Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
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Abstract
Urban Ecology is introduced in an historical context, and an account is given of its development in concept and practice as a
pioneering research venture in an international UN programme. The basic components of a paradigm for urban ecosystems are
presented, ranging from the most quantifiable variables such as energy and materials flows, to the most intangible and
unquantifiable such as psychosocial aspects. Examples of interdisciplinary, integrative and problem-oriented ecological research
are given on urban systems, on urban/hinterland interrelationships and on nature and biological diversity in urban, periurban and
industrial systems. Special emphasis is placed on the role, functions and benefits of nature in Cities, and on the need for regional
and interregional scientific cooperation and for reducing the North/South gap in research and training in these fields in a world
confronting burgeoning urbanisation. An extensive, albeit little known multilingual international bibliography is provided.
Rsum
Le contexte historique de l'cologie urbaine est prsent ainsi que son dveloppement en concept et en pratique, dans le cadre
d'un programme international de recherche pionnier sous l'gide des Nations- Unies. Les lments de base d'un paradigme des
cosystmes urbains sont voqus, depuis les variables les plus quantifiables tels que l'nergie et les flux de matriaux
jusqu'aux plus intangibles et inquantifiables tels que les aspects psychosociaux. Des exemples de recherche en cologie
interdisciplinaire, intgre et applique concernant les systmes urbains, les interrelations villes - "hinterlands" la nature et la
biodiversit urbaines, pri-urbaines, industrielles sont prsents. Mention particulire est faite du rle, des fonctions et des
bnfices de la nature en ville, ainsi que du besoin d'une coopration scientifique rgionale et interrgionale, notamment pour
rduire le foss Nord-Sud en matire de recherche et de formation, dans un monde confront une urbanisation croissante. Une
importante bibliographie peu connue, multilingue, et internationale est fournie.
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context within part of the conservation community. This can be seen in guides
and posters in which nature is presented without the presence of humans,
particularly in Europe. Despite this, history shows the long influence humans
have had over nature (UNESCO, 1981). About 8000 years ago,
Mediterranean vegetation was already considerably modified by humans.
Some 4000 years ago, massive deforestation took place in China. By five
centuries ago, vast expanses of European temperate forests had been converted
into agricultural land. A century ago, North American forest ecosystems were
already largely transformed by human activity. In recent decades, profound
changes have affected tropical forests and related ecosystems and the people
that inhabit them, and these proceed today at an accelerated pace.
This long standing trend suggests that we should exercise considerable
prudence and flexibility when using terms such as "natural", "semi-natural" and
"artificial" habitats. Professor A. GOMEZ-POMPA of the
University of
California at Berkeley (personal communication) states this very clearly in his
field studies of tropical rainforests in Mexico and Central America, in which
he has found in areas thought to be "pristine" and "virgin", vestiges of ancient
(to relatively recent) human occupation and transformation, including
pre-Columbian cities, as well as the presence of introduced species.
In our examination of the relationship between cities including their
biological diversity and their natural and rural hinterlands, it thus appears
necessary to take into consideration the historical dimension of human
occupation, as well as land and resource use patterns through time. The
Mediterranean basin is a classical and readily accessible example of such
historical imprint (UNESCO, 1981). In this context, landscape ecology becomes
a useful tool for the integration of interacting systems. The history of human
settlements goes along with the evolution of the landscape in which Nature,
Culture and Society constitute an inseparable blend (CELECIA, 1995).
The occurrence and distribution of biological diversity in cities historically
has received mostly sporadic and dispersed attention, since most biologists
have considered that these highly human-dominated systems did not merit
much attention as compared, for example, with more natural, "pristine"
environments, ranging from tropical rain forests to high altitude mountain
tundras. The same can for example be applied, to soils ; examination of maps
dating from the beginning of this century shows that soils in urban, periurban
and industrial systems have received either pedological or edaphological
attention only relatively recently (CELECIA, 1992; BULLOCK & GREGORY,
1991; Hollis, 1992; Phillipson, 1989).
