Vocational Identity 1

Thisisanuneditedmanuscriptpublishedin
AppliedPsychology:AninternationalReview
Pleasenotethatthepublishedversionwillundergominoradditionaleditinginstyleand
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Pleaseciteas:

Hirschi,A.(2011).Vocationalidentityasamediatoroftherelationshipbetweencoreselfevaluations
andlifeandjobsatisfaction.AppliedPsychology:AnInternationalReview,60.Inpress.doi:
10.1111/j.14640597.2011.00450.x

Vocationalidentityasamediatoroftherelationshipbetweencoreself
evaluationsandlifeandjobsatisfaction

AndreasHirschi
LeuphanaUniversityofLueneburg

Authornote
CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoAndreasHirschi,LeuphanaUniversityof
Lueneburg,InstituteforStrategicHRManagementResearchandDevelopment(SMARD),
WilschenbrucherWeg84,D21335Lueneburg,Germany,Phone+4941316777776,Fax+4941316777
935,Email:andreas.hirschi@leuphana.de

Vocational Identity 2
Vocationalidentityasamediatoroftherelationshipbetweencoreselfevaluationsandlifeandjob
satisfaction

Abstract
Thisstudyinvestigatedwhethervocationalidentityachievementmediatestherelationbetween
basicpersonalitydispositions(i.e.,coreselfevaluations)andcareerandwellbeingoutcomesintermsof
jobandlifesatisfaction.TwostudieswithSwissadolescentswereconducted.Study1(N=310)
investigatedstudentsineighthgrade,priortomakingthetransitiontovocationaleducationandtraining
(VET);itshowedthatvocationalidentityrelatedpositivelytolifesatisfactionbutthatthisrelationship
disappearedoncecoreselfevaluationswerecontrolled.Study2(N=150)investigatedstudentsintheir
secondyearofVET;itshowedthatjobsatisfactionwasunrelatedtoidentityandselfevaluations.
However,identityfullymediatedtherelationbetweenselfevaluationsandlifesatisfaction.

Keywords:vocationalidentity,coreselfevaluations,jobsatisfaction,lifesatisfaction
Areas:careerdevelopment,organizationalbehavior,jobattitudes
Country:Switzerland

Introduction
Personality has long been an important research construct to understand a vast array of
occupational and organizational behaviors. One personality construct that has gained increased
attention in occupational and organizational research over the last few years is core selfevaluations
(CSE), which include a persons fundamental assessments of their worthiness, competence, and
capabilities(Judge,Locke,Durham,&Kluger,1998).Anincreasingnumberofstudieshaveshowedthat
CSErelatetoarange ofimportant occupational andorganizationaloutcomes,suchasjobsatisfaction
andcareersuccess,aswellaslifesatisfactionandwellbeing(e.g.,Judge&Bono,2001).Oneemerging
research interest is in how those relationships can be explained. Specifically, researchers are curious
abouthowandwhythemoredistal,generalconstructofCSErelatestothoseoutcomes.Thepresent
study makes a theoretical and empirical contribution to this body of research by proposing and
empiricallyinvestigatingthatvocationalidentityachievementmediatestheeffectsofCSEoncareerand
lifeoutcomesduringadolescence.
AnumberofstudieshaveinvestigatedpossiblemediatorsthatmayexplainwhyCSEarerelated
tocareerandworkoutcomes.Amongthesemediatorsarejobstress(Brunborg,2008),goalsetting,goal
attainment,motivation(e.g.,Erez&Judge,2001;Judge,Bono,Erez,&Locke,2005),workfamilyconflict
(Boyar&MosleyJr,2007),jobburnout(Best,Stapleton,&Downey,2005),perceivedjobcharacteristics,
and job complexity (e.g., Judge, Bono, & Locke, 2000). Adding to this literature, the present study
investigated vocational identity, a persons sense of clarity and stability for personal interests, values
andcharacteristics(Holland,1997),asapossiblemediator.Asoutcomevariables,thestudyfocusedon
lifeandjobsatisfaction.
DependentVariablesofLifeSatisfactionandJobSatisfaction

