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Abstract
Section 900 introduces basic layout and design considerations, including design
load calculations, for tanker wharves and offshore moorings. The guidelines are
written for entry-level engineers or experienced engineers working outside their
discipline or area of expertise. These guidelines can also be used for barge facilities. This section does not cover the design of piping and other facilities such as
vapor recovery systems.
Engineers can use this section to define the number of berths and layout of a tanker
wharf for given condi-tions, make preliminary estimates of breasting and mooring
loads, make preliminary decisions on construction materials, specify wharf loading
arms, and initially size a single point mooring buoy and its mooring system.
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Contents
Page
910
900-3
911
912
Environmental Considerations
920
Tanker Wharves
921
922
923
Types of Construction
924
925
Mooring System
926
927
930
Offshore Moorings
931
Mooring Types
932
Basic Data
933
Mooring Forces
934
900-5
900-35
900-1
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935
Ship-to-Buoy Attachment
936
937
938
940
Corrosion Protection
941
Cathodic Protection
942
Coatings
950
Glossary of Terms
900-69
960
900-71
961
Model Specifications
962
Standard Drawings
970
References
971
972
900-68
900-71
900-2
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Hawser Guidelines
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Dredging Operations
The actual dredging operation will disturb marine life within a localized area
around the work.
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Permits are typically required for both dredging and disposal operations.
Construction Operations
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Fig. 900-1
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Functional Requirements
1.
Number of berths.
2.
Range of tanker sizes for each berth. (Obtain such tanker dimensions as overall
length, parallel mid-body length vs. draft, position of manifold flanges, in addition to tanker displacements.)
3.
4.
Product Requirements
1.
2.
3.
Meteorological Data
1.
Wind conditions.
a.
b.
Maximum wind velocity and directionannual basis and also 50- or 100year return period.
2.
Extreme temperatures.
3.
Oceanographic Data
1.
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Wave conditions
a.
b.
Maximum wave height with direction and period for 50- or 100-year
return period.
2.
Astronomical tide ranges for neaps and springs. Class of tidediurnal, semidiurnal.
3.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
Soil borings and soil tests. Extent of coverage and nature of tests will vary with
type of structure proposed and also with type of soils encountered. The potential for scour or filling in should be checked. With this data, design criteria for
anchors and piles or other foundations can be developed.
2.
Obstruction surveys. A wire-drag survey to locate hidden navigation obstructions, rock out-crops and coral heads, for example. Side-scan sonar surveys are
also very helpful in assessing bottom conditions.
3.
2.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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Site Selection
The location selected for a tanker wharf should be based on the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Where an otherwise attractive wharf site is exposed to wave action, thereby limiting
the period for safe tanker operation, the use of offshore moorings (conventional
spread moorings and single-point moorings) should be considered as well as the
possibility of breakwater construction.
Wharf Layout
A tanker wharf must be laid out in a manner that permits the mooring lines to hold
the tanker in the correct position with respect to the loading platform. Mooring
points should be located as nearly as possible symmetrically about the center line of
the wharf. Mooring line arrangements should be such that the mooring lines range
from 115 to 165 feet in length, with parallel lines as close as possible to the same
length.
The overall length of the wharf is controlled by the maximum length of tanker to be
handled. This distance should be such that the bow and stern mooring lines make an
angle no less than 45 degrees with the axis of the wharf for the maximum size
tanker.
Guidelines and recommendations for mooring large ships at fixed structures are
presented in the Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) publication,
Guidelines and Recommendations for the Safe Mooring of Large Ships at Piers and
Sea Islands, (Reference 8). This reference represents the industry standard and
should be continuously reviewed during design of a tanker wharf.
The major components of a wharf are: 1) mooring structures, 2) breasting structures, 3) loading platform, 4) pipeway/causeway, and 5) connecting walkways.
Figure 900-2 shows a typical wharf layout. A mooring structure is any element that
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holds the ships mooring lines to restrain the ship. Such a structure can be as elaborate as a framed steel platform or as simple as an anchored buoy. A breasting
element is a structure that resists the motion of the tanker normal to the axis of the
wharf. These elements are usually designed to withstand the impact of a tanker
during docking. The loading platform supports the cargo transfer piping plus the
gear necessary to make the connection to the tanker manifold. Finally, the
pipeway/causeway connects the wharf to the shore facilities, and the connecting
walkways provide access from the loading platform to the mooring and breasting
structures. Where the wharf is well offshore and no solid cargo is to be handled, it
can be economical to use submarine pipelines in place of the pipeway/causeway.
Without a causeway, however, rough sea conditions can restrict access to the
loading platform and lead to operational problems.
Fig. 900-2
The first three of these components can be combined in a wide variety of ways to
suit a particular location. For example, a single, quay-like structure that combines
all components in one unit could be used in relatively shallow water, whereas a
multi-element structure may be preferred in deeper water.
The wharf should be oriented to minimize mooring loads. Typically this means
aligning the wharf axis with the direction of the current. In some areas with very
weak currents, it may be advisable to set the wharf parallel to the prevailing wind
direction. In harbor basins known to be subject to surging, it may be possible to
locate the wharf at a spot where surge action is minimal.
