing gas temperature (Tf ) is constant. In other words, isothermal flow is
assumed. This may not be true in reality, since there will be heat transfer between the gas in the pipeline and
the surrounding soil, if the pipe is buried. If the pipe is above ground the heat transfer will be between the
gas and the ambient air. In any case, for simplicity, we will assume that there is isothermal gas flow in the
pipeline. The friction factor f in Eq. (2.8) is referred to as the Darcy friction factor and depends upon the
internal condition (rough or smooth) of the pipe and whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Laminar and
19
turbulent flow, along with the Reynolds number will be discussed shortly. The value of f is generally
determined graphically from the Moody diagram (Fig. 2.3) or analytically from the Colebrook-White equation
as will be explained in the next section.
Effect of pipe elevations

So far, we have neglected the effect of elevation difference between the upstream and downstream locations
of the pipe. If the elevations H1 and H2 are included, the General Flow equation becomes as follows
T
Q = 77.54 b
Pb
0.5
P12 e s P22
D 2.5
GT L Zf
f e
(2.9)
Where the equivalent length Le and the term es depend upon the elevation difference (H2 - H1).
In SI units, the corrected equation is
T
Q = 1.1494 10 b
Pb
3
P12 e s P22

GT f LZf
0.5
D 2.5
(2.10)
The term Le and es are related as f ollows:
Le =
L es 1
s
(2.11)
The dimensionless, elevation adjustment parameter s varies with the gas properties, the gas flowing
temperature and the elevation difference. It is calculated as follows
H H1
s = 0.0375G 2
T
Z
f
(2.12)
Where
s
= elevation adjustment parameter, dimensionless
H1
= upstream elevation, ft
H2
= downstream elevation, ft
In SI units the corresponding equation is
H H1
s = 0.0684G 2
T
Z
f
(2.13)
20
Where H1 and H2 are expressed in meters.
The General Flow equation can be used for calculating the flow rate in a gas pipeline, given the upstream
and downstream pressures. Alternatively, it can be used to calculate the pressure drop for a given flow rate.
An example will illustrate this.
Example 7
Calculate the flow rate through a 10 mile long gas pipeline, NPS 20, 0.375 inch wall thickness, transporting
gas, with a gravity of 0.6 and a compressibility factor of 0.85. The inlet and outlet pressures are 1000 psig
and 800 psig respectively. Base temperature and pressure are 60F and 14.7 psia. Gas flowing temperature
is 70F. Neglect elevation effects and assume friction factor f = 0.02
Solution
The inside diameter of the pipe is
D = 20 2 x 0.375 = 19.25 in.
The gas flowing temperature is
Tf
= 70+460 = 530 R
Using the General Flow equation (2.7), we get

0.5
1014.7 2 814.7 2
60 + 460
19.25 2.5
Q = 77.54
14.7 0.6 530 10 0.85 0.02

Therefore
Q = 380,987,188 SCFD or 380.99 MMSCFD
Another form of the General Flow equation uses the Transmission factor F instead of the friction factor f.
These parameters are related by the equation
F=
2
f
(2.14)
From Eq (2.14) we see that if the friction factor f = 0.02, the transmission factor F = 14.14.
21
Thus while the friction factor is a number less than 1.00, the transmission factor is a number between 10 and
20. Using the transmission factor F instead of the friction factor f, and considering the elevation difference,
the General Flow equation (2.9) becomes
T
Q = 38.77 F b
Pb
P12 e s P22
GT f Le Z
0.5
D 2.5
(2.15)
The corresponding equation in SI units is
T
Q = 5.747 10 F b
Pb
4
P12 e s P22

GT f Le Z
0.5
D 2.5
(2.16)
Upon examining the General Flow equation, we see that the gas flow rate in a pipeline is approximately
proportional to the square root of difference in squares of the upstream and downstream pressures or
(P
2
1
P22 . In comparison, in liquid flow through pipes, the flow rate is directly proportional to the square
root of the pressure difference or
(P
P2 . This is a very important feature of gas flow in pipes. The
result of this is that the pressure gradient in a gas pipeline is slightly curved, compared to a straight line in
liquid flow. Also in a gas pipeline, reduction in upstream or downstream pressure at the same flow rate will
not be reflected to the same extent throughout the pipeline, unlike liquid flow.
Suppose the upstream
pressure and downstream pressures are 1000 and 800 psia respectively at a certain flow rate in a gas
pipeline. By keeping the flow rate the same, a 100 psia reduction in upstream pressure will not result in
exactly 100 psia reduction in the downstream pressure, due to the Q versus
(P
2
1
P22 relationship in gas
flow. In a liquid pipeline, on the other hand, a 100 psia reduction in upstream pressure will result in exactly
100 psia reduction in the downstream pressure.
Other interesting observations from the General Flow equation are as follows. The higher the gas gravity
and compressibility factor, the lower will be the flow rate, other items remaining the same. Similarly, longer
the pipe segment, lower will be the gas flow rate. Obviously, larger the pipe diameter, greater will be the flow
rate. Hotter gas flowing temperature causes reduction in flow rate. This is in stark contrast to liquid flow in
pipes, where the higher temperature causes reduction in the liquid gravity and viscosity and hence increase
22
the flow rate for a given pressure drop. In gas flow, we find that cooler temperatures cause increase in flow
rate. Thus summer flow rates are lower than winter flow rates in gas pipelines.
Several other flow equations or pressure drop formulas for gas flow in pipes are commonly used. Among
these Panhandle A, Panhandle B and Weymouth equations have found their place in the gas pipeline
industry. The General Flow equation however is the most popular one and the friction factor f is calculated
either using the Colebrook equation or the AGA formulas. Before we discuss the other flow equations, we
will review the different types of flows, Reynolds number and how the friction factor is calculated using the
Colebrook-White equation or the AGA method.
The flow through a pipeline may be classified as laminar, turbulent or critical flow depending upon the value
of a dimensionless parameter called the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number depends upon the gas
properties, pipe diameter and flow velocity and is defined as follows.
Re =
VD
(2.17)
where
Re
= Reynolds number, dimensionless
= average gas velocity, ft/s
= pipe inside diameter, ft
= gas density, lb/ft3
= gas viscosity, lb/ft-s
In terms of the more commonly used units in the gas pipeline industry, the following formula for Reynolds
number is more appropriate, in USCS units
P
Re = 0.0004778 b
Tb
GQ
(2.18)
where
Pb
= base pressure, psia
Tb
= base temperature, OR
= gas specific gravity
= gas flow rate, standard ft3/day (SCFD)