Increasing attention is, however, being given to restoration, recovery,
recreation or rehabilitation of nature in cities (ADAMS & DOVE, 1987; BARKER
& Graf, 1989; Comit MAB Espafiol, 1989; Dean, 1989; Gill & Bonnett,
1973; Goode, 1993; Harrison et ai, 1995; Johnston, 1987; Leclerq, 1974;
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and its environment by means of applied research. With respect to cities, the
MAB Programme fosters an ecological approach to the study of urban systems
as a basis for planning and management. In a twenty year span, over 1 00 field
projects have been carried out, a number of them in cooperation with the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in cities and other human
settlements in various regions of the world covering a wide range of biogeographical, bioclimatic, social, economic, political, cultural and development
situations (SPOONER, 1986): Barcelona, Berlin, Brussels, Frankfurt, Gotland
in Sweden, Hong Kong and Rome, among others (BOYDEN, 1976, 1979;
Celecia, 1987, 1990; Duvigneaud, 1975; Giacomini, 1981; Zucchetto &
JANSSON, 1988; PARS et ai, 1985;VESTER, 1976). Particular attention has
been given to the relationship between urban, peri-urban and industrial
systems and their hinterlands in an attempt to harmonize regional planning with
urban development, including the sustained use and conservation of natural
resources. Recently, and in consideration of UNESCO's role in Agenda 21
and in connection with the Convention on Biological Diversity (Diverditad,
1996; UNESCO, 1994), special consideration has also been given to the
conservation and protection of biological diversity (including in cities), as well
as to the diversity of biotopes, ecosystems and landscapes (UNESCO, 1994,
1995, 1996), the latter representing the inextricable blend of nature and
culture (Celecia, 1995).
Earlier work had set the stage for such integrated research (MUMFORD,
1963; STEARNS & Montag, 1974) at a time when the ecological sciences were
still strongly dominated by bioecologists who did not hide their scepticism and
even contumely towards multiple attempts to develop the basis for human and
urban ecology. Since energy and energy systems are at the heart of urban
ecological problems (BOYDEN, 1976), the energy crisis of the mid-1970's did
much to awaken people to the urban/industrial dilemma (BOYDEN, 1979;
ZUCCHETTO & JANSSON, 1985). It also stimulated the search for alternatives
in approaches to improving knowledge and understanding of such complex
systems (NEWCOMBE, 1983).
The ecological approach (Celecia, 1987, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996) considers
that the city, just as other ecosystems, is characterized by its structure and
function, including both biotic and abiotic components, and the cycling and
conversion of energy and materials. Cities also have their own spatial
organization and distinctive patterns of change through time, which result in
patterns of species behaviour, populations dynamics and the formation of various
communities, each of which is specific to the urban environment. Certain
characteristics of the urban ecosystem are unique, when taken as a whole ; they
can be summarized as indicated below (BOYDEN & CELECIA, 1981; CELECIA,
1987, 1990, 1992, 1994; Duvigneaud, 1974; Mumford, 1963), along with
several other variables (CELECIA, 1987, 1994).
The urban ecosystem concentrates a high productivity of human outputd,
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JANSSON, 1985), with a consequent increase in demand for materials, the most
critical one being water, with an increasing use both in developing and
industrialised situations (LlNDH, 1985).
Urban systems, due to their high consumption levels of energy and
materials linked to unsustainable production and consumption patterns, are also
characterized by a didproportionate amount of wad te production. The system
itself is not able to deal with such amounts or only in part and they must
therefore be exported to be processed by the hinterlands, which are
themselves already affected by the enormous demand for energy and materials from
the urban and industrial systems. Once again it is the global hinterlands terrestrial, coastal or marine where most urban and industrial wastes are
dumped, as is evidenced by the exports of wastes from industrialized to
developing countries.
This dependency of urban areas on the hinterlands and the pattern of
consumption and demand make them unstable, fragile and highly vulnerable
dydtenid, from both the environmental, and social and economic viewpoints.
However, the most distinctive unique feature of the urban ecodydtem Id ltd
human component, its humanness. As a consequence, all the factors inherent
to the human population biological, social, psychological, economic, cultural
and political, among others must be taken into account. These are intangible
variables that are hard to qualify and difficult or impossible to quantify, such
as creative behaviour, the impression of security, the feeling of belonging, job
satisfaction, sense of goal, aesthetic considerations, etc. Experience has shown
that neglect of these and other aspects of human reality, so important for the
quality of the human environment and experience, can lead to mistaken
interpretations and conclusions on the nature of urban problems, and thus to
misguided planning and management (BOYDEN & CELECIA, 1981; BOYDEN et ai,
1981; GlACOMINI, 1981). Biosocial surveys have thus contributed
considerably to introducing the human factor into urban ecological projects. Moreover,
studies on the perception of the quality and conditions of the urban
environment concerning different actors in the urban setting, ranging from children to
planners, have become valuable tools to adjust approaches to real-life
situations (Bonnes, 1986, 1987, 1991, 1993; Bonnes & Sacchiarolli, 1995;
Millward & Mostyn, 1989; Mostyn, 1979; Rohde, & Kendle, 1995).