Vocational Identity 3
Life satisfaction. Life satisfaction is a core component of general wellbeing and refers to a
judgmental process of the overall quality of a persons life, accordingto his or her own unique set of
criteria(Pavot&Diener,1993).Lowerlevelsoflifesatisfactionwerefoundtoberelatedtodepression,
loneliness,andavarietyofpsychologicaldisorders.However,adolescentsandyouthwithhigherlevels
of life satisfaction are less involved in violent behavior problems and show more selfesteem, and
intrinsic motivation. Higher levels of life satisfaction can also act as a buffer against psychological
disordersandstressfullifeevents(Park,2004).Asdiscussedabove,therelationofcoreselfevaluations
to life satisfaction is relatively wellestablished (Judge & Bono, 2001) in that people who hold more
positiveviewsaboutthemselvesaregenerallyalsomoresatisfiedwiththeirlives.
Hypothesis1:CSEarepositivelyrelatedtolifesatisfaction.
Job satisfaction. The degree to which employees are satisfied with their job is important to
organizationsduetoitsrelationtoperformanceandturnover(vanDicketal.,2004).Naturally,itisalso
essential to individuals, as it is an important component in the quality of life and general wellbeing
(Rode, 2004), as well as an indicator of subjective career success (Judge, Cable, Boudreau, & Bretz,
1995). Job satisfaction has been frequently investigated in relation to personality traits and core self
evaluations(Judge&Bono,2001;Judge,Heller,&Mount,2002).Thereisclearsupportthatfavorable
personalitytraitsprovideabasisfortheaffectiveevaluationsofoneswork.
Hypothesis2:CSEarepositivelyrelatedtojobsatisfaction.
VocationalIdentityasaPotentialMediator
Vocationalidentityisacoreconstructforcareerdevelopmentandhaslongbeenacentralfocus
of vocational psychology. The development and implementation of a clear sense of occupational or
vocationalidentityisregardedasacoredevelopmentaltaskthatemergesinadolescenceandcontinues
throughout adulthood (Super, 1990). This career development concept has also gained increased
importance from an industrialorganizational perspective. Hall (2002) introduced a clear sense of
identity as a metacompetence for selfdirected, valuesdriven career development, as discussed with
respecttoproteancareerorientation.Fugate, Kinicki, andAshforth(2004)namedcareeridentityasa
core component of employability and of the ability to identify and realize career opportunities. A
numberofstudieshave shownthatadolescentsandadultswithaclearer senseofvocationalidentity
weremoresuccessfulincareertransitionsandreportedgreaterwellbeing,careerselfefficacybeliefs,
work engagement, or congruence and differentiation of vocationalinterest (e.g., Diemer & Blustein,
2007;Gushue,Scanlan,Pantzer,&Clarke,2006;Meeus,Dekovi,&Iedema,1997).
In the present study, vocational identity was conceptualized in terms of identity achievement
representedbythetwodimensionsofidentitycommitmentandidentityexploration.BasedonMarcias
(1980) identity status model, identityachievement implies that a person has reached a clear sense of
andcommitmenttoaparticularidentityafteractivelyexploringpossibleidentities.Hence,thisstatusis
characterized by high levels of commitment and exploration. The importance of considering
commitmentandexplorationliesinthenecessitytodistinguishidentityachievementfromthefollowing
statuses:foreclosure(thatis,commitmentwithoutexploration),moratorium(i.e.,explorationwithout
commitment),anddiffusion(thatis,nocommitmentandnoexploration).Variousempiricalstudieshave
supported the applicability of Marcias model to career development and vocational identity among
adolescentsandemergingadults(e.g.,Vondracek,Schulenberg,Skorikoc,Gillespie,&Wahlheim,1995).

Vocational Identity 4
Identity and CSE. A number of studies have shown that different favorable personality
dispositionsamongadolescentsandadults,suchasemotionalstability,extraversion,conscientiousness,
locus of control beliefs, and positive affect (e.g., Lounsbury, Levy, Leong, & Gibson, 2007) are
significantly related to vocational identity achievement. In relation to CSE, research showed that self
esteemispositivelyrelatedtoclarityofselfconceptgenerally(Campbell,1990)andvocationalidentity
specifically(Munson,1992).Otherstudiesshowedthataninternallocusofcontrol(Abraham,1983;Ng
&Feldman,2009)andlowneuroticism(Luyckx,Soenens,&Goossens,2006)relatespositivelytoidentity
development. Finally, selfefficacy beliefs relate positively to vocational identity (e.g., Gushue, et al.,
2006;Nauta&Kahn,2007).
IntermsofMarcias(1980)modelofidentitystatuses,itseemsthatcoreselfevaluationsaffect
both career exploration and career decidedness/commitment. Research found that negative
perceptionsofonesselfintermsoflowselfefficacybeliefs,externalcontrolbeliefs,lowselfesteem,
andhighneuroticismimpedetheactiveexplorationofcareeroptions(Creed,Patton,&Prideaux,2007;
Gushue, et al., 2006; Nauta, 2007; Rogers, Creed, & Ian Glendon, 2008). Likewise, negative self
evaluations hinder the development of choice clarity and decidedness regarding ones career (e.g.,
Argyropoulou, SidiropoulouDimakakou, & Besevegis, 2007; Lounsbury, Hutchens, & Loveland, 2005).
Luyckx et al. (2006) showed, in a study investigating identity development among adolescent female
students,thatneuroticismrelatedpositivelytoastateofruminativeidentityexplorationthatlacksthe
capacity to reach identity clarity and commitment. It therefore appears that negative selfviews lead
peopletoquestionthemselvesandtheirvocationalgoalsandchoices,therebyencouragingruminative
explorationwithoutcomfortablysettlingonaclearsenseofwhooneisandwhatonewantstobecome.
Likewise, negative selfviews might inhibit people from actively getting engaged in an identity
explorationprocessinthefirstplacewhichwouldbethefoundationforeventualidentityachievement.
Assuch,positiveCSEwouldpromotethedevelopmentofaclearsenseofidentitybyfacilitatingidentity
commitmentandfocusedexploration.
Hypothesis3:CSEarepositivelyrelatedtovocationalidentityachievement.
Identity and life satisfaction. Due to the importance of career development and career
preparation, the vocational domain provides a central component of identity development for most
adolescents (Skorikov & Vondracek, 1998). Vocational identity can therefore act as a major source of
meaninginlife(Ibarra&Barbulescu,2010;McLean&Pratt,2006)andiscloselyrelatedtoselfesteem
(Campbelletal.,1996;Luyckx,Schwartz,Goossens,Soenens,&Beyers,2008).Asenseofmeaning,self
clarity,andselfesteemareinturnimportantprecursorsoflifesatisfactionandwellbeing(Baumeister
& Vohs, 2002; Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999). A number of studies have directly supported the
relationship between identity achievement and life satisfaction (Meeus, 1996; Skorikov & Vondracek,
2007).
Hypothesis4:Vocationalidentityachievementispositivelyrelatedtolifesatisfaction.
BuildingonHypotheses1,3,and4,wealsoexpect:
Hypothesis 5: Vocational identity achievement partially mediates the effects of CSE on life
satisfaction.