23
= pipe inside diameter, in.
= gas viscosity, lb/ft-s
The corresponding version in SI units is as follows
P
Re = 0.5134 b
Tb
GQ
(2.19)
where
Pb
= base pressure, kPa
Tb
= gas specific gravity
= gas flow rate, standard m3/day
= pipe inside diameter, mm
= gas viscosity, Poise
The flow in a gas pipeline is considered to be laminar flow when the Reynolds number is below 2000.
Turbulent flow is said to exist when the Reynolds number is greater than 4000. When the Reynolds numbers
is between 2000 and 4000, the flow is called critical flow, or undefined flow.
Therefore
And
Re <= 2000
Flow is laminar
Re > 4000
Flow is turbulent
Re > 2000 and Re <= 4000
Flow is critical flow
In practice, most gas pipelines operate at flow rates that produce high Reynolds numbers and therefore in
the turbulent flow regime. Actually, the turbulent flow regime is further divided into three regions known as
smooth pipe flow, fully rough pipe flow and transition flow. This is illustrated in the Moody diagram shown in
Fig 2.3
24
Fig. 2.3 Moody diagram
When the flow is laminar, the friction factor f, used in the General Flow equation is calculated easily from the
following equation
f =
64
Re
(2.20)
Therefore, if the Reynolds number is 1800, the friction factor becomes
f =
64
= 0.0356
1800
When the flow is turbulent, the friction factor depends not only on the Reynolds number, but also on the
inside diameter of the pipe and the internal pipe roughness. Obviously, the friction factor is higher with
rougher pipe, compared to a smooth pipe. The popular equation, known as the Colebrook-White equation,
25
sometimes simply called the Colebrook equation can be used to calculate the friction factor for turbulent flow
as follows.
e
1
2.51
= 2 Log10
+
f
3.7 D Re f
(2.21)
where
f
= pipe inside diameter, in.
= absolute internal roughness of pipe, in.
Re
= Reynolds number of flow, dimensionless
The dimensionless ratio
e
is also known as the relative roughness of pipe.
D
The absolute roughness e varies with the internal condition of the pipe. For bare steel pipe a roughness
value of 0.0007 inch (700 micro-inches) may be used. For internal coated pipe e ranges from 100 to 300
micro-inches. It can be seen from Eq. (2.21) that the calculation of the friction factor f from the ColebrookWhite equation is not straightforward. It requires a trial and error solution since f appears on both sides of the
equation. First an initial value of f (such as f = 0.02) is assumed and substituted on the right hand side of the
Eq. (2.21). This gives us a new approximation for f, which is then substituted on the right hand side of the
equation, resulting in a better approximation, and so on. Three or four trials will yield a fairly accurate value
of f. This will be illustrated in an example next.
First we will illustrate the calculation of the friction factor using the Moody diagram. Suppose the Reynolds
number calculated is Re = 2 million and the relative roughness e/D = 0.0004. Using these two values, we go
to the Moody diagram and locate the 2 million figure on the horizontal scale. Going vertically from that point
until we reach the curves of constant relative roughness, we locate the curve for e/D = 0.0004. From the
point of intersection, we go horizontally to the left and read the value of the friction factor f as f = 0.016.
In the next example, the calculation of f using the Colebrook equation will be explained.
26
Example 8
A gas pipeline, NPS 24 with 0.500 in. wall thickness transports 250 MMSCFD of natural gas having a
specific gravity of 0.65 and a viscosity of 0.000008 lb/ft-s. Calculate the value of Reynolds number and the
Colebrook-White friction factor, based on a pipe roughness of 700 micro-inches. The base temperature and
base pressure are 60 F and 14.73 psia respectively. What is the corresponding transmission factor F?
Solution
Inside diameter of pipe = 24 2 x 0.5 = 23.0 in.
Base temperature = 60 + 460 = 520 OR
Using Eq. (2.18), the Reynolds number is
6
14.73 0.65 250 10
= 11,953,115
Re = 0.0004778
520 0.000008 23
Therefore the flow is in the turbulent region.

From Eq. (2.21), we calculate the friction factor as follows
Relative roughness =
700 10 6
e
=
= 0.0000304
D
23
0.0000304
1
2.51
= 2 Log10
+
3
.
7
f
11
,
953
,
115
f
First assume f = 0.02 and calculate a better approximation from above as
0.0000304
1
2.51
= 10.0264 or f = 0.0099
= 2 Log10
+
3.7
f
11,953,115 0.02
Therefore f = 0.0099 is a better approximation

Next using this value, we get the next better approximation as
0.0000304
1
2.51
= 2 Log10
+
3.7
f
11,953,115 0.0099
Solving for f we get f = 0.0101

The next trial yields f = 0.0101, which is the same as the last calculated value.
Hence the solution for the friction factor is f = 0.0101
The corresponding transmission factor F is calculated from Eq. (2.14) as
27
F=
2
= 19.95
0.0101
Another popular correlation for the transmission factor (and hence the friction factor) is the AGA equation. It
is also referred to as the AGA NB-13 method. Using the AGA method, the transmission factor F is calculated
in two steps. First the transmission factor is calculated for the rough pipe law. Next F is calculated based
upon the smooth pipe law. These two zones refer to the Moody diagram discussed earlier. The smaller of
the two values calculated is the AGA transmission factor. This factor is then used in the General Flow
equation to calculate the pressure drop. The method of calculation is as follows.
Using the rough pipe law, AGA recommends the following formula for F for a given pipe diameter and
roughness. It is calculated independent of the Reynolds number.
3.7 D
F = 4 Log 10
(2.22)
This calculation for the rough pipe regime is also called the Von Karman rough pipe flow equation.
Next, F is calculated for the partially turbulent zone using the following equations, taking into account the
Reynolds number, the pipe drag factor and the Von Karman smooth pipe transmission factor Ft.
Re
F = 4 D f Log 10
1.4125 Ft
(2.23)
and
Re
Ft = 4 Log10 0.6
Ft
(2.24)
where
Ft
= Von Karman smooth pipe transmission factor
Df
= pipe drag factor
The value of Ft must be calculated from Eq. (2.24) by trial and error.
The pipe drag factor Df is a dimensionless parameter that is a function of the Bend Index (BI) of the pipe.
28
The bend index depends upon the number of bends and fittings in the pipe The BI is calculated by adding
all the angles and bends in the pipe segment, and dividing the total by the total length of the pipe segment.
The drag factor Df generally ranges between 0.90 and 0.99 and can be found from the Table 1
Table 1 Bend index and drag factor

Bend Index- degrees per mile
Extremely low
Average
Extremely high
o
o
o
o
o
o
5 to 10
60 to 80
200 to 300
Bare steel
Plastic lined
Pig Burnished
Sand-Blasted
0.975 - 0.973
0.979 - 0.976
0.982 - 0.980
0.985 - 0.983
0.960 - 0.956
0.964 - 0.960
0.968 - 0.965
0.976 - 0.970
0.930 - 0.900
0.936 - 0.910
0.944 - 0.920
0.951 - 0.930
Note: The drag factors above are based on 40 ft joints of pipelines and
mainline valves at 10 mile spacing
Additional data on the bend index and drag factor may be found in the AGA NB-13 Committee Report.
An example using the AGA transmission factor will be illustrated next.
Example 9
A natural gas pipeline NPS 24 with 0.500 in. wall thickness transports gas at 250 MMSCFD.
Calculate the AGA transmission factor and friction factor. The gas gravity and viscosity are 0.59 and
0.000008 lb/ft-sec. Assume bare steel pipe with an absolute pipe roughness is 750 micro-inches and a bend
O
index of 60 ,
Base pressure = 14.7 psia and base temperature = 60 OF
Solution
Pipe inside diameter = 24 2 x 0.5 = 23.0 in.
Base temperature = 60 + 460 = 520 OR
First calculate the Reynolds number from Eq. (2.18)
0.0004778 250 10 6 0.59 14.7

