CHAPTER 1

GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR FLUID MOTION

1.1. Introduction
The study of temperature field and heat transfer in a moving fluid is the main objective of this
course. The objective is to derive the governing equations in order to study the transport of
energy away from surfaces. The necessary relations to perform this task are:
1. Continuity equation
2. Equation of motion in the vector form.
3. Energy equation
4. Equation of state.
The first chapter is devoted to the study and the continuity equation and the equation of
motion. The derivation of the continuity and momentum equations follows the procedure as
given in [1]. The following chapter is devoted to the formulation of the energy equation. These
equations are being used for the determination of heat transfer for different systems.
1.2. Derivation of the Continuity Equation

Consider a vector V given as

V ui v j wk
(1.1)

with u, v, and w being the orthogonal components and i , j , and k are the unit vector along x-,
y-, and z-axes. The mass balance applied to a volume element, in Figure 1.1, using short hand
notations, is

m x m x x m y m y y m z m z z (V )
t

(1.2)

Using Taylor series expansion and letting V xyx dxdydz , one obtains

m x m x x m ( x, y, z ) m ( x x, y, z ) (udydz ) dx

(1.3a)

)
m y m y y m ( x, y, z ) m ( x, y y, z ) (vdxdz
dy
y

(1.3b)

m z m z z m ( x, y, z ) m ( x, y, z z ) (wdxdy ) dz

(1.3c)

m (x,y,z+z)

m (x,y+y,z)

m (x,y,z)

m (x+x,y,z)

m (x,y,z)
z

m (x,y,z)

y
x

Figure 1.1. Schematic of a differential element for mass balance.

Then, following appropriate substitutions of Eqs. (1.3a-c) in Eq. (1.2) one obtains

(udydz ) (vdxdz ) (wdxdy )

dx
dy
dz dxdydz

x
y
z
t

(1.4)

After eliminating dxdydz from both sides, the final result is

(u ) (v ) (w)

0
x
y
z
t

(1.5a)

In vector notation, it is written as

div (V )
0
t

(1.5b)

where div(V ) (V ) .
1.3. Derivation of the Equation of Motion

A detailed derivation of equation of motion is in [2] while a brief formulation is presented

in this chapter. According to Newtons second law of motiom,

(1.6)
F ma

where F is the applied force and a is the acceleration vector. Now consider a fluid element

dxdydz moving with a velocity V , the equation of motion becomes

DV
(dxdydz ) FB FS (dxdydz )
Dt

(1.7a)

DV

FB FS
Dt

(1.7b)

or

where

FB Body Forces/Unit Volume

i X jY k Z

(1.8a)

Fs surface Forces/Unit Volume

i Px j Py k Pz

(1.8b)

and

Body forces include gravitational force, magnetic force, etc. Surface forces depend on the rate
at which a fluid element is strained. These forces determine the state of stress and the relation
between stress and the rate of strain is purely empirical. By definition, Isotropic Fluid is a fluid
for which the relation between stress and rate of strain is independent of coordinate system. The
Newtonian Fluid is a fluid for which the relation between stress and rate of strain is linear. The
net surface force per unit volume affecting the material element, shown in Figure 1.2, is
obtainable from the relation

Px

dx ) dy dz Px dy dz
Fs dx dy dz ( Px
x

Py

dy )dxdz Py dxdz
( Py
y

Pz

dz )dxdy Pz dxdy
( Pz
z

Px Py Pz
dxdydz

y
z

(1.9)

and this relation yields

Px Py Pz

Fs

x
y
z

(1.10)



The forces Px , Py , and Pz are acting on surfaces normal to x-, y-, and z-axes per unit area;
they have the components

xz+(xz /x)dx xy+(xy /x)dx

Px dx
dx
x+(x/x)dx

Px

Py

Pz

x
Figure 1.2. Schematic of a differential element for force balance.