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Timber Construction
Timber has proven successful in light-duty wharves. The term light-duty, of
course, is relative and must reflect tanker size, berth occupancy, and wharf exposure. For example, the Point Orient Wharf at Richmond, before its modification in
1985, was all-timber and handled four to five tankers per month ranging in size up
to 29,000 DWT. In 1985, a steel-and-concrete fender system and mooring dolphins
were added to increase the wharfs capacity to 40,000 DWT.
Timber construction can also be used for the loading platform portion of heavierduty structures if the mooring forces and tanker impact loads are handled by other
structures.
Timber elements should be pressure treated with wood preservative to provide
some resistance to marine borers, insects, and decay fungi. Pressure treatment
should conform to American Wood Preservers Association (AWPA) Standard C18,
Standard for Pressure-Treated Material in Marine Construction. Handling requirements and field treatment of cuts and holes should be in accordance with AWPA
Standard M4, Standard for the Care of Preservative-Treated Wood Products.
To stop attack of marine borers, concrete jackets (or PVC wrap) have been applied
successfully from below the mudline to above the tidal range.
Timber has other uses in wharf construction. Mooring dolphins can be constructed
out of a cluster of 3, 7 or 9 individual piles strapped together by cable-windings.
The strength of such dolphins depends on the water depth and soil conditions, but
they are generally limited to design mooring line pulls of less than 20 kips. At the
Empire Terminal, creosoted Southern Yellow Pine is used as a rubbing surface on
the loading platform fender designed for barges. Tropical hardwoods such as Greenhart and Azobe have been used in this service at the BORCO wharves to improve
service life. The use of these hardwoods is limited, however, because they are
expensive and difficult to work.
Timber design, in the absence of any governing local code, should conform to the
National Design Specification for Stress-Grade Lumber and its Fastenings,
published by the National Forest Products Association.
Steel Construction
Steel is most often used for the primary members in major tanker wharves. These
wharves can be of open-construction (tubular jacket structures supported on steel
pipe piles), or they can be solid, quay wall-like structures using sheet-pile cells.
This latter type of construction is more suited to freight handling wharves and is
less frequently used where the wharf is strictly for tankers.
The four sea island berths at the BORCO refinery are examples of steel construction in deep water. In this design, the mooring dolphins are rigidly trussed towers;
the breasting dolphins are flexible elements using high-strength steel; while the
loading platforms are special jack-up type barges. Catwalks supported on light,
tubular trusses provide access to the various elements. Sub-sea pipelines connect
the wharves to the refinery tankage.
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Steel design, in the absence of any governing local code, should conform to the
Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, published by the American Institute of Steel Construction. To prevent moisture penetration, all pipe, plate, and structural shape intersections should be
completely seal welded. Structural steel members which can retain water should be
avoided or provided with adequate drainage to minimize corrosion.
The construction of new large tanker wharves often involves the use of tubular steel
members. Tubular design and pile design should conform to the American Petroleum Institutes Recommended Practice (RP 2A) for Planning, Designing, and
Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, (Reference 10).
Direct connections between tubular members require special design consideration
to insure proper behavior. Two problems are especially important. First, where a
tube of smaller diameter is connected to the outside of a larger diameter tube (with
no stiffeners or gussets), it is important to be sure the wall thickness of the larger
tube is thick enough to resist the very high local stresses that will be induced.
Second, in earthquake areas, it is important to detail the connection so it can carry
high strains (strains several times greater than those at nominal yield in the joint).
The design of tubular joints should be in accordance with API RP 2A.
Steel piles are often used for wharf structures because they are resilient, light to
handle, capable of being driven hard to deep penetration and readily cut off or
extended in the field if required. Tubular piles are preferable to H-Section because
they induce smaller drag forces. Tubular piles may be driven closed-ended to
develop end bearing resistance over the pile base area. For hard driving conditions
(e.g., gravelly soil lenses), open-ended piles should be used. For easy to moderately
easy driving conditions, no shoes or other strengthening devices at the pile toe are
required. Where open-ended piles must be driven through resistant layers to obtain
deeper penetration, or where they must be driven into rock, the toes can be strengthened by welding on a steel ring. Alternatively, cast alloy cutting shoes are available.
Associated Pile and Fitting Corporation, for example, markets a variety of shoes for
both tubular and H piles. Internal rings (or inside flange cutting shoes) should be
used where necessary to develop the full frictional resistance of the pile shaft.
Concrete Construction
Concrete has wide application in marine construction because of its durability and
cost advantages. In wharf construction, concrete is often precast (piling and deck
panels, for example) to simplify handling by marine equipment.
In situations where a large deck area is desired and where the water depth is in the
30- to 50-foot range, precast, prestressed concrete piles can be used economically.
Because these structures are rigid, special fenders are needed to handle ship impact
loads. The Berth 4 addition to the Richmond Long Wharf is an example of this type
of construction.
In the absence of any local governing code, concrete design should conform to the
American Concrete Institutes Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete (ACI 318) and its Guide for the Design and Construction of Fixed
Offshore Concrete Structures (ACI 357R).