Studies of perception have also contributed to the establishment of strategies
for public awareness, environmental education and, most importantly, public
participation at all levels of the population (OST et ai, 1993; WayBURN &
Celecia, 1988).
Of course, this compilation represents the urban situation that has
developed rapidly in the second half of this century, in an accelerated process which
parallels that of the global environmental crisis (CELECIA, 1987, 1994, 1996).
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Biological diversity plays a crucial role in all situations, from the most
natural to the most human-dominated:
Providing food, construction material, raw materials for industry,
medicines;
Absorbing and breaking down pollutants, including organic wastes,
pesticides, heavy metals;
Recharging groundwater, protecting catchment basins and
buffering extreme water conditions;
Producing soil and protecting it from excessive erosion;
Providing the basis for improvements to domesticated plants and
animals;
Storing and cycling nutrients essential for life (e.g. carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen and phosphorus).
Awareness-building and environmental education among urban and periurban populations should include information on the role of biodiversity so that
the human inhabitants of these areas can better appreciate and contribute to
nature and the conservation of nature in and around urban environments
(UNESCO, 1994).
The interdigitation and continuity of the natural and semi-natural spaces in
cities, which through appropriate planning and management, will connect
with natural and rural hinterlands, could include the network of linear
wildlife and cultivated habitats, such as canals and rivers, streams, hedgerows,
ditches, railroads and road verges, parks, gardens and allotment gardens.
These constitute remarkable habitats themselves, supporting a surprisingly
diverse flora and fauna (ADAMS, 1994; ADAMS & DOVE, 1989; DEAN, 1989;
Dinetti, 1994; Folch, 1996; Leedy et ai, 1978; Lopez-Moreno, 1991;
Miya^aki, 1996; NCC, 1987, 1990; Pisarski, 1982; Schmid, 1996; Sukopp,
1990). The re-creation of biotopes resembling autochthonous climax
vegetation communities has been successfully tested in temperate areas such as in
Japan, among other places (MlYAWAKI et ai, 1987; MlYAWAKI, 1996). The
urban environment thus can harbour a biological diversity which not only is
adapted to it, but which, due to changes in land use and agricultural
production, risks disappearing from the countryside, as exemplified in Rome where
patrician gardens have become havens for native species of flora and fauna
(BRUNO, 1984; GlACOMINl, 1981; GRAPOW, 1995). As far as interdigitation is
concerned, a classical European example can be seen in Copenhagen,
Denmark, also called the "Finger City", representing the physical integration
of urban development and green areas in long-term urban/regional planning.
Concerning research on the beneficial roles of vegetation in cities, the
relationship between urban vegetation and urban climate has been a topic of
considerable interest and international exchange among scientists and city
planners during the last thirty years, and within UNESCO's MAB
Programme since the 1980's. Such is the case of research in Dayton, Ohio in
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Aires) in Argentina; Central California Coast (San Francisco) in the United States of
America, to name a few. In every case, their management plans must make provisions for
the possible consequences that such proximity of urban areas implies. This is achieved
through a system of zoning which permits a range of uses from minimal intervention
i.e. a core zone which contains samples of representative ecosystems for scientific
observation and monitoring to increasing levels of human intervention and experimentation
on approaches to sustainable development for the benefit of local populations including
the enhancement of traditional systems of land and resource use, environmental
education and training, sustainable tourism and other practices in buffer and transition zones.
The Biosphere Reserve, with its evolutive and forward-looking concept and practice,
appears to be a valuable category of conservation area for considering urban zones as an
integral part of conservation units. Biosphere Reserves ensure a more integrated
regional approach to conservation planning and sustainable use of land and natural resources.
Such were the conclusions of a Scientific Consultation on "Cities, Protected Areas and
the Concept and Practice of Biosphere Reserves" jointly organized by the United
Kingdom MAB Urban Forum and UNESCO/MAB and held at the University of
Manchester in February, 1994, in which cities such as Barcelona, Berlin, London,
Manchester, Valencia and Warsaw were represented by scientists having participated
actively in MAB research in urban areas and in Biosphere Reserves (DOUGLAS, 1995).