Re =
= 10,827,653
23.0 0.000008 520
Next we will calculate the transmission factor for the fully turbulent flow using the rough pipe law Eq. (2.22)
29
3.7 23.0
F = 4 Log10
0.00075
= 20.22
Next, for the smooth pipe zone, the Von Karman transmission factor is calculated from Eq. (2.24) as
10,827,653
0.6
Ft = 4 Log10
Ft
Solving for Ft by trial and error,

Ft = 22.16
The bend index of 60O gives a drag factor Df of 0.96, from Table 1
Therefore, the transmission factor for the partially turbulent flow zone is from Eq. (2.23)
10,827,653
F = 4 0.96 Log10
1.4125 22.16
= 21.27
Therefore, choosing the smaller of the two values calculated above, the AGA transmission factor is
F = 20.22
The corresponding friction factor f is found from Eq. (2.14)
2
= 20.22
f
Therefore,
f = 0.0098
Average pipeline pressure

The gas compressibility factor Z used in the General Flow equation is based upon the flowing temperature
and the average pipe pressure. The average pressure may be approximated as the arithmetic average
P1 + P2
of the upstream and downstream pressures P1 and P2. However, a more accurate average pipe
2
pressure is usually calculated as follows
Pavg =
2
PP
P1 + P2 1 2
3
P1 + P2
(2.25)
The preceding equation may also be written as
30
2 P1 P2
3 P1 2 P2 2
3
Pavg =
(2.26)
Since the pressures used in the General Flow equation are in absolute units, all gauge pressures must be
converted to absolute pressures, when calculating the average pressure from Eq. (2.25) and (2.26). As an
example, if the upstream and downstream pressures are 1200 psia and 1000 psia respectively, the average
pressure in the pipe segment is
2
1200 1000
Pavg = 1200 + 1000
= 1103.03 psia
3
2200
If we used the arithmetic average, this becomes
Pavg =
1
(1200 + 1000) = 1100 psia
2
Velocity of gas in pipe flow

The velocity of gas flow in a pipeline under steady state flow can be calculated by considering the volume
flow rate and pipe diameter. In a liquid pipeline, under steady flow, the average flow velocity remains
constant throughout the pipeline, as long as the inside diameter does not change.
However, in a gas
pipeline, due to compressibility effects, pressure and temperature variation, the average gas velocity will vary
along the pipeline, even if the pipe inside diameter remains the same.
The average velocity in a gas
pipeline at any location along the pipeline is a function of the flow rate, gas compressibility factor, pipe
diameter, pressure and temperature, as indicated in the equation below.
P Z T
V = 0.002122 b
Tb P
Qb
D 2
(2.27)
Where
V
= Average gas velocity, ft/s
Qb
= gas flow rate, standard ft3/day (SCFD)
= inside diameter of pipe, in.
Pb
= base pressure, psia
Tb
= base temperature, OR
= gas pressure, psia.

31
= gas temperature, OR
= gas compressibility factor at pipeline conditions, dimensionless
It can be seen from the velocity equation that the higher the pressure, the lower the velocity and vice versa.
The corresponding equation for the velocity in SI units is as follows
P ZT Qb
V = 14.7349 b
2
Tb P D
(2.28)
Where
V
= gas velocity, m/s
Qb
= gas flow rate, standard m /day
= inside diameter of pipe, mm
Pb
= base pressure, kPa
Tb
= gas pressure, kPa.
= gas temperature, K
= gas compressibility factor at pipeline conditions, dimensionless
In the SI version of the equation, the pressures may be in any one consistent set of units, such as kPa, MPa
or Bar.
Erosional velocity
The erosional velocity represents the upper limit of gas velocity in a pipeline. As the gas velocity increases,
vibration and noise result. Higher velocities also cause erosion of the pipe wall over a long time period. The
erosional velocity Vmax may be calculated approximately as follows
Vmax = 100
ZRT
29GP
(2.29)
Where
Z
= gas compressibility factor, dimensionless
= gas constant = 10.73 ft3 psia/lb-moleR
= gas temperature, 0R
32
= gas gravity (air = 1.00)
= gas pressure, psia
Example 10
A natural gas pipeline NPS 20 with 0.500 in. wall thickness transports natural gas (specific gravity = 0.65) at
a flow rate of 200 MMSCFD at an inlet temperature of 70 F. Calculate the gas velocity at inlet and outlet of
the pipe, assuming isothermal flow. The inlet pressure is 1200 psig and the outlet pressure is 900 psig. The
base pressure is 14.7 psia and the base temperature is 60 F. Use average compressibility factor of 0.95.
Also, calculate the erosional velocity for this pipeline.
Solution
From Eq. (2.27) the gas velocity at the pipe inlet pressure of 1200 psig is
200 10 6
V1 = 0.002122
2
19.0
14.7 70 + 460
0.95
60 + 460 1214.7
= 13.78 ft/s
Similarly, the gas velocity at the outlet pressure of 900 psig can be calculated using proportions from Eq.
(2.27)
V2 = 13.78
1214.7
= 18.30 ft/s
914.7
Finally, the erosional velocity can be calculated using Eq. (2.29)
u max = 100
0.95 10.73 530

29 0.65 1214.7
= 48.57 ft/s
Weymouth Equation
The Weymouth equation is used for calculating flows and pressures in high pressure gas gathering systems.
It does not use a friction factor or a transmission factor directly, but uses a pipeline efficiency factor.
However, we can calculate the transmission factor by comparing the Weymouth equation with the General
Flow equation.
The Weymouth equation, in USCS units, is as follows
33
0.5
T P 2 e s P22
D 2.667
Q = 433.5E b 1
Pb GT f Le Z
(2.30)
Where E is the pipeline efficiency, expressed as a decimal value less than or equal to 1.0.
All other terms have been defined previously under the General Flow equation.
Comparing the Weymouth equation with General Flow equation, the Weymouth transmission factor in USCS
units may be calculated from the following equation.
F = 11.18(D)1/6
(2.31)
In SI units, the Weymouth equation is expressed as follows

0.5
T P 2 e s P22
D 2.667
Q = 3.7435 10 E b 1
Pb GT f Le Z
3
(2.32)
Where all symbols have been defined previously.
In SI units, the corresponding Weymouth transmission factor is

F = 6.521 (D)1/6
(2.33)
Panhandle Equations
The Panhandle A and the Panhandle B Equations have been used by many natural gas pipeline companies,
including a pipeline efficiency factor, instead of considering the pipe roughness. These equations have been
successfully used for Reynolds numbers in the range of 4 million to 40 million. The more common version of
Panhandle A equation is as follows
1.0788
T
Q = 435.87 E b
Pb
P12 e s P22
0.8539
T
L
Z
f e
0.5394
D 2.6182
(2.34)
Where E is the pipeline efficiency, a decimal value less than 1.0 and all other symbols have
been defined before under General Flow equation.
In SI Units, the Panhandle A equation is stated as follows