Px i x j xy k xz

Py i yx j y k yz
P i j k
zx
zy
z
z

Meanwhile the components of Fs P i Px j Py k Pz in Eq. (1.7b) are

x yx zx
Px x y z

xy y zy

Py
x
y
z

xz yz z

Pz x y z

These nine stress components form a tensor called stress tensor T,

(1.11)

(1.12)

T yx
zx

xy
y
zy

xz

yz
z

(1.13)

One can show that this tensor is symmetric about its principle axis.
y about
Proof: Consider the rotation of the fluid element, Figure 1.2, with angular velocity

its y-axis. From knowledge of solid mechanics,

y dI ( xz dydz )dx ( zx dxdy )dz

( xz zx )dxdydz

(1.14)

y is angular acceleration about y-axis and dI is the moment of innertia, The moment of
where
5

inertia dI for the differential element is of the order of (d ), then

y dI O(d 5 )

(1.15)

This makes
( xz zx )dxdydz O(d5 )

(1.16)

Because dxdydz is of the order of (d ), this makes

xz zx O(d 2 )

(1.17)

and, as dV0, xz zx . Similar analysis yields xy yx and yz zy ; therefore the stress

tensor T is symmetric about its principle axis.
Back to the Newtons second law of motion, the x-component of equation of motion is

yx zx

Du
X Px X x

x
Dt
y
z

(1.18a)

xy y zy
Dv
Y Py Y

x
y
Dt
z

(1.18b)

yz z
Dw

Z Pz Z xz
Dt
y
z
x

(1.18c)

For frictionless fluids,

xy xz yz 0

(1.19)

x y z p

(1.20)

and

In general, the pressure p is equivalent to the arithmetic mean of the normal stresses,
p ( x y z ) / 3

(1.21)

1.3.1. Deformation of a Fluid Element. Consideration is given to the relative position of

points A and B a distance dr apart. After time dt, point A will be at location A and point B at

location B. A distance traveled by point A, with velocity V is ds Vdt and a distance traveled

by point B, with velocity V dV , is equal to (V dV )dt . The distance between points A and

B is now dr ds , an increase of ds . According to Figure 1.3, one can write,

ds dVdt
or

dV ds / dt

s +d s =( V +dV )dt

r +d r

dr

V

s =V dt

ds

dr
A

Figure 1.3. Relative location of points A and B in a flow field.

Therefore, dV describes the rate of changes in dr . Retaining the first order Taylor series

terms in a three-dimensional expansion, the following relations yield the components of dV

along x-, y-, and z-axes.

u du u

u
u
u
dz
dy
dx
x
y
z

(1.22a)

v dv v

v
v
v
dx dy dz
x
y
z

(1.22b)

w dw w

w
w
w
dz
dy
dx
x
y
z

(1.22c)

Therefore, nine quantities in the above equation describe the relative motion of point B with
respect to point A. These nine quantities form the following tensor
u
x
v
gradV
x
w

u
y
v
y
w
y

u
z

v
z
w

(1.23)

Generally, a tensor can be decomposed into two tensors: a symmetric tensor and an antisymmetric tensor. In shorthand notations,

aij 12 aij a ji 12 aij a ji

(1.24)

Accordingly, the tensor gradV becomes

1 v u
gradV
2 x y

1 w u
2 x z

1 u v

2 y x
v
y
1 w v

2 y z

1 u w

2 z x
0
1 v w


0

2 z y

0
w

(1.25)

Where

1 w v
,

2 y z

1 u w

2 z x

1 v u

2 x y

(1.26)

The anti-symmetric tensor in Eq. (1.25) has components , , and and they are related to the
velocity components by the relation


i

curlV V
x
u

y
v

z
w

w v u w v u
i
j
k
z x
x y
y z

2i 2 j 2k

(1.27)

The symmetric and the anti-symmetric tensors have interesting physical interpretations and it is
of interest to identify the elements of the symmetric and anti-symmetric tensors.
1.3.2. Axial Deformation. It is to study the motion of point B relative to a point A while a

coordinate system is attached to the point A in a flow field. For a special case, assume changes
are in x-direction and other components are zero. According to Figure 1.4

y
D,D
v
A,A

C
x

dx
dudt

Figure 1.4. Elongation of a fluid element in xy plane.