Vocational Identity 5
Identity and job satisfaction. Having a clear sense of ones own strengths and preferences
facilitates the selection of selfcongruent career goals (Hirschi, Niles, & Akos, 2011; Skorikov &
Vondracek, 2007). Goal selfcongruence in turn facilities goal achievement and success, which then
promote job satisfaction (Judge, et al., 2005). Moreover, achieving selfcongruent goals is more
satisfying than achieving extrinsically motivated goals (Judge, et al., 2005; Locke & Latham, 2002). A
clearsenseofidentityalsopromotestheperceptionofmeaningfulnessandpurposeinwork(Ibarra&
Barbulescu,2010),whichinturnarepositivelyrelatedtojobsatisfaction(Dik&Duffy,2009;Humphrey,
Nahrgang,&Morgeson,2007).Finally,aclearsenseofidentityisrelatedtoworkengagement(Luyckx,
Duriez,Klimstra,&DeWitte,2010),whichmayalsopromoteasenseofachievementintermsofcareer
goalsandcareersatisfaction.Hence,vocationalidentityasacareermetacompetencecanbeexpected
topromotejobsatisfactionviaseveralpathways.
Hypothesis6:Vocationalidentityachievementispositivelyrelatedtojobsatisfaction.
BuildingonHypotheses2,3,and6,wealsoexpect:
Hypothesis 7: Vocational identity achievement partially mediates the effects of CSE on job
satisfaction.
TheStudyContext
Two studies of Swiss adolescents were conducted to investigate the hypotheses proposed
above. In Switzerland, a strong emphasis is placed on vocational education and training (VET) in
adolescenceastheprimaryroutetotrainandeducatethefutureworkforce.About70%ofallstudents
continueontovocationaleducationandtrainingafterfinishingcompulsoryschool,wheretheyarethen
trainedinoneofover200specificvocations.Theremainingstudentscontinuetogeneralhighschoolor
specialized middleschools, where the primary focus is on preparing students for a college education
(FederalOfficeforProfessionalEducation&Technology,2008).Studentsinthefirststudysamplewere
at the end of eighth grade, which marks the end of an environmentally imposed phase of career
preparation and career decisionmaking that takes place during seventh and eighth grade. These
studentswereabouttoentertheirlastyearofcompulsoryschool,andtheyweregenerallyexpectedto
apply to specific vocational apprenticeships or, for the minority of them, general high school, by the
beginningofninthgrade.Studentsinthesecondstudysamplewereattheendoftheirsecondyearofa
totalofthreeyearsinVET.Thus,forthisstudysample,careerpreparationforparticipantswasofthe
utmostimportanceandnotsomethingtheywouldfacelateron,inemergingadulthood.
Investigating career development during adolescence is important because adolescence is a
criticalphasewithrespecttoestablishingearlyantecedentsforsuccessfullifelongcareerdevelopment
(Super, 1990). For example, a number of prospective longitudinal studies have shown that levels of
adolescent career preparation and identity achievement can be persistent over the years, with
potentially negative outcomes for career success in young adulthood (e.g., Caspi, Wright, Moffitt, &
Silva,1998;Wiesner,Vondracek,Capaldi,&Porfeli,2003).Otherresearchhasshownthatearlylevelsof
negative or positive core selfevaluations were related to both the levels of and increases in later
economic and career success (Judge & Hurst, 2007). Thus, investigating the effects of core self
evaluations and vocational identity on career variables during adolescence can provide important
information to better understand individual differences in career development, with potentially
importantconsequencesforlaterstagesoflife.

Vocational Identity 6
Within both studies we investigated life satisfaction as an outcome variable. Study 2 also
includedtheoutcomevariableofjobsatisfaction,asthissamplewasalreadyworkinginaspecificVET.
MethodandProcedure
Theteachersanddirectorsoftheschoolsselectedfortheresearchprojectwerecontactedand
askedwhethertheywouldparticipateinthestudywiththeirclasses.Allcontactsagreedtodoso,and
passiveconsentwasobtainedfromtheparentsand/orguardiansofstudentsinStudy1,priortodata
collection. All measures were completed while students were in school. The sample in Study 2 also
attendedtheirweeklydayoftheoreticalschoolingaspartoftheirVET.Assessmentstookplaceinclass,
under the supervision of their teachers, during an ordinary school lesson. Participation was voluntary
and undertaken with active consent by the students. All students attending class on the day of data
collectioncompletedthequestionnaires.
Study1
Participants
Sample1consistedof310studentswhowereassessedattheendofeighthgrade.Half(50.6%)
weregirls;theiragesrangedfrom13to17years(M=15.1,SD=0.7).EightythreepercentwereSwiss
nationals, whereas the other studentswere of other nationalities, mostly from SouthEastern Europe.
Sixtyfivepercentattendedaschooltrackwithadvancedrequirements,whereastheothersattendeda
school track with basic requirements. This separation is mainly based on scholastic achievement in
primaryschool.Duetothehigherscholasticrequirementsofcertainprofessions,someVETcanonlybe
pursuedbystudentswhoattendedtheadvancedtrack.Thedistributionofgender,age,nationality,and
schooltypewasrepresentativeofstudentsatthisgradelevelinSwitzerland(SwissFederalStatistical,
2006).Raceisgenerally notassessedinSwitzerlandasademographic variable andwasthereforenot
assessedinthestudy.However,almostallstudentsintheregionwerewhite.
Measures
Core selfevaluations. In accordance with the model proposed by Judge, Erez, Bono, and
Thoresen(2002),fourmeasureswereapplied.(a)Neuroticismwasassessedwiththerespectivescales
from the official Germanlanguage adaptation of the NEOFFI (Borkenau & Ostendorf, 1993; Costa &
McCrae,1992).Basedonscaleevaluationstudieswithadolescents,an11itemversion(e.g.,Iseldom
feellonelyorsad)withafourpointLikertscalerangingfrom(1)stronglydisagreeto(4)stronglyagree
wasapplied(Roth,2002).Theauthorsofthescale(Borkenau&Ostendorf)providedbroadsupportfor
the scales construct validity in terms of correlations to other established personality inventories.
CronbachsAlphawas.76inthepresentsample.(b)Selfesteemwasassessedwitharevisedversionof
theRosenbergSelfEsteemScale(Rosenberg,1965;vonCollani&Herzberg,2003).TheRosenbergscale
isthemostwidelyusedscaleofselfesteemandconsistsof10items(e.g.,Onthewhole,Iamsatisfied
withmyself).StudentsansweredonafourpointLikertscalerangingfrom(1)stronglydisagreeto(4)
strongly agree. Numerous studies have provided support for the construct validity of this scale with
adolescents (e.g., Patton, Bartrum, & Creed, 2004). Cronbachs Alpha was .85. (c) Generalized self
efficacyand(d)thelocusofcontrolbeliefswerebothassessedwiththeInventoryfortheMeasurement
ofSelfEfficacyandExternality(FKK;Krampen,1991).Itincluded16itemsforeachconstructwitha6
pointLikertscaleresponseformat,rangingfrom(1)completelyfalseto(6)completelytrue(e.g.,Ican
determine very much of what happens in my life). Different studies have provided support for the