NATURE AND CITIES WITH A HISTORY
The literature on the subject of nature in and around cities is surprisingly
abundant, and must constitute part of any thorough review of the history of
the natural sciences, including works by Carl von LlNN, Georges-Louis
LECLERQ DE BUFFON and Charles DARWIN, well-known naturalists, even to
the general public. In fact, it is not surprising that these notorious scientists
and many others reviewed by various recent authors (cf. dupra AYMONIN: 15,
JOLINON: 91, cf. infra MAURIN & HENRY: 333, LOURTEIG & JOVET: 505) have
made fascinating observations and discoveries in urban and periurban
environments, since they were intimately familiar with such areas. Detailed faunistic and floristic inventories, herbals and herbaria were produced two and
three centuries ago in Paris, London and other major European urban and
periurban settings. More recently, the work of Paul JOVET (1896-1991), of the
National Museum of Natural History in Paris, has contributed greatly to this
subject, as was brought to light in the special commemorative workshop held
on the centenary of his birthdate. JOVET's work includes inventory of the flora
and vegetation of Paris and its surroundings, and of a small botanical garden
in his residence in the outskirts of Paris, replicating representative biotopes in
the area, as well as of other parts of France. A complete listing of his rich
contributions was compiled by Anne- Elizabeth WOLF (cf. infra WOLF &
JOVET). A similarly important scientific heritage exists in many European
cities, and is in need of compilation, analysis and synthesis, as well as
comparisons on a regional basis, which would then provide the basis for examining
changes in the occurrence and distribution of plant and animal species,
populations and communities through time, and in relation with urban expansion,
land use and occupation, the introduction of exotic species, ecological
invasions, etc. (Barkers at,. 1994).
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It is true that inventories are an important component of our quest to
improve our knowledge and understanding of biodiversity. However, they are but
one of the many tools available for confronting this challenge, for trying to
assess how much we know about biodiversity and where the most important
gaps occur in our knowledge, and for determining how the monitoring of
biodiversity must be strengthened.
In fact, we are dealing here with an important component of our "natural"
or "ecological" capital, for which we have direct responsibility because of its
relation to the living conditions and even the survival of present and future
generations. It follows then, and as indicated in previous sections, that the
"open" character of the city as an ecosystem is important and should motivate
urban, regional and land use planners to ensure a continuum between cities
and their rural and natural hinterlands. This strategy would not only serve
nature conservation but also would help citizens realise that the city is an
integral part of the region in which it is located, and on which they depend.
The value of nature in and around urban areas has to date, been mainly
expressed in scientific, ethical, aesthetical, educational, health, functional,
economic, recreational and perceptual terms. We have also learned to express
it now in terms of need, access, human rights, multisensorial experience,
therapy, contentment, well-being social exchange, communication, identity,
historical and cultural heritage, spirituality and peace.
Conservation has ceased to be merely an altruistic ideal or a luxury resulting
from a romantisized, sentimentalized notion of nature. It has become a need
and an essential component of integrated management plans seeking the
sustainable use of land and natural resources, in which cities constitute a major
and growing concern. However, we are also aware of the scarcity or, as it
occurs dramatically in the developing world, even the paucity of qualified
human resources and institutional structures to fill the recognized gaps of
knowledge. Ironically, the number of trained personnel in developing
countries to undertake studies on biological diversity is inversely proportional
to species richness in such countries (UNEP, 1996). Already there are serious
limitations to the study of biodiversity in critical ecosystems (e.g. humid
tropics), and local institutions and authorities in many cases can not
reasonably be expected to undertake priority studies of nature and biological
diversity in situations of burgeoning urbanization with dramatic human needs, in
which planning and management take place in a chronic state of crisis
(Celecia, 1987).
The scarcity or paucity of human resources in life sciences and ecology in
biodiversity-rich developing countries can also be seen in botanic gardens
(Planta Europa Proceedings, 1995). The 15 countries of the European Union
have 367 such gardens, whereas the USA has 240, the 15 countries of the
former USSR 157, and the 17 countries comprising the rest of Europe 148. There
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and Untermain Regional Planning Council.
VlDA G., 1996. General Considerations on the Biodiversity of Urban and Peri-urban
Environments, in di Castri, F. & Youns T. (eds.), Biodiversity, Science and Development:
Towards a New Partnership, Wallingford, Oxon, UK, CAB International (in association
with the International Union of Biological Sciences, IUBS, Paris): 581-583.