1.0788
T
Q = 4.5965 10 E b
Pb
3
P12 e s P22
0.8539
T
L
Z
f
e
34
0.5394
D 2.6182
(2.35)
All symbols have been previously defined. It must be noted that in the preceding SI version, all pressures
are in kPa. If MPa or Bar is used, the constant in Eq.(2.35) will be different.
Panhandle B Equation
The Panhandle B Equation, sometimes called the revised Panhandle equation is used by many gas
transmission companies. It is found to be fairly accurate in turbulenet flow for Reynolds numbers between 4
million and 40 million. It is expressed as follows, in USCS units.
T
Q = 737 E b
Pb
1.02
P12 e s P22
0.961
G T L Z
f e
0.51
D 2.53
(2.36)
Where all symbols are the same as defined for the Panhandle A equation (2.34).
The corresponding equation in SI units is as follows
1.02
T
Q = 1.002 10 E b
Pb
2
P12 e s P22
0.961
G T L Z
f e
0.51
D 2.53
(2.37)
Where all symbols are the same as defined for the Panhandle A equation (2.35).
Example 11
Calculate the outlet pressure in a natural gas pipeline, NPS 18 with 0.250 in. wall thickness, 20 miles long,
using the Panhandle A and B Equations. The gas flow rate is 150 MMSCFD at a flowing temperature of 70
F. The inlet pressure is 1000 psig and the gas gravity and viscosity are 0.6 and 0.000008 lb/ft-sec
O
respectively. Assume base pressure = 14.7 psia and base temperature = 60 F. Assume that the
compressibility factor Z = 0.85 throughout and the pipeline efficiency is 0.95. Compare the results using the
Weymouth Equation. Neglect elevation effects
Solution
Inside diameter D = 18 2 x 0.250 = 17.50 in
Gas flowing temperature Tf = 70 + 460 = 530 OR
Upstream pressure P1 = 1000 + 14.7 = 1014.7 psia
Base temperature Tb = 60 + 460 = 520 OR
Base pressure Pb = 14.7 psia
Using the Panhandle A Eq. (2.34), we get
35
1.0788
520
150 10 = 435.87 0.95
14.7
6
Solving
1014.7 2 P22
0.6 0.8539 530 20 0.85
0.5394
17.5 2.6182
P2 = 970.81 psia
Using the Panhandle B Eq. (2.36), we get
520
150 10 = 737 0.95
14.7
1.02
1014.7 2 P22
0
.
961
0. 6
530
20
0
.
85
0.51
17.5 2.53
Solving for the outlet pressure P2 , we get

P2 = 971.81 psia
Thus both Panhandle A and B give results that are quite close.
Next using the Weymouth Eq. (2.30) we get
0.5
2
2
520 1014.7 P2
17.5 2.667
150 10 = 433.5 0.95
14
.
7
0
.
6
530
20
0
.
85
Solving for the outlet pressure P2 , we get

P2 = 946.24 psia
It can be seen that the outlet pressure calculated using the Weymouth equation is the smallest value. Hence
we conclude that for the same flow rate, Weymouth gives a higher pressure drop compared to Panhandle A
and Panhandle B equation. Therefore, Weymouth is considered to be more conservative than the other two
flow equations.
The IGT Equation
This is another flow equation for natural gas pipelines, proposed by the Institute of Gas Technology. It is
frequently used in gas distribution piping systems.
In USCS units, the IGT equation is as follows.
T
Q = 136.9 E b
Pb
P12 e s P22
0.8
0.2
G T f Le
0.555
D 2.667
(2.38)
Where is the gas viscosity in lb/ft-s and all other symbols have been defined previously.
In SI units the IGT equation is as follows
T
Q = 1.2822 10 E b
Pb
3
P12 e s P22
0.8
0.2
G T f Le
0.555
D 2.667
Where is the gas viscosity in Poise and all other symbols have been defined before.
36
(2.39)
3. Pressures and Piping System

In the previous sections we discussed how the pressure drop is related to the gas flow rate in a pipeline. We
calculated flow rates, for short pipe segments, from given upstream and downstream pressures using the
General Flow equation as well as Panhandle A, B and Weymouth equation. In a long pipeline the pressures
along the pipeline may be calculated considering the pipeline sub-divided into short segments and by
calculating the pressure drop in each segment. If we do not do this and consider the pipeline as one long
segment, the results will be inaccurate due to the nature of the relationship between pressures and flow
rates. To accurately calculate the pressures in a long gas pipeline, we have to use some sort of a computer
program, because subdividing the pipeline into segments and calculating the pressures in each segment will
become a laborious and time consuming process. Furthermore, if we consider heat transfer effects, the
calculations will be even more complex. We will illustrate the method of calculating pressures by sub-dividing
the pipeline, using a simple example. In this example we will first calculate the pressures by considering the
pipeline as one segment. Next we will sub-divide the pipeline into two segments and repeat the calculations.
Example 12
A natural gas pipeline, AB is 100 mi long and is NPS16, 0.250 in. wall thickness. The elevation differences
may be neglected and the pipeline assumed to be along a flat elevation profile. The gas flow rate is 100
MMSCFD. It is required to determine the pressure at the inlet A, considering a fixed delivery pressure of
1000 psig at the terminus B. The gas gravity and viscosity are 0.6 and 0.000008 lb/ft-s respectively. The
gas flowing temperature is 70 F throughout. The base temperature and pressure are 60 F and 14.7 psia
respectively. Use CNGA method for calculating the compressibility factor. Assume transmission factor F =
20.0 and use the General Flow equation for calculating the pressures.
Solution:
The inside diameter of the pipeline is
D = 16-2x0.250 = 15.5 in.
For the compressibility factor, we need to know the gas temperature and the average pressure. Since we do
not know the upstream pressure at A, we cannot calculate an accurate average pressure. We will assume
that the average pressure is 1200 psig, since the pressure at B is 1000 psig. The approximate
compressibility factor will be calculated using this pressure from Eq. (1.12)
37
Z=
1200 344400 (10)1.7850.6

1 +
530 3.825

Therefore,
Z = 0.8440
This value can be adjusted after we calculate the actual pressures.

Using the General Flow equation, Eq. (2.7) considering the pipeline as one 100 mile long segment, the
pressure at the inlet A can be calculated as follows
0.5
P12 1014.7 2
520
15.5 2.5
100 10 = 38.77 20
14.7 0.6 530 100 0.844

6
Solving for the pressure at A, we get

P1 = 1195.14 psia or 1180.44 psig.
Based on this upstream pressure and the downstream pressure of 1000 psig at B, the average pressure
becomes, from Eq. (2.26)
Pavg =
2
1195.14 1014.7
1195.14 + 1014.7
= 1107.38 psia or 1092.68 psig
3
1195.14 + 1014.7
This compares with the average pressure of 1200 psig we initially used to calculate Z. Therefore, a more
correct value of Z can be re-calculated using the average pressure calculation above.
Strictly speaking we must re-calculate Z based on the new average pressure of 1092.68 psig and then recalculate the pressure at A using the General Flow equation. The process must be repeated until successive
values of Z are within a small tolerance, such as 0.01. This is left as an exercise for the reader.
38
1000 psig
50 miles
Flow
NPS 16 pipeline 100 miles long
Fig. 3.1 Sub-dividing pipeline
Next we will sub-divide the 100 mi pipeline into two equal 50 mi segments. We will first calculate the
upstream pressure of the second 50 mi segment based on a downstream pressure of 1000 psig at B. This
will establish the pressure at the mid point of the 100 mi pipeline. Then, based on this mid-point pressure we
will calculate the pressure required at A, for the first 50 mi segment. Since the pressure at A was calculated
earlier as approximately 1180 psig, we will assume an average pressure of the second 50 mi segment to be
approximately 1050 psig.
Calculating the compressibility factor Z
Z=
1050 344400 (10)1.7850.6

1 +
530 3.825

Therefore,
Z = 0.8608
Applying the General Flow equation for the second 50 mi segment