Vocational Identity 7
construct validity scale with adolescents, including, for example, significant relations to personality
traits, psychological disorders, and wellbeing (Anderson, Hattie, & Hamilton, 2005; Krampen, 1991).
CronbachsAlphawas.71forselfefficacyand.84forcontrol.AccordingtoJudgeetal.smodel(2002),a
factorscorewascalculatedwithprincipalaxisfunctioningtorepresentthelatentconstructofcoreself
evaluations,whichconfirmedtheexistenceofoneunderlyingfactor(R2=.47).
Vocational identity achievement. In line with established procedures for identity research
(Schwartz & Dunham, 2000), vocational identity achievement was measured by the degree of career
identity commitment and the reported career identity exploration. Commitment was measured using
the career decidedness and commitment scale from the Germanlanguage adaptation of the Career
Maturity Inventory (Crites, 1973; Seifert & Stangl, 1986). The scale consists of 12 items (e.g., I dont
knowexactlywhattodoinordertochoosetherightoccupation),andanswersareindicatedona4
pointscalerangingfrom(1)doesnotagreeto(4)completelyagrees.Thescaleiswellestablishedinthe
international literature (Patton & Creed, 2001), and support for the validity of the Germanlanguage
version has been provided in several studies that show the positive relations of the scale to career
planningandactiveapplicationtoanafterschoolapprenticeship(Bergmann,1993;Seifert,Bergmann,
&Eder,1987).Thefinalscalescorewasinversedsothatahigherscorerepresenthighercommitment.
ReliabilitymeasuredbyCronbachsAlphawas.85.Careerexplorationwasassessedinaccordancewith
the Career Exploration Scale from Stumpf, Colarelli, and Hartman (1983) and the use of other career
exploration scales for adolescent career development research (Kracke, 2002), as the degree of
conducted career exploration in terms of self and environmental exploration. Four items addressed
selfexploration (e.g., thinking about personal strengths and skills), and six items measured
environmentalexploration(e.g.,acquiringinformationaboutcareerfieldsofinterest).Answerswere
provided on a fivepoint Likert scale that indicates the degree to which one has engaged in these
behaviorsduringthelastthreemonths,withanswersrangingfrom(1)seldom/fewto(5)verymuch/a
lot.Higherscoresindicatemoreengagementincareerexplorationduringthelastthreemonths.Support
for the construct validity of the scale has been provided in other studies, including its significant
correlationswithotherestablishedmeasuresofcareerexplorationandcareerplanning(Hirschi,2010).
Cronbachs Alpha was .90. Following the procedure recommended in the literature (Schwartz &
Dunham, 2000), a score for vocational identity achievement was calculated by taking the linear
combination of the standardized decidedness and exploration measures with higher scores indicating
morevocationalidentityachievement.
Life satisfaction. The Germanlanguage adaptation of the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS;
Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; Peterson, Ruch, Beermann, Park, & Seligman, 2007) was
applied.Thisscaleisoneofthemostfrequentlyappliedmeasuresasanindicatorofwellbeingandhas
been found to possess excellent reliability and validity, as well as applicability to research with
adolescents(Lucas,Diener,&Suh,1996;Neto&Barros,2007).TheGermanlanguageversionshowed
proprieties similar to the original version among a group of Swiss adults (Peterson et al., 2007).
CronbachsAlphawas.82.