VON Stulpnagel P., HORBERT M. & SUKOPP H., 1990. - The Importance of Vegetation for
Urban Climate, Urban Ecology.175-193.
WAYBURN L. & CELECIA J., 1988. - Cities for People, in Yanitski O. (d.), Cities and
Ecobgy, Volume 2, Moscow, Nauka (Russian version published in 1987): 117-121.
World Monitoring Conservation Centre (WCMC), 1992. - Global Biodiversity:
Status of the Earth's Living Ressources, London, U.K., Chapmann & Hall, 594 pp.
ZUCHETTO J. & JANSSON A.M., 1985. - Resources and Society. A systems Ecobgy Study of
the Isbnd of Gotbnd, Sweden, Ecological Studies 5, Berlin, Springer- Verlag.
DISCUSSION
Andr GuiLLERME **
Je rejoins tout fait John CELECIA sur la ncessit d'avoir une perspective
de longue dure, cyclique ou non concernant l'cosystme "ville". Mais je
voudrais revenir sur la question des sols, qui me semble fondamentale dans notre
socit contemporaine, et qu'il s'agisse d'espaces urbains, pri-urbains ou en
pleine urbanisation. Je pense aux problmes lis l'impermabilisation des
sols, aux remontes de nappe et aux inondations : aujourd'hui, les ingnieurs
contrlent trs bien le flux des rivires, mais on contrle beaucoup moins les
inondations provenant de l'intrieur du sol et provoques par
l'impermabilisation. Paris est un exemple bien connu : entre 1800 et 1995, le taux
d'impermabilisation du sol est pass de 20 % 95 %. Les archologues travaillent sur
les couches profondes, mais le sol proprement dit a t profondment remani
depuis une centaine d'annes par les ingnieurs des villes qui y ont install les
rseaux enterrs l'eau, les gouts, l'lectricit, le mtro mme, etc. Le sol a
t boulevers. Ces sols jouent videmment un rle important pour la
vgtation, qu'il s'agisse des sols en place, ou des matriaux de construction. Jusque
*"* - Discutant.
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production, de la consommation, du commerce et de la distribution, et des
dsordres montaires qui s'ensuivent. Quant la formation des jeunes
techniciens et des professionnels qui doivent s'adapter aux problmes de
l'environnement, il est vident que les efforts actuels pour leur formation restent isols,
fragmentaires et plutt en marge des curjuj d'ducation suprieure. En France,
aujourd'hui, de nombreuses communes ont besoin d'expertise en matire
d'environnement. Est-ce que la formation des Conseillers en environnement est
suffisante et sont-ils assez nombreux ? Malgr le besoin d'une telle expertise,
est-ce que les budgets locaux, dpartementaux ou rgionaux prvoient ces
embauches ? Si l'emploi existe, est-ce que ces jeunes professionnels peuvent,
non seulement s'adapter la complexit et aux incertitudes des problmes,
mais galement les interprter en relation avec des situations
biogographiques, bioclimatiques, socio-conomiques et socio-culturelles locales ? Des
efforts sont faits dans ce sens, mais un grand nombre d'institutions, aux
niveaux national, rgional et international continuent valuer la recherche
sur la base de disciplines individuelles. La comptition entre les disciplines, en
particulier pour les crdits, ainsi que la persistance des corporatismes
traditionnels, ne favorisent pas le dialogue ni la modestie.
Cette situation est exacerbe par des structures administratives inadquates
et des mentalits rigides. La formation des jeunes professionnels dans
l'environnement se confronte donc sa propre incapacit rpondre aux nouvelles
exigences en ressources humaines et aux difficults d'intgration de la
recherche la planification, la gestion et la prise de dcisions. Confronte
l'incertitude inhrente aux systmes complexes, la science actuelle devrait
laborer une nouvelle stratgie. Depuis la grande Confrence de Stockholm en
1972, diverses organisations et programmes internationaux gouvernementaux
et non gouvernementaux, ainsi que plus de soixante-dix ministres de
l'Environnement ou d'entits quivalentes, ont t mis en place dans le monde.
Mais lprs du Sommet de la Terre, en juin 1992, les mmes problmes se sont
poss, avec une acuit encore lus grande : en matire de diversit biologique et
gntique, la vitesse des dgradations s'avre bien suprieure celle de la
recherche des solutions. La communaut scientifique doit rflchir, et prendre
acte.
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