The relative velocity of point C is du in a coordinate that moves with point A and
u
du
dx
x
then the rate of elongation of line AC in x-direction is
u
dxdt
u
dudt x

=
(Rate of Elongation)x =
dxdt
x
dxdt
Similarly

(1.28)

(1.29a)

 v
dydt
v
dvdt y
(Rate of Elongation)y =
=

dydt
dydt
y

(1.29b)

and
w
dzdt
w
dwdt z

=
(1.29c)
(Rate of Elongation)z =
dzdt
dzdt
z
The rate of elongations in x-, y-, anf z-directions are the diagonal members of the deformation
tensor

1 v u
D
2 x y

1 w u
2 x z

1 u v

2 y x
v
y
1 w v

2 y z

1 u w

2 z x
1 v w

2 z y

(1.30)

(1.31)

Alternatively the deformation tensor can be written as

1
gradV gradV
2

where

gradV transpose of gradV

Moreover, the relative change in the volume of the fluid element is

v
w
u

dxdt dy dydt dz
dzdt dxdydz
dx
z
y
x

e
dxdydzdt

u v w

divV
x y z
1 D

Dt

(1.32)

after deleting the terms having higher differential orders.

1.3.3. Angular Deformation. Consideration is given to a fluid element shown in Figure 1.5(a)

at time t. After time dt, the fluid element suffers angular deformation in xy-plane as shown in
Figure 1.5(b). Using Figure 1.5(b), one can define the value of the angle yx tan yx and
xy tan xy as
9

u
dydt
u
y
tan xy

dt
y
dy
Since dt is small, then xy tan xy and
u
xy
dt
y

(1.33)

(1.34a)

y
B

D
v

dy
x

dx
Figure 1.5(a). A fluid element in xy plane at time t.

(du / dy )dydt

xy

dy

v
A

yx
x

( dv / dx )dxdt

dx

10

Figure 1.5(b). A deformed fluid element in xy plane at time t+dt.

Similarly,

yx

v
dt
x

(1.34b)

and then, the rate of change of angle at diagonal is

v u

angular deformation
x y

(1.35)

1.4. Derivation of Navier-Stokes Equations

1.4.1. Features of Stress and Deformation Tensors. These two tensors have some common

features. Both tensors are symmetric about the diagonal. In theory, there exist three orthogonal
principle axes forming a principle coordinate system for which there is no surface stress or
angular deformation. After transformation, the stress tensor becomes
x
0

0
y
0

0
0

(1.36)

and the deformation tensor becomes

x 0 0

(1.37)
0 y 0
0 0 z
where x , y , z are the diagonal terms in the deformation tensor before transformation and

x , y , z are the diagonal terms after transformation.

As discusses earlier, the sum of diagonal terms is an invariant, for any orthogonal
coordinate system; therefore,
x y z x y z 3 p

x y z x y z divV .

(1.38a)
(1.38b)

Note that x deviates from p by an amount of x and similar deviations are expected for
y and z .

11

1.4.2. Stokes Postulates. Prior to derivation of Navier-Stokes equation, the following four

conditions are postulated.

1. Stress tensor T is a continuous function of the deformation tensor D and independent of
kinematic quantities.
2. Stress tensor T is independent of coordinates x, y, and z, spatial homogeneity.
3. There is no preferred direction in space, isotropy.
4. When deformation tensor D=0, then T= pI where I is the identity tensor and p stands for
pressure.
Using the postulates 1 and 2, one can write

T f ( D) .

(1.39)

According to postulate 3, there is no preferred directions in space, therefore, one can write
S T S 1 f (S D S 1 )

(1.40a)

or
T f ( D)

(1.40b)

where S is an orthogonal transformation matrix and S1 is its inverse. Assuming the relation
between T and D is linear, the postulate 4 suggests,
T I D

(1.41)

where and are scalars. If all principle stresses are equal, then T I and there is no
deformation. The next task is the evaluation of the scalars and .
By defining t1 , t2 , and t3 as the principle components of T S T S 1 tensor and d1 , d 2 ,
and d 3 as the principle components D S D S 1 , equation T I D suggests the following
relations,
t1 a1 d1 a2 d 2 a3 d 3 p

t2 b1 d1 b2 d 2 b3 d 3 p
t c d c d c d p
1 1
2 2
3 3
3

(1.42)

If one rotates D , then T rotates accordingly. Now consider <2,3,1> permutation using the
transformations

12

0 1 0
S 0 0 1

1 0 0

(1.43a)

0 0 1
S 1 0 0

0 1 0

(1.43b)

with
-1

that modifies the linear relation to

S T S 1 S I S 1 S D S 1

I S D S 1

(1.44)