Vocational Identity 8
Results
CorrelationsamongtheMeasures
The results in Table 1 show that core selfevaluations related positively to vocational identity
achievementandsignificantlytoitscommitmentdimension.Specifically,thedimensionsofselfesteem
andgeneralizedselfefficacybeliefsrelatedpositivelyandneuroticismnegativelytovocationalidentity
commitment. Moreover, externality, selfesteem, and selfefficacy related positively to career
exploration.Coreselfevaluationsanditsdimensionsalsorelatedsignificantlytolifesatisfaction,justas
vocationalidentityachievementandcareercommitmentprovedtorelate.
TestoftheHypotheses
ThefourstepstoassessmediationeffectsaccordingtoBaronandKelly(1986)wereappliedwith
multiple hierarchical regression analysis to test the hypothesis that vocational identity achievement
would partially mediate the relation of core selfevaluations and life satisfaction. In all models, the
effectsofgender,nationality,andschooltypewerecontrolled.
First,weinvestigatedwhethercoreselfevaluationssignificantlypredictedlifesatisfaction,and
H1 wasconfirmedinthewaythatCSEpredictedlifesatisfaction above andbeyondtheeffectsofthe
sociodemographic variables, =.491, p<.001, R2=.233. Second, we established that core self
evaluations significantly predicted vocational identity achievement above and beyond the control
variables,confirmingH3,=.191,p=.012,R2=.035.Third,weexaminedwhethervocationalidentity
achievementwouldpredictlifesatisfactionaboveandbeyondthesocioeconomiccontrolvariablesand
could confirm H4, =.197, p=.002, R2=.037. Fourth, we investigated whether vocational identity
achievementwouldpredictlifesatisfactionwhencoreselfevaluationswereincludedasapredictorof
theoutcomevariable.Theresultsshowedthatcontrollingforthesociodemographicmeasuresandcore
selfevaluations, identity achievement did no longer significantly predict life satisfaction, =.102,
p=.137,R2=.010,thusnotsupportingH5andapartialmediationmodel.Table2showstheresultsof
thefinalregressionmodel.
BriefDiscussionofStudy1
Theresultsconfirmedtheassumptionthatpositivecoreselfevaluationswouldrelatepositively
tovocationalidentityachievement,particularlytothecommitmentdimension.Alsoconfirmedwasthe
hypothesis that core selfevaluations would relate significantly to life satisfaction. As expected,
vocational identity achievement also related positively to life satisfaction. However, the results of the
regression models further showed that vocational identity achievement did not mediate the effect of
core selfevaluations on life satisfaction, as expected. Conversely, the positive relation of vocational
identity achievement and life satisfaction disappeared once core selfevaluations were taken into
account.
Study2
Method
Participants
Sample2consistedof150studentsassessedattheendof11thgradeinvocationaleducation
andtraining.Themajority(75%)weregirls.Theiragesrangedfrom16to20years(M=17.4,SD=1.0).
Onehundredandtwelve(74.7%)wereSwissnationals;theotherstudentswereofnationalitiesmostly
from Western Europe and SouthEastern Europe. Of the foreign nationals, 35% were born in

Vocational Identity 9
Switzerland. Eighty students (53.3%) attended vocational education and training as office clerks, and
34%attendedasretailsalespersons.Finally,12%attendedasassistantnurses.
Measures
Core selfevaluations. Neuroticism (Cronbachs Alpha=.87), selfesteem (Cronbachs
Alpha=.85), generalized selfefficacy (Cronbachs Alpha=.68), and locus of control (Cronbachs
Alpha=.86)wereassessedwiththesamescalesasdescribedinStudy1.Afactorscorewascalculated
with principal axis functioning to represent the latent construct of core selfevaluations, which
confirmedtheexistenceofoneunderlyingfactor(R2=.49).
Vocationalidentityachievement.Again,vocationalidentityachievementwasmeasuredbythe
degree of career identity commitment and the reported career identity exploration. (a) Commitment
wasassessedwiththeGermanlanguageadaptationoftheVocationalIdentityScale(Holland,Daiger,&
Power,1980;Jrin,Stoll,Bergmann,&Eder,2004).Thescaleconsistsof10items,withwhichstudents
can indicate how much the statements (e.g., Im not sure yet which occupations I could perform
successfully) resemble their personal situation ranking from (1) not at all to (5) completely. Answers
were provided on a fivepoint Likert scale; higher scores indicated greater vocational identity
commitment.Themeasureiswellestablishedintheinternationalliterature(Hollandetal.,1993),and
studies with the Germanlanguage version have shown that the scale has positive correlations with
careerdecidedness,careerplanning,andcareerexplorationamongadolescents(Hirschi&Lge,2007).
Thefinalscalescorewasinversedsothathigherscorerepresenthighercommitment.CronbachsAlpha
was.78.Becauseparticipantsinthisstudywerealreadyworking(recallthatthoseinStudy1werestillin
school),adifferent decidedness andcommitmentscalewas selected inthisstudytoincrease content
and face validity. However, Hirschi and Lge (2007) reported that the two applied scales showed a
correlationwith.83.Thus,bothstudiesbasicallymeasurethesameconstruct.(b)Careerexplorationwas
assessedwiththesamescaleasinStudy1(CronbachsAlpha=.88).AsinStudy1,ascoreforvocational
identityachievementwascalculatedbytakingthelinearcombinationofthestandardizeddecidedness
andexplorationmeasureswithhigherscoresindicatingmorevocationalidentityachievement.
Job satisfaction. Two basic approaches to measure job satisfaction can be identified in the
literatureand were appliedinthepresentstudy.Thefirstmeasure addressedgeneraljobsatisfaction
withasingleitemmeasure,askingtheparticipantstoratetheirthoughtsonasevenpointLikertscale
rangingfrom(1)extremelydissatisfiedto(7)extremelysatisfiedastohowsatisfiedtheywereingeneral
withtheircurrentjob.Althoughoneitemmeasureshaveseveralpsychometricshortcomings,assessing
generaljobsatisfactionthiswayiswellestablishedintheliterature,andinfact,ametaanalysisattests
to the approachs satisfactory construct validity and reliability (Wanous, Reichers, & Hudy, 1997). The
secondapproachappliedinthestudywastoassessjobsatisfactionasthecompositeofsatisfactionwith
several specific job characteristics (Neuberger & Allerbeck, 1978). Participants were asked to indicate
their satisfaction with work conditions, possibilities for professional advancement, organizational
leadership,workcolleagues,contentofwork,andsupervisors.CronbachsAlphaforthesixitemscale
was .84. A composite score for each student was calculated applying principal components analysis
based on the six items, which indicated that one common factor explained 57.3% of the variance in
satisfaction among singlejob aspects. To obtain a measure for overall job satisfaction, a factor score