0.5
P12 1014.7 2
520
15.5 2.5
100 10 = 38.77 20
14.7 0.6 530 50 0.8608

6
Solving for the pressure at the mid point C, we get

P1 = 1110.38 psia or 1095.68 psig.
39
As before, the average gas pressure in the second segment must be calculated based on the above
pressure and the pressure at B and the value of Z recalculated. We will skip that step for now and proceed
with the first 50 mi segment.
Applying the General Flow equation for the first 50 mi segment
0.5
P12 1062.97 2
520
15.5 2.5
100 10 = 38.77 20
14.7 0.6 530 50 0.8608

6
Note that we have also assumed the same value for Z as before.
Solving for the pressure at A, we get
P1 =
1198.45 psia or 1183.75 psig.
It is seen that the pressure at A is 1180 psig when we calculate based on the pipeline as one single 100 mi
segment. Compared to this, the pressure at A is 1184 psig when we subdivide the pipeline into two 50 mi
segments. Subdividing the pipeline into four equal 25 mile segments will result in a more accurate solution.
This shows the importance of sub-dividing the pipeline into short segments, for obtaining accurate results. As
mentioned earlier, some type of hydraulic simulation program should be used to quickly and accurately
calculate the pressures in a gas pipeline. One such commercial software is GASMOD, published by SYSTEK
Technologies, Inc. (www.systek.us). Using this hydraulic model, the heat transfer effects may also be
modeled.
The total pressure required at the inlet of a gas pipeline may be calculated easily using the method illustrated
in the previous example. Similarly, given the inlet and outlet pressures, we can calculate the gas flow rate in
the pipeline using the General Flow equation, Panhandle or Weymouth equations.
Next, we will now look at gas pipelines with intermediate flow injections and deliveries.
As we increase the flow rate through a gas pipeline, if we keep the same delivery pressure at the pipeline
terminus, the pressure at the pipeline inlet will increase. Suppose the inlet pressure of 1400 psig results in a
delivery pressure of 900 psig. If the MAOP (maximum allowable operating pressure) uof the pipeline is 1440
psig, we cannot increase the inlet pressure above that, as flow rate increases. Therefore, we need to install
40
intermediate compressor stations as illustrated in the preceding discussions. Suppose the flow rate increase
results in the inlet pressure of 1500 psig and we do not want to install an intermediate compressor station.
We could install a parallel loop for a certain length of the pipeline to reduce the total pressure drop in the
pipeline such that the inlet pressure will be limited to the MAOP. The length of pipe that needs to be looped
can be calculated using the theory of parallel pipes discussed in the next section. By installing a pipe loop
we are effectively increasing the diameter of the pipeline for a certain segment of the line. This increase in
diameter will decrease the pipeline pressure drop and hence bring the inlet pressure down below the 1500
psig required at the higher flow rate.
Looping a section of the pipeline is thus regarded as a viable option to increase pipeline throughput. In
comparison with the installation of an intermediate compressor station, looping requires incremental capital
investment but insignificant increase in operating cost. In contrast, a new compressor station will not only
require additional capital investment, but also add significant operation and maintenance costs.
Example 13
Consider a pipeline shown in Fig 3.2 where the gas enters the pipeline at A at 100 MMSCFD and at some
point B, 20 MMSCFD is delivered to a customer. The remaining 80 MMSCFD continues to a point C where
an additional volume of 50 MMSCFD is injected into the pipeline. From that point the total volume of 130
MMSCFD continues to the end of the pipeline at D, where it is delivered to an industrial plant at a pressure of
800 psig.
100 MMSCFD
A
NPS 16
130 MMSCFD
80 MMSCFD
B
20 MMSCFD
50 MMSCFD
Figure 3.2 Pipeline with injection and deliveries
We would analyze the pipeline pressures required at A, B and C for this system as follows. Suppose the
desired delivery pressure at the terminus D is given as 500 psig. Using this pressure as the downstream
41
pressure for the pipe segment CD, we will calculate the upstream pressure required at C to transport 130
MMSCFD through the pipe CD. Assuming the pipe diameter for CD is known, we use the General Flow
equation to calculate the pressure at C. Once we know the pressure at C, we consider the next pipe segment
BC and using the General Flow equation calculate the upstream pressure required at B to transport 80
MMSCFD through the pipe segment BC. Similarly, we finally calculate the upstream pressure required at A
to transport 100 MMSCFD through the pipe segment AB.
Due to the different flow rates in the pipes AB, BC and CD the required diameters for these pipe segments
will not be the same. The largest diameter will be for the CD that transports the greatest volume and the
smallest diameter will be for the segment BC that flows the least volume.
Sometimes, we have to calculate the minimum diameters of these pipe segments, required to handle these
flow rates, given both the upstream and downstream pressures at A and D. In that case we choose an initial
size for AB, based upon allowable gas velocities and starting from the end A, calculate the downstream
pressures at points B, C and D in succession, using the General Flow equation. The pipe sizes are adjusted
as needed until we are able to arrive at the correct delivery pressure at D.
When pipes of different diameters are connected together end to end, they are referred to as series pipes.
If the flow rate is the same throughout the system, we can simplify calculations by converting the entire
system into one long piece of pipe with the some same uniform diameter, using the equivalent length
concept.
We calculate the equivalent length of each pipe segment (for the same pressure drop) based on
a fixed base diameter. For example a pipe of diameter D1 and length L1 will be converted to an equivalent
length Le1 of some base diameter D. This will be based on the same pressure drop in both pipes. Similarly
the remaining pipe segments, such as the pipe diameter D2 and length L2 will be converted to a
corresponding equivalent length Le2 of diameter D. Continuing the process we have the entire piping system
reduced to the following total equivalent length of the same diameter D.
Total equivalent length = Le1 + Le2 + Le3 +..
The base diameter D may be one of the segment diameters. For example, we may pick the base diameter
to be D1. Therefore the equivalent length becomes
Total equivalent length = L1 + Le2 + Le3 +..
42
From the General Flow equation, we see that the pressure drop versus the pipe diameter relationship is
such that
(P
2
1
P22 ) is inversely proportional to the fifth power of the diameter and directly proportional to
the pipe length. Therefore, we can state the following
CL
D5
Psq =
(3.1)
Where
Psq
= (P1 2 P22) for pipe segment.
P1, P2 = Upstream and downstream pressures of pipe segment, psia.

