Peltier.

21 February 2014
Taylor R. Peltier
WFS 446
Pennsylvania State University
State College, PA, 16801
Tel.: +1 2676640656
Email: txp5106@psu.edu
RH: Peltier. Management of Orca Pods
Demographics and Management of Resident Orcas in British Columbia
TAYLOR R.PELTIER1, Pennsylvania State University, PA 16801, USA
1

Corresponding author: txp5106@psu.edu

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Orcas, Orcinus orca, are toothed whales belonging to the oceanic dolphin family. This
demographic report focuses on a sub population found in Northern British Colombia, but orcas
are found globally in all oceans ranging from the poles to the tropics. Abundance estimates for
the entire species remain around 50,000 individuals. The species is considered an apex predator
and has a wide and varied diet from marine mammals such as pinnipeds to sharks and salmon.
Orcas are considered highly social, using vocalizations to communicate and coordinate hunts.
Their social groups are matriarchal and depend on experienced older females. Due to their
distinctive black and white markings, orcas are easily identifiable as a species and from saddle
variation as individuals. (Ford) (Ellis)
Due to the possibility that orcas could be distinguished as more than one species, the
IUCN Red List has listed orcas as data deficient. Orcas are considered common in British
Colombia with around 500 killer whales. Orcas in Canada are currently not protected by the
Canadian Government. (Orcinus)

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DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
The killer whales located in British Colombia can be divided into three distinct groups.
These sympatric groups include transients ( whales that eat marine mammals and move from
place to place), off shores ( pelagic killer whales) and resident whales (whales that live in a
specific area and rely on Chinook salmon for food.) The orcas studied in this report are resident
killer whales that comprise of roughly of 300 individuals. (Ford ) Orcas exhibit deterministic
growth, therefore the life cycle of the species should be described by an age class system.
Orcas reach their maximum size by 20 years old and then do not continue to go, therefore, their
life cycle must be described on an age basis. (Orcinus) (Ford)
Resident pods are non-migratory and remain in natal pods for life. Mean pod size is 9.7
individuals in the northern region and 20 individuals in the southern. (Ellis)Pods can be split up
into age classes of juveniles, mature males, reproductive females and post reproductive females.
The demographics of the British Colombia pods of orcas are as follows: 50% juveniles, 19%
mature males, 21% reproductive females, 10% post reproductive females. (Ford) The population
is currently stable below the carrying capacity and continues to grow at an annual rate of 2.92%.
(Ford)
Killer whales reproduce slowly. Most females in British Colombia produce around 5-6
calves over their 72 81 years of lifetime. Females breed over 2-12 intervals, with 5.86 as the
mean years spent between births. This explains why killer whales may only produce 5 or 6
offspring over the course of their lifetimes, because their breeding window is only 30 years,
which is just small fraction to the longevity of females lifetimes. (Olesuik) Females becoming
sexually mature between the ages of 12 and 16 with their first successful reproduction occurring

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by the mean age of 14.3. Often, first born calves do not survive to be considered viable, or .5
years old and therefore are unlikely to be observed. (Ford)
Calf life expectancy generally increases with the age of the mother. Older, more
experienced mothers are typically more successful. 43% of calves born in a given year will not
survive to the following year. (Ford )Calves with older mothers are less likely to succumb to
predators and starvation. The majority of these calves are born between October and April.
Typically, killer whales only reproduce one calf at a time, although around 2% of births result in
the occurrence of twins, much like the human likelihood of twins. These birth rates are derived
from direct birth observance, neonatal strandings and the appearance of new-borns seen
consecutively by observers. (Olesuik)
After reaching sexual maturity, half of the females will make it past the age of 35. Once
females reach 35, they are less likely than pre 35 year olds to perish.(Ford) Although killer
whales have no natural predators, they still experience mortality. Mortality past a certain age is
often a result of human interference, exposure to pollutants and toxins, disease, echolocation
confusion that leads to strandings and injury. (Ford) (Ellis)

MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS
It has been discussed among scientists to have a harvest rate implemented on killer
whales in British Colombia. In B.C. killer whales are considered common and numerous. A
recent demographic study indicates that a maximum, non-selection harvest of 2.83% of the
population could be sustained. (Ford) This is a management question that could be explored
further. Regulations would need to be put into place to prevent overexploitation. It is important

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to note that exploitation of killer whales may affect their behavior and coastal patterns. Resident
pods may turn transient if they are suddenly hunted and harvested. Killer whales are intelligent
creatures with the second largest marine brain, next to the sperm whale. Implications of harvest
would need to be further explored. (Olesuik)
Another management option that could be explored is the re-introduction of captive
whales from aquariums and sea pens. Initially, the shear numbers added to the population would
increase population abundance. Effects of the captive whales on the wild type whales would need
to be explored. Captive raised whales may seek out humans for food and interaction instead of
integrating into a wild pod. This would put captive whales at risk for increased mortality and
injury. Captive whales if integrated may also lack the experience needed to raise a calf, and
therefore after breeding may increase birth rates but decrease survivability of juveniles. (Ford)

LITERATURE CITED

Ford, J. Northern Resident Killer Whales of British Columbia: Photo-identification Catalogue

and Population Status to 2010. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
2942.
Ford, J., & Ellis, G. (2000). Killer whales: The natural history and genealogy of Orinus orca in
British Columbia and Washington (2nd ed.). Vancouver: UBC Press ;.
Olesuik, P. (n.d.). Life History and Population Dynamics of Resident Killer Whales in the
Coastal Waters of British Colombia and Washington State. REP. INT. WHALE. COMM, 12.

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Orcinus orca. (n.d.). Retrieved February 23, 2015, from

http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/15421/0
Associate Editor:
FIGURES
Figure 1.

120
100
80

Percentages of Individuals that survive to the following year

60
40
20
0

Age in years

FIGURES CAPTIONS
Figure 1. Survival rates by year for resident killer whales located in British Colombia between
the years of 0 to 85 across 10 years of study starting in 2000. Orca mortality rate is 43% within
the first year and generally decreases until they reach senescence. Post reproductive females live
for many decades after menopause, some into their 80s and 90s. The oldest living killer whale in
the British Colombian waters is estimated to be 103 years old, nick named Granny.