Vocational Identity 10
basedonthetwojobsatisfactionmeasuresbyapplyingprincipalaxisfunctioningwascalculated,which
confirmedthatonefactorunderliesjobsatisfaction(R2=.83).
Life satisfaction. Satisfaction with life was assessed with the same scale as in Study 1
(CronbachsAlpha=.80).
Results
CorrelationsamongtheMeasures
AsreportedinTable1,thefactorscoreforcoreselfevaluationsrelatedpositivelytovocational
identity achievement and both its commitment and exploration dimensions. Selfesteem and
generalized selfefficacy were positively related to career exploration, whereas all dimensions related
significantly to commitment. Contrary to expectations, core selfevaluations and its single dimensions
werenotsignificantlyrelatedtothetwomeasuresofjobsatisfactionortheirfactorscore.However,as
expected, CSE and all of its dimensions except selfesteem related significantly to life satisfaction.
Vocational identity achievement was positively related to the measure of general job satisfaction but
not the overall job satisfaction factor score or the job characteristics satisfaction component score.
However,theidentitycommitmentdimensionrelatedpositivelytoallthreejobsatisfactionmeasures.
Vocational identity achievement, specifically its commitment dimension, related positively to life
satisfaction. Finally, life satisfaction related significantly and positively to all three measures of job
satisfaction.
EvaluationoftheHypotheses
ThefourstepstoassessmediationeffectsaccordingtoBaronandKelly(1986)wereappliedto
test the hypothesis that vocational identity achievement would partially mediate the relation of core
selfevaluationstojobsatisfactionandlifesatisfaction.Inallmodels,theeffectsofgender,nationality,
and type of VET were controlled. In addition, the effects of job satisfaction on life satisfaction were
controlledbecausejobsatisfactioncanbeamajorsourceoflifesatisfaction(Judge,etal.,2005).
First,weinvestigatedwhethercoreselfevaluationssignificantlypredictedjobsatisfaction,but
H2 was not confirmed, =.121, p=.160, R2=.013. However, as expected, CSE predicted life
satisfaction above and beyond the effects of the sociodemographic variables and job satisfaction,
confirming H1, =.300, p<.001, R2=.082. Second, we established that core selfevaluations
significantly predicted vocational identity achievement, confirming H3, =.426, p<.001, R2=.167.
Third,weinvestigatedwhethervocationalidentityachievementwouldpredictjobsatisfactionandlife
satisfactionwhile controlling for the sociodemographic variables and the effect of jobsatisfaction on
life satisfaction. The results did not confirm H6 with identity not predicting job satisfaction, =.101,
p=.272,R2=.008,butconfirmedH4regardinglifesatisfaction,=.420,p<.001,R2=.142.Because
neithercoreselfevaluationsnoridentitydidpredictjobsatisfaction,theconditionsformediationwere
notmetandH7regardingthemediatingeffectofidentitywasconsequentlydisconfirmed.Finally,we
established that identity would predict life satisfaction when core selfevaluations were included as a
predictoroftheoutcomevariables,=.347,p<.001,R2=.078.Theresultsshowedthattherelationof
CSE to life satisfaction was smaller (=.153) and not significant (p=.066) when taking the effect of
identityintoaccount,thusnotsupportingH5withrespecttopartialmediation.Instead,thisindicated
full mediation. In addition, we conducted a Sobel (1982) test to evaluate mediation. Confirming the
previous results, the test indicated no significant mediation effect for job satisfaction (z=0.52,