Then, there is another linear relation between principle components, that is,
t2 a1 d 2 a 2 d 3 a3 d1 p

t3 b1 d 2 b2 d 3 b3 d1 p
t c d c d c d p
1 2
2 3
3 1
1

(1.45)

A comparison between the first set and this set of relations suggests
a1 b2 c3

(1.46a)

a2 b3 c1

(1.46b)

a3 b1 c2

(1.46c)

Similarly, if one uses a <2,1,3> perturbation, with

0 1 0
S 1 0 0

0 0 1

(1.47a)

0 1 0
S-1 1 0 0 ,

0 0 1

(1.47b)

and

the relation
t3 c1 d 2 c2 d1 c3 d 3 p

(1.48)

suggests that c1 c2 . This introduces an interesting relation among these constants, they are

13

a2 b3 c1 c2 a3 b1

(1.49a)

a1 b2 c3 2

(1.49b)

and

where and are two properties independent of kinematics of the flow field. Replacing as,
bs, and cs, results in the following relations
t1 ( 2 )d1 d 2 d 3 p

t2 d1 ( 2)d 2 d 3 p
t d d ( 2 )d p
1
2
3
3

(1.50a)

t1 2 d1 ( d1 d 2 d 3 ) p

t2 2 d 2 ( d1 d 2 d 3 ) p
t 2 d ( d d d ) p
3
1
2
3
3

(1.50b)

that can be written as

Because the sum of diagonals d1 d 2 d 3 is an invariant, then the relation between D and T
becomes

T 2D (d1 d 2 d 3 ) I p I

(1.51)

The orthogonal transformation T S T S 1 and D S D S 1 produced D and T . Based on

this relation, T S-1 T S and D S-1 D S . Therefore, using these inverse transformations for
D and T results in

T 2D divV I p I .

Note that for an incompressible flow, divV 0 and then

T 2D p I

(1.52a)

(1.52b)

For further details, see [1].

In general, the above equation introduces the following relation between stress and
deformation parameters

u
x 2 x divV p

v
y 2 divV p
y

2 w divV p
z
z

14

(1.53)

and

v u
xy yx
x y

w v

yz zy
y z

u w
zx xz z x

(1.54)

In these relations, the parameter is the viscosity coefficient to be obtained experimentally.

One can show that for a reversible process under thermal equilibrium, 2 / 3 . The
components of the momentum equation, as given by Eq. (1.18a-c) are

yx zx

Du
X Px X x

x
Dt
y
z

(1.55a)

xy y zy
Dv
Y Py Y

x
y
Dt
z

(1.55b)

yz z

Dw
Z Pz Z xz

x
Dt
y
z

(1.55c)

As discussed earlier,
x y z
3

Invariant

(1.56)

and it is related to the local pressure. After substituting for x , y , and z , one obtains
2 u v w

p divV

3 x y z

p divV
3

(1.57a)

while Eq. (1.5b) provides the value of

1 D
divV
Dt

(1.57b)

2
3

2
3

When divV 0 or 0 , then p ; otherwise, , called bulk viscosity has a

nonzero value if the system is not in thermal equilibrium or the process is not reversible. In
2
3

variety of heat transfer applications, it is assumed that 0 or 2 / 3 .

15

Following appropriate substitutions for stress components, the x-, y-, and z-components of
the momentum equation reduce to

v u u w
p u 2
Du
X
2 divV

Dt
x x x 3
y x y z z x

(1.58a)

w v
Dv
p v u v 2
Y
2 divV

Dt
y x x y y y 3
z y z

(1.58b)

Dw
p u w w v w 2

Z
divV
2

Dt
z x z x y y z z z 3

(1.58c)

This set of equations is for compressible flow. For incompressible flow, divV 0 , and they
reduce to

Du
p u u u

X

Dt
x x x y y z z

(1.59a)

Dv
p v v v
Y

Dt
y x x y y z z

(1.59b)

Dw
p w w w
Z

Dt
z x x y y z z

(1.59c)

and when constant,

Du
p
X
2 u
Dt
x

(1.60a)

p
Dv
Y
2 v
Dt
y

(1.60b)

Dw
p
Z
2 w
Dt
z

(1.60c)

References

1. J. Serrin, Mathematical Principles of Classical Fluid Mechanics, in Handb uch der Physik
Bd. Vol VIII/1, 1959.
2. R. Aris, Vector, Tensor, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, 1962.

16