C
= A constant
= pipe segment length
= pipe segment inside diameter
Therefore for the equivalent length calculations, we can state that for the second segment
D
Le 2 = L2 1
D2
(3.2)
And for the third pipe segment the equivalent length is
D
Le3 = L3 1
D3
(3.3)
Therefore the total equivalent length Le for all pipe segments in terms of diameter D1 can be stated as
5
D
D
Le = L1 + L2 1 + L3 1 + .
D2
D3
(3.4)
We are thus able to reduce the series pipe system to one of fixed diameter of an equivalent length. The
analysis then would be easy since all pipe sizes will be the same. However, if the flow rates are different in
each section, there is really no benefit in calculating the equivalent length, since we have to consider each
segment separately and apply the General Flow equation for each flow rate. Therefore the equivalent length
approach is useful only if the flow rate is the same throughout the series piping system.
43
Pipes may also be connected in parallel as shown in Fig 3.3 This is also called a looped system. We will
next discuss how the pressures and flow rates are calculated in parallel piping systems.
C
L1, D1
Q
B
Q1
Q
E
L2, D2
D
Q2
Fig. 3.3 Parallel pipes
In Fig 3.3 we have a pipe segment AB connected to two other pipes(BCE and BDE) in parallel, forming a
loop. The two pipes rejoin at E to form a single pipe segment EF. We can replace the two pipe segments
BCE and BDE by one pipe segment of some length Le and diameter De. This will be based on the same
pressure drop through the equivalent piece of pipe as the individual pipes BCE and BDE. The flow rate Q
through AB is split into two flows Q1 and Q2 as shown in the figure, such that Q1 + Q2 = Q.
Since B and E are the common junctions for each of the parallel pipes, there is a common pressure drop P
for each pipe BCE or BDE. Therefore the flow rate Q1 through pipe BCE results in pressure drop P just as
the flow rate Q2 through pipe BDE results in the same pressure drop P . The equivalent pipe of length Le
and diameter De must also have the same drop P at the total flow Q, in order to completely replace the two
pipe loops. Using this principle, and noting the pressure versus diameter relationship from the General Flow
equation, we can calculate the equivalent diameter De based on setting Le equal to the length of one of the
loops BCE or BDE.
Another approach to solving the flows and pressures in a looped system is to calculate the flows Q1 and Q2
based on the fact that the flows should total Q and the fact that there is a common pressure drop P across
the two parallel segments.
Using the General Flow equation, for common P, we can state that
L1Q12 L2Q22
=
D15
D25
(3.5)
44
Where L1 and L2 are the two pipe segment lengths for BCE and BDE and D1 and D2 are the corresponding
inside diameters.
Simplifying the preceding equation, we get.
Q1 L2
=
Q2 L1
0.5
D1
D2
2.5
(3.6)
Also
Q = Q1 + Q2
(3.7)
Using the two preceding equations, we can solve for the two flows Q1 and Q2. Once we know these flow
rates, the pressure drop in each of the pipe loops BCE or BDE can be calculated.
Looping a gas pipeline:

Looping a gas pipeline effectively increases the pipe diameter, and hence results in increased throughput
capability. If a 50 mile section of NPS 16 pipeline, 0.250 inch wall thickness is looped using an identical pipe
size, the equivalent diameter De and length Le are related as follows from equation (3.5)
Le Q 2
De5
L1Q12 L2Q22
=
=
D15
D25
(3.8)
By setting the length L1, L2 and Le to equal 50 miles, the equivalent diameter De may be calculated, using
Eq. (3.6) and (3.7), after some simplification as follows:
D 2.5
5
5
De = D2 1 + 1
D2
(3.9)
Since the loop diameters are the same, D1 = D2 = 15.5 in

Solving for the equivalent diameter, we get
15.5 2.5
D = 15.5 1 +

15.5
5
e
(3.10)
Or De = 20.45 in.
Compared to the unlooped pipe, the looped pipeline will have an increased capacity of approximately
QL/Q = (20.45/15.5)2.5 = 2.0
45
We have thus demonstrated that by looping the pipeline the throughput can be increased to twice the original
value. Suppose instead of looping the NPS 16 pipe with an identical diameter pipe, we looped it with NPS 20
pipe with a wall thickness of 0.375 inch, the equivalent diameter becomes
De = 23.13 inch
And the increased capacity ratio becomes
QL/Q = (23.13/15.5)2.5 = 2.72
Thus by looping the NPS 16 pipe with a NPS 20 pipe, the capacity can be increased to 2.72 times the
original throughput. This method of increasing pipeline capacity by looping involves initial capital investment
but no increased HP such as that when we install a compressor. Thus we can compare the cost of looping a
pipeline with installing additional compressor stations.
4. Compressor Stations and HP

Compressor stations provide the pressure required to transport the gas in a pipeline from one location to
another. Suppose that a 20 mile long pipeline requires 1000 psig pressure at the pipe inlet A to deliver the
gas at 100 MMSCFD flow rate to the terminus B at 900 psig. If the gas at A is at 800 psig pressure, it
needs to be compressed to 1000 psig using a compressor located at A. The compressor is said to provide a
compression ratio of
1000 + 14.7
800 + 14.7
= 1.25. Note that pressures must be converted to the absolute
pressures and hence the reason for adding 14.7, the base pressure, to the given pressures. We say that the
compressor suction pressure is 814.7 psia and the discharge pressure is 1014.7 psia. Suppose the gas inlet
temperature on the compressor suction side is 80 F.
Because of the compression process, the gas
temperature at the compressor discharge will increase, just like the discharge pressure. If the compression
process is adiabatic or isentropic, pressure versus volume will obey the adiabatic compression equation as
follows
PV = constant
(4.1)
Where is the ratio of the specific heats (Cp/Cv) of the gas. This ratio is approximately 1.29 for natural gas.
Using the above equation in conjunction with the ideal gas equation, we can write a relationship between the
pressure P and the temperature T for the compression process, as follows
46
T = Constant
(4.2)
If the suction conditions are represented by the subscript 1 and the discharge conditions by the subscript 2,
the discharge temperature of the compressed gas can be calculated as follows
T2 P2
=
T1 P1
(4.3)
Where all temperatures are in
R and the pressures are in psia.
Taking into account the compressibility of the gas, the temperature ratio above becomes
T2
T1
Z1
=
Z2
P2
P1
(4.4)
Where Z1 and Z2 are gas compressibility factors at suction and discharge conditions, respectively.
When the compression process is polytropic, we use the polytropic coefficient n instead of g and the
temperature ratio then becomes
T2
T1
Z1
=
Z2
P2
P1
n 1
n
(4.5)
Horsepower required
The compressors compress the natural gas and raises its pressure (and its temperature ) to the level
required to ensure that the gas will be transported from point A to point B, such that the required outlet
pressure can be maintained. The higher the outlet pressure at B, the higher will be the pressure required at
A. This will cause the compressors to work harder. The energy input to the gas by the compressors will
depend upon the compression ratio and gas flow rate, among other factors. From the energy input to the
gas, we can calculate the horsepower (HP) needed.
The following equation may be used to calculate the compressor HP.

Z + Z 2 1
QT1 1
HP = 0.0857
2 a
1
P2

P1
Where
HP
= compression horsepower
= Cp/Cv the ratio of specific heats of gas

47
(4.6)
= gas flow rate, MMSCFD
T1
= suction temperature of gas, R
P1
=suction pressure of gas, psia
P2
= discharge pressure of gas, psia
Z1
= compressibility of gas at suction conditions, dimensionless
Z2
= compressibility of gas at discharge conditions, dimensionless
= compressor adiabatic (isentropic) efficiency, decimal value
In SI units, the compressor Power required is as follows

Z + Z2
QT1 1
Power = 4.0639
2
1
P2

P1
(4.7)
Where
Power = compression Power, kW
Q
= gas flow rate, Mm3/day
T1
= suction temperature of gas, K
P1
= suction pressure of gas, kPa
P2
= discharge pressure of gas, kPa
Other symbols are the same as defined previously.