Vocational Identity 11
SD=0.06,p=.604),butitdidindicatesuchaneffectforlifesatisfaction(z=3.32,SD=0.21,p<.001).
TheresultsofthefinalmodelsareshowninTable3.
BriefDiscussionofStudy2
TheresultssupportedthatvocationalidentityachievementmediatedtheeffectsofCSEonlife
satisfaction.However,contrarytoexpectations,itwasafullratherthanpartialmediationoftheeffects
of CSE on the outcome measure. Also contrary to expectations, neither identity nor selfevaluations
were significantly related to job satisfaction, and consequently, no mediation effect could be
established.
GeneralDiscussion
The present paper investigated a model which proposes that vocational identity achievement
partially mediates the relationship between core selfevaluations and job and life satisfaction. Two
studiesamongSwissadolescentsin8th(Study1)and11th(Study2)gradewereconducted.Participants
in Study 1 faced the transition from school to vocational education and training (VET) or continued
education. They stemmed from two school tracks, one with advanced and one with basic scholastic
requirements. Study 2 participants were in VET, facing the transition from VET to work. They were
engagedinthreedifferentVET:namely,officework,retailsales,andnursing.Theresultsofbothstudies
confirmed the assumption that controlling for the sociodemographic variables of gender, nationality,
and attended school track, positive core selfevaluations relate positively to vocational identity
achievement,particularlytoitscommitmentdimension.Thisfindingisinlinewithpreviousstudiesthat
have shown a positive relationship between different core selfevaluation traits and identity
achievement(e.g.,Crocetti,Rubini,Luyckx,&Meeus,2008;Lounsbury,etal.,2007)andprovidesfurther
support for the notion that the ability to reach a clear sense of identity might itself be a personality
characteristic(Meeus,Iedema,Helsen,&Vollebergh,1999).Thestudyalsoconfirmedanumberofother
researchstudiesmainlyconductedwithcollegestudentsandadults(e.g.,Judge,etal.,1998)byfinding
significant relations between core selfevaluations and life satisfaction among the adolescent
participants.
The major contribution of the study was that vocational identity achievement could be
established as a mediating variable for life satisfaction, partially explaining theeffects of CSE on well
beingduringadolescence.Vocationalidentityrelatedpositivelytolifesatisfaction,whichconfirmsother
studiesthathaveshownapositiverelationshipbetweenidentityachievementandwellbeing(Luyckx,
Schwartz,Goossens,&Pollock,2008).However,therelationwithcoreselfevaluationswasdifferentfor
thetwostudysamples.AmongtheyoungersampleineighthgradeinStudy1,theeffectsofvocational
identityachievementwerenolongersignificantafterthedirecteffectsofCSEonlifesatisfactionwere
taken into account. In contrast, among the sample in vocational education and training, identity
achievementfullymediatedtherelationofcoreselfevaluationsandlifesatisfaction.Theresultssuggest
that core selfevaluations have a greater effect on life satisfaction in early adolescence while having
reached an achieved sense of ones vocational identity becomes a more central component to well
beingforadolescentsactuallyworkinginavocation.Thissuggeststhatdifferentprocesseslinkingcore
selfevaluations,vocationalidentity,andwellbeingareatworkdependingonwhetheradolescentsare
actuallyworkingorarestillinschool.

Vocational Identity 12
However, the expected relationship among core selfevaluations, vocational identity
achievement,andjobsatisfactionwasnotsupported.Thiscontradictsanumberofpreviousstudiesthat
have shown significant relationships between personality characteristics and job satisfaction (Judge,
Heller,etal.,2002).Possibly,jobsatisfactionforSwissstudentsinVETismoredependentonwhether
they are able to work in their aspired vocation. Normally, processes of attractionselectionattrition
(Schneider,1995)restrictthevarianceofcorrespondencebetweenaspiredandactualoccupationwithin
agivengroupofworkers.Theseprocessesareexpectedtoleadtotheoutcomethatmostemployees
whoareworkinginagivenoccupationinfactlikedoingso.However,researchonthetransitionfrom
mandatoryschooltovocationaleducationandtraininginSwitzerlandhasshownthatmanyconstrains,
such as availability, scholastic requirements, gender, and nationality, affect which vocation a student
eventuallypursues(Haeberlin,Imdorf,&Kronig,2005).Thisimpliesarestrictedandcircumscribedkind
of career choice and vocational transition for many adolescents, which could mean that a number of
adolescents are employed in vocations that are not indicative of their real aspirations. The results
suggest the necessity for future studies to provide more knowledge about the specific circumstances
under which personality dispositions and vocational identity achievement affect job satisfaction
evaluations.
LimitationsandConclusions
One limitation of this study is that only crosssectional and selfreported measures were
available.Thispreventsmakingcausalinferencesabouttheidentifiedrelationships.Futurestudiescould
applylongitudinaldesignstoinvestigatesomeoftheprocesses,whichmightbeinvolvedinproducing
relationsamongtheassessedvariable.Theuseofallselfreportmeasuresintroducedasharedmethod
bias,whichcanmagnifytherelationamongthemeasures.Itispossibletoposthoccontrolforshared
method bias in structural equation modeling by introducing a latent method factor (Podsakoff,
MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). However, this approach has the limitation that it might extract
meaningfulvarianceamongmeasuresthatisnotduetosharedmethodbias.Forthepresentstudy,this
approach was not deemed feasible because such variance might indeed represent meaningful
information such as a general positive personal disposition, which is related to core selfevaluations,
vocational identity achievement, career selfefficacy, and life satisfaction. Future research could
thereforetrytoapplyothermeasurestoreducesharedmethodbias,suchasmultimethodapproaches.
Another limitation is that the results are based on convenience samples, and participants in Study 2
werepredominantlyfemale,whichmightlimitthegeneralizabilityofthestudy.
Despite these limitations, the present study suggests that career metacompetencies such as
identitydomediatetheeffectsofmorebasicpersonalityvariablesonwellbeingoutcomes(Hall,2002).
Specifically, the study suggests that core selfevaluations comprise an important construct to
understandpersonalityeffectsoncareerdevelopmentandwellbeingduringadolescence.Italsoimplies
that research investigating the relationship between core selfevaluation and vocational identity as a
potential mediator of some of the previouslyreported effects of core selfevaluations on career
variablesseemstobeafruitfulavenueforfutureresearch.Forpractice,theresultsimplythathelping
students achieveasenseofvocationalidentityinmiddle adolescence wouldbe importantin orderto
increase their wellbeing above and beyond the effects of relatively stable traits. This is especially
importantbecausecoreselfevaluationsareconceivedasarelativelystableconstruct(Judge,Erez,etal.,

Vocational Identity 13
2002)andarethusnotwellsuitedforcareerinterventions.However,vocationalidentityachievement
can be systematically advanced though career counseling and career interventions (Meijers, 1998;
Raskin, 1989) which would provide a valuable way to not only promote career development but also
increasewellbeingamongadolescents.