The adiabatic efficiency, also called the isentropic efficiency, is approximately 0.75 to 0.85. Taking into
account a mechanical efficiency m of the compressor driver, the Brake Horsepower (BHP) required may be
calculated as follows
BHP =
HP
(4.8)
The mechanical efficiency m of the driver generally varies from 0.95 to 0.98. By multiplying the two
efficiencies, we get the overall efficiency o as follows
o = a x m
(4.9)
The adiabatic efficiency can be calculated, knowing the actual discharge temperature of the gas, suction and
discharge pressures and the compressibility factors, using the following equation.
48
T1 Z1 P2
1
a =
T
T
2 1 Z 2 P1
(4.10)
Suppose the inlet temperature of the gas at the compressor suction is 70 F and the suction and discharge
pressures are 900 psia and 1200 psia respectively. If the compressor discharge temperature is 250 F, the
compressor adiabatic efficiency may be calculated using the preceding equation. Assuming = 1.4 and the
compressibility factors as Z1 = 1.0 and Z2 = 0.85
1.4 1
70 + 460 1.0 1200 1.4

a =
1

250 70 0.85 900
= 0.8164
Example 14
Calculate the compression HP required to adiabatically compress natural gas at 100 MMCFD, starting at an
inlet temperature of 80 F and 800 psia pressure. The compression ratio is 1.6 and the gas compressibility
factor at suction and discharge conditions are Z1 = 1.0 and Z2 = 0.85 and the ratio of specific heats of the
gas is = 1.4. Consider the compressor adiabatic efficiency a = 0.8. What is the BHP required, for a
mechanical efficiency of 0.98?
Solutions
From Eq. (4.6), the horsepower can be calculated as
0.40
1.40
1 + 0.85 1
HP = 0.0857 100
(80 + 460)
(1.6 )1.40 1
0.40
2 0.8
=2692
The driver BHP required is calculated from Eq. (4.8) as

BHP =
2692
= 2747
0.98
So far we examined a pipeline with one compressor station at the beginning of the pipeline. Consider a 120
mile long pipeline, NPS 18, 0.375 in. wall thickness from Beaumont to Denver, transporting 300 MMSCFD
49
Suppose calculations showed that the pressure required at Beaumont is 1800 psig based on application of
the General Flow equation, to provide a delivery pressure of 800 psig at the Denver terminus.
This is illustrated in Fig 4.1
1800 psig
1400 psig
1400 psig
1000 psig
800 psig
Flow
Beaumont
Grover
Distance
Denver
NPS 18 pipeline 120 miles long

Figure 4.1 Compressor stations required
If the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) of the pipeline is limited to 1400 psig, we cannot just
install one compressor station at the beginning to provide the necessary pressure, since the 1800 psig is
beyond the pipe MAOP. Therefore, by installing an additional intermediate compressor station at Grover, as
shown in the figure, we can keep each compressor station discharge pressure at the MAOP limit. The
location of the Grover compressor station will depend upon the MAOP, the allowable compression ratio and
the suction pressure. One approach is to calculate the distance x between Grover and Denver, such that
starting at 1400 psig at Grover, the gas outlet pressure at Denver is exactly 800 psig. We would apply the
General Flow equation to the x mile length of pipe with upstream pressure set at P1 = (1400 + 14.7) psia and
downstream pressure P2 = (800 +14.7) psia. Having calculated the value of x and hence the location of
Grover, we must calculate the suction pressure at Grover, by considering the pipe segment between
Beaumont and Grover. If the suction pressure at Grover is too low, the compression ratio for the Grover
compressor will be too high. Generally the compression ratio is limited to 1.2 to 1.8 for centrifugal
compressors. If the suction pressure at Grover is too low, we will have to consider installing 2 intermediate
50
compressors instead of one at Grover. These two compressor stations will be located such that the suction
pressures do not fall too low and the compression ratio is within limits.
51
5. Strength of Pipe
In earlier sections of this course, we calculated the pressures and flow rates in a natural gas pipeline. Using
the flow equations, we calculated the minimum pressure required to transport gas at a certain flow rate and
temperature from one point to another. The pipe used for transportation of gas should be able to withstand
the necessary internal pressure. The internal pressure in a pipe is limited to what the pipe material and wall
thickness can withstand at a certain temperature. As the pipe pressure is increased, the stress in the pipe
material increases. Ultimately, at some internal pressure the pipe will rupture. Therefore for each pipe size
and wall thickness, depending upon the pipe material, there is a safe internal pressure beyond which it is not
advisable to operate the pipeline. This is known as the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP),
sometimes shortened to maximum operating pressure(MOP). There are two stresses developed in a pipe
wall due to internal pressure. The larger of the two is called the hoop stress and acts in the circumferential
direction. The second is the axial or longitudinal stress that acts along the axial direction. The axial stress is
one-half the magnitude of the hoop stress. This is illustrated in the Fig. 5.1
s - Sa
t re s
S
l
a
Axi
S
ial
x
A
ss
tre
a
-S
Pressure - P
Sh
re s
p St
Hoo
s - Sh
Diameter - D
Fig 5.1 Pipe stresses due to internal pressure
The allowable internal pressure can be easily calculated using the Barlows equation as follows.
Sh =
PD
2t
(5.1)
52
where
Sh
= allowable hoop stress in pipe, psig
= allowable internal pressure, psig
= pipe outside diameter, in.
= pipe wall thickness, in.
Even though the Barlows equation is for calculating the hoop stress in the pipe for a given internal pressure,
we can easily re-arrange the equation to solve for the pressure P.
P=
2tS h
D
(5.2)
Thus for an NPS 20 pipe, 0.500 in. wall thickness, if the allowable hoop stress is limited to 30,000 psig, the
allowable internal pressure is
P=
2 0.5 30,000
= 1500 psig
20
The longitudinal stress, Sa can be calculated from a similar equation as follows
Sa =
PD
4t
(5.3)
It must be noted that unlike the General Flow equation or other flow equations, the diameter used here is the
outside diameter, not the inside diameter. In practice, to calculate the internal design pressure for a gas
pipeline, we modify the Barlows equation slightly by introducing some factors that depend upon the pipeline
manufacturing method, operating temperature and the class location of the pipeline. The modified equation
is as follows.
P=
2tSEFT
D
(5.4)
where
P
= internal design pressure, psig
= outside diameter of pipe, in.
= pipe wall thickness, in.
= Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS) of pipe material, psig
= seam joint factor, 1.0 for seamless and Submerged Arc Welded (SAW) pipes.
53
= design factor, usually 0.72 for cross country gas pipelines, but may be as low as 0.4 depending
upon class location and type of construction.
O
= temperature deration factor = 1.00 for temperatures below 250 F
For further details on the above internal design pressure equation, refer to the DOT 49 CFR part 192 or
ASME B31.8 standard. The design factor F depends upon the population density and dwellings in the vicinity
of the pipeline.
Class locations 1 through 4 are defined by DOT based on the population density.
Accordingly the values for F are as shown in Table 2
Table 2 Design factor

Class location
1
2
3
4
Design factor, F
0.72
0.60
0.50
0.40
The following definitions for Class locations are taken from the DOT 49 CFR Part 192 code:
The class location unit (CLU) is defined as an area that extends 220 yards on either side of the centerline of
a one mile section of pipe. Offshore gas pipelines are known as Class 1 locations. For onshore pipelines,
any class location unit with 10 or fewer buildings intended for human occupancy is termed Class 1. Class 2
locations are defined as those areas with more than 10 but less than 46 buildings intended for human
occupancy. Class 3 locations are defined for areas that have 46 or more buildings intended for human
occupancy or an area where the pipeline is within 100 yards of a building or a playground, recreation area,
outdoor theatre or other place of public assembly that is occupied by 20 or more people on at least five days
a week for ten weeks in any 12 month period. The days and weeks needed not be consecutive.
Class 4
locations are defined for areas with multi-story buildings, such as four or more stories above ground.
The temperature deration factor T, used in Eq. (5.4) is equal to 1.00 as long as the temperature of the gas in
the pipe does not exceed 250OF. At higher temperatures a value of T less than 1.00 is used as indicated in
Table 3
54
Table 3 Temperature deration factor

Temperature
O
F
250 or less
300
350
400
450
Derating Factor T
O
C
121 or less
149
177
204
232
1.000
0.967
0.033
0.900
0.867
Strictly speaking, Barlows equation is correct only for thin walled cylindrical pipes. For thick walled pipes a
different formula must be used. In practice, however, most gas pipelines fall within the category of thin
walled pipes.
Example 15
A gas pipeline, NPS 20 is operated at an internal pressure of 1200 psig. The yield strength of the pipe
material is 52,000 psig. Calculate the minimum wall thickness required for operation, below 200 F
Solution
From Eq. (5.4), assuming a design factor of 0.72 and temperature derating factor of 1.00, the pipe wall
thickness is calculated as
t=
1200 20
= 0.3205 in.
2 52000 0.72 1.0
Steel pipe material used in gas pipelines are manufactured in accordance with API specifications 5L and
5LX. Several grades designated as X-42, X-52, etc are used. These designations refer to the SMYS of the
pipe material. For example, X-42 steel has an SMYS of 42,000 psig, whereas X-52 has an SMYS of 52,000
psig. Other grades commonly used are X-60, X-65 and X-70. In some cases for low pressure applications,
API 5L grade B pipe with SMYS of 35,000 psig is used.
55
Example 16
A natural gas pipeline, NPS 16 0.250 in. wall thickness, is constructed of API 5L X 70 steel pipe. Calculate
the MOP of this pipeline for the various DOT class locations. Assume temperature deration factor = 1.00
Solution
Using Eq. (5.4) the MOP is given by
P=
2 0.250 70000 1.0 0.72 1.0

= 1575 psig for class 1
16
Repeating calculations, by proportions, for the various class locations

For Class 2, MOP = 1575
0. 6
= 1312.5 psig
0.72
Class 3, MOP = 1575
0.5
= 1093.75 psig
0.72
Class 4, MOP = 1575
0. 4
= 875 psig
0.72
In order to ensure that a pipeline may be operated safely at a certain MOP, before putting it into service, it
must be hydrostatically tested to a higher pressure and held at that pressure for a specified period of time,
without any leaks or rupture of pipe. The magnitude of the hydrotest pressure is usually 125 percent of the
operating pressure. Therefore if the MOP is 1000 psig, the pipeline will be hydrotested to a minimum
pressure of 1250 psig. Considering a design factor of 0.72, the operation of a pipeline at the MOP will result
in the hoop stress reaching 72% of the SMYS. Since the hydrotest pressure is 125 percent of the MOP, the
corresponding hoop stress in the pipe during the testing will be 1.25 times 72% or 90% of SMYS. Usually,
the hydrotest envelope is such that the hoop stress is between 90% and 95% of the SMYS. Thus, if the MOP
is 1000 psig, the hydrotest envelope will be between 1250 psig and 1319 psig. For buried pipelines, the
hydrotest pressure is held constant for a period of 8 hours and it is thoroughly checked for leaks. For above
ground pipelines, the hydrotest period is 4 hours.
Frequently, in gas pipeline hydraulics, we are interested in knowing the quantity of pipe required for a project.
There is a simple formula for calculating the weight of pipe per unit length of pipe. For a given pipe of outside
diameter D and wall thickness t, the weight per foot of pipe is given by
56
w = 10.68 t (D-t)
(5.5)
where D and t are in inches and w is in lb/ft.

For example, a 20 mile pipeline, NPS 20 with 0.500 in wall thickness has a total pipe weight of
W = 20 x 5280 x 10.68 x 0.500 x (20-0.5) = 10,996,128 lb or 5,498 tons
Summary
In this course we addressed the hydraulics of compressible fluids such as natural gases. First we introduced
the relevant properties of gas that affect pipeline hydraulics. Next, the methods of calculating pressures and
flow rates in a natural gas pipeline was analyzed, with reference to several popular equations of gas flow.
We compared the various flow equations and found some were more conservative than others. Using the
pressure calculated, the compressor HP was estimated. The need for installing additional intermediate
compressor stations, based on allowable pipe pressures was explained. Methods of increasing pipeline
throughput were discussed. The strength requirement of pipes to withstand the internal pressure was
reviewed using the Barlows equation.
57
References
1. Pipeline Engineering, 2003, CRC Press, Florida, Henry Liu
2. Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings and Pipe, 1976, Crane Company, New York
3. Fundamentals of Pipe Flow, 1980, John Wiley and Sons, New York, Robert P. Benedict
4. The Properties of Petroleum Fluids, 1973, Petroleum Publishing Company, Tulsa, William D. McCain, Jr.
5. Engineering Data Book, Tenth Edition, 1994, Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
58

Liquid and Gas Pipeline Hydraulics

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Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics

Introduction to Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics

specific gravity and viscosity on pump

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Mass is the amount of

matter contained in a substance. It is sometimes interchangeably

used in place of weight.

Weight however, is a vector quantity and depends upon the

In SI or Metric units, mass is measured in

For the purpose of discussion in this course, when lb is used, it is

intended to mean lbm.

Volume is the space occupied

mass. It depends upon temperature and

petroleum industry, sometimes density is expressed in lb/bbl. In SI or Metric units, density

The term specific weight is also sometimes used with liquids. It is

calculated by dividing the weight by the volume.

we calculate the specific

Since density decreases with temperature rise, the specific

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Specific gravity Sg = 141.5/(131.5 +API)

API = 141.5/Sg - 131.5

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Figure 1.1 Velocity variation in pipe flow

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In USCS units is stated in ft2/s and in SI units, it is expressed in m2/s,

When dealing with petroleum products, kinematic viscosity in cSt is used

SSU stands for Saybolt Universal

for 32 SSU 100

for SSU > 100

for 25 < SSF 40

for SSU > 40

For example, a viscosity of 200 SSU can be converted to cSt as follows:

Where is the viscosity in cSt at an absolute temperature T. The absolute temperature is

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November 24, 2005

The vapor pressure of a liquid increases with increase in

Bulk Modulus of a liquid is a measure of the compressibility of the liquid. It is defined as

where V is the volume change for a pressure change of P.

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November 24, 2005

The following formulas are used to calculate the

isothermal and adiabatic bulk modulus.

D(API) E(API) + F(T)(API)

where constants A through F are defined as follows:

where constants A through E are defined as follows:

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Ka = 1.286x10 + 13.55 (1000) 4.122x10 (80+460)

4.53x10 (35) 10.59(35) +

Similarly, The isothermal bulk modulus is

Ki = 2.619 x 10 + 9.203 x 1000 1.417 x 10 (80+460)

Substituting the values of A through E, we get

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2. Pressure Drop Due To Friction

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Some conversions between USCS and SI units should be noted:

Thus a liquid head of 100 ft is equivalent to a pressure of