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Vocational Identity 18
Table1
BivariateCorrelationsamongtheMeasuresofStudy1(N=310,below)andStudy2(N=150,above)

Coreselfevaluations
Neuroticism
Selfesteem
Generalizedselfefficacy
Externalityofcontrol
Identityachievement
Commitment
Exploration
Lifesatisfaction
Jobsatisfaction
General
Characteristics
M
SD

CSE

SES

.80***

.86***
.64***
.57***
64***
.19*
.25***
.08
.49***

.59***
.35***
.40***

***
.41
.21**
***
.51
.16*
.04
.25***
.14*
.27***
.07
.16*

.41***

25.94
4.69

.41***

30.95
4.84

GSE
.60***
.32***
.19*

.20**
.30***
.32***
.19**
.48***

62.66
7.94

EOC

VID

Com

Expl

SWL

.65***
.36***
.24**
.27**

.02
.11
.14*

.47***
.31***
.33***
.35***
.35***

.84***
.84***

.47***
.34***
.19*
.34***
.44***
.76***

.42***

.25***
.14
.32***
.19*
.11
.77***
.16

.36***
.20*
.10
.40***
.40***
.44***
.51***
.17*

.31***

52.23
10.38

.19**

0.00
1.69

.23***

38.43
6.02

.09

34.19
7.51

23.10
5.59

JobSat
.08
.01
.05
.09
.06
.05
.19*
.11
.26***

Vocational Identity 19
Table1(continued)

Gen

Coreselfevaluations

Char

SD

.11

.07

Neuroticism

.09

.01

25.85

5.67

Selfesteem

.11

.02

28.11

2.67

Generalizedselfefficacy

.08

.08

61.03

8.23

.06

.06

48.87

12.15

.17*

.06

0.18

1.51

Commitment

.22**

.20**

37.33

6.06

Exploration

.04

22.39

7.27

23.35

4.85

Externalityofcontrol
Identityachievement

.12

Lifesatisfaction

.22**

.30**

Jobsatisfaction

.64***

.97***

.66***

4.80

1.37

30.22

7.55

General

Characteristics

SD

Note.CSE:Coreselfevaluations(principalaxisfactorscore);N:Neuroticism;SES:Selfesteem;GSE:
Generalizedselfefficacy;EOC:ExternalityofControl;VID:Vocationalidentityachievement;Com.
Commitment;Expl:Exploration;SWL:Satisfactionwithlife;JobSat:JobSatisfaction;Gen:Job
satisfactiongeneral;Char:Jobsatisfactioncharacteristics
**
p<.05;**p<.01;***p<.001

Vocational Identity 20
Table2
HierarchicalRegressionModelforCoreSelfEvaluationsandVocationalIdentityAchievementPredicting
LifeSatisfactioninStudy1,N=310

Model1
Gender
Nationality
Schooltype
Model2
Gender
Nationality
Schooltype
CSE
Model3
Gender

Nationality
Schooltype
CSE
VID

SD(B)

Beta

R2

.699
.682
.663

.183
.740
.189
2.676

.225
.542
.319
2.570
.350

.832
1.115
.883

.740
.978
.777
.368

.738
.983
.779
.373
.235

.064
.048
.059

.017
.052
.017
.491***

.020
.038
.028
.471***
.102

.012

.244***

.254***

Note.Coding:Gender:0=female,1=male;Nationality0=Swiss,1=other,Schooltype0=basic
requirements,1=advancedrequirements;CSE:Coreselfevaluations;VID:Vocationalidentity
achievement
**
p<.05;**p<.01;***p<.001

Vocational Identity 21
Table3
HierarchicalRegressionModelforCoreSelfEvaluationsandVocationalIdentityAchievementPredicting
JobandLifeSatisfactioninStudy2,N=150

B
Model1
Gender
Nationality
Office
Nurse
Model2
Gender
Nationality
Office
Nurse
CSE
Model3
Gender
Nationality
Office
Nurse
CSE
VID

.28
.03
.10
.03

.34
.05
.10
.09
.12

.35
.05
.11
.13
.10
.05

Jobsatisfaction
SD(B) Beta

.19 .12
.19 .01
.18
.05
.28 .01

.20 .15
.19 .02
.18
.05
.28 .03
.09
.12

.20 .15
.19 .02
.18
.06
.30 .04
.10
.10
.10
.05

Model1
Gender
Nationality
Office
.02
Nurse

Model2
Gender
Nationality
Office
Nurse
.03
Jobsatisfaction

Model3
Gender
Nationality
Office
Nurse
Jobsatisfaction
.03
CSE
Model4
Gender
Nationality
Office
Nurse
Jobsatisfaction
CSE
VID
2

B
1.95
.42
.24
2.08
2.34
.38
.38
2.12
1.38
1.52
.63
.46
1.41
1.22
1.42
1.35
.69
.06
.02
1.17
.73
1.12

Lifesatisfaction
SD(B)
Beta

.89 .18*
.90 .04
.84 .03
1.30 .14

.85 .22**
.86 .04
.80 .04
1.25 .15
.37 .29***

.84 .14
.82 .06
.77 .05
1.20 .10
.36 .26***
.37 .30***

.80 .13
.78 .06
.74 .01
1.20 .00
.34 .25***
.39 .15
.28 .35***

R2

.05

.14***

.19***

.26***

Note.CodingGender:0=female,1=male;Nationality0=Swiss,1=other;Office,Retail,Nurse0=no,
1=yes;CSE:Coreselfevaluations;VID:Vocationalidentityachievement
**
p<.05;**p<.01;***p<.001