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Prestressed concrete pile design should conform to the Prestressed Concrete Institutes Recommended Practice for Design, Manufacture, and Installation of
Prestressed Concrete Piling.
The steel reinforcing in concrete wharf structures must be protected from corrosion
by proper construction details and construction practice. Reinforcement in regions
exposed to salt water or salt spray should be given special concrete cover: 3 or 4
inches for cast-in-place concrete and 2-1/2 inches for precast concrete. Adequate
steel should be provided for the control of temperature and shrinkage cracking.
Most important of all is to use a good, sound, durable concrete mix. Minimum
strength should not be less than 4,000 psi at 28 days and air-entrainment should be
provided. ASTM Type II cement should be used. The use of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel should also be considered.
Kinetic Method
The kinetic approach is based on theoretical consideration of the ships kinetic
energy. The kinetic energy of the berthing ship, assuming the ship moves in pure
translation, is:
(KE)ship = m (v)2
(Eq. 900-1)
where:
m = mass of the ship
v = approach velocity
The energy to be absorbed by the fender system is based on the ships energy, but
the calculation is complicated by other considerations including the inertia of the
water moving with the ship and the partial energy dissipation/absorption by
elements other than the fender system. This approach is discussed in more detail in
Appendix D of this manual.
The kinetic approach, although widely used, has a number of shortcomings (e.g.,
the large number of assumptions involved in establishing design velocity and
energy modification coefficients). Accurate evaluation of the tanker approach
velocity is especially important because the design energy is proportional to the
square of velocity. For most locations, proper mooring practice calls for the tanker
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to be brought to a complete stop at some distance off the face of the wharf and then
to be pushed sideways (athwartship) by tugs until it comes against the breasting
elements. Normally one of the breasting structures is contacted before the other.
Fender damage occurs when tankers approach with accidentally high velocities.
The design of breasting elements from an economic standpoint must assume that
tankers will have a controlled velocity at the time of contact. It is not practical to
design for abnormally high approach velocities. The design velocity should vary
with the degree of exposure and the amount of current at the wharf. If the wharf is
to handle barges as well as tankers, a higher velocity for the barges should be
considered because of their unwieldy nature.
Statistical Method
The statistical method is based on measurements of energies actually absorbed in
fenders at existing terminals. Therefore, it automatically includes the effects of the
energy modification coefficients listed above. The statistical method even includes
the human factor, which contributes to the variability of tanker approach velocities.
Information collected to date indicates that the most important parameters affecting
fender energy are ship size and current conditions. The data analyses, therefore,
concentrate on variation of the impact energies with these two parameters. Figures
900-3, 900-4, and 900-5 present the recommended design normalized energy to be
used for fender design of three types of harbors. The graphs are based on analysis
of accumulated data presented in Reference 4 of Section 971. Statistics used in the
analysis of the three types of harbors included in Reference 4 follow.
Fig. 900-3
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Fig. 900-4
Fig. 900-5
900-15
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166 Arrivals
1916 Arrivals
3069 Arrivals
Harbor Type B. Well protected against waves but exposed to moderate (2-4 knots)
current parallel to berth.
Gulfhavn Stignaes, Denmark
149 Arrivals
659 Arrivals
1078 Arrivals
Harbor Type C. Well protected against waves, but exposed to currents running in
directions significantly different from the orientation of berth.
British Petroleum Berth, Kent, UK
578 Arrivals
578 Arrivals
The recommended design kinetic energy for each primary breasting element is:
(KE)Design = Ceff(W)
(Eq. 900-2)
where:
(KE)Design = design Kinetic Energy, ft-lb/1000
W = tanker displacement at time of mooring, long tons/1000
Ceff = statistical energy coefficient, kip feet per 1000 long tons (2240
pounds per long ton). The coefficient will depend on wharf exposure, ship displacement, and desired reliability.
For a receiving wharf, the design displacement W will usually be for full tanker
displacement. For a shipping wharf, the displacement may be for a ballasted tanker.
However, shipping wharves which are used for topping off should be designed
for the highest vessel displacement expected to berth.
It should be emphasized that the energy coefficient design graphs are based on
limited berthing data from a limited number of locations for fully loaded vessels.
Until more measurements are incorporated in the design graphs, considerable judgment will be needed to select an appropriate design energy. This is especially true
for designs in very exposed locations (Type C Harbors) for which little data are
available.
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Reference 4 cautions that due to the lack of a strong data base, statistically derived
energies should be compared with those predicted by the kinetic method. Reference
4 also presents a more rigorous statistical procedure for determining risk and the
statistical distribution of fender energies based on an assumed distribution of ship
sizes. The extent of analysis appropriate for a particular design should be evaluated
by the designer.
Because of their increased freeboard, partly laden vessels are more easily influenced by wind load, thereby making them more difficult to control. However, the
scarce published data for partly laden vessels do not show appreciable differences
in design energy for partly laden and fully laden vessels at design risk levels (Reference 11 of Section 971).
Risk
The statistical behavior of fender impact energies requires that the designer explicitly consider the probability (risk) that the selected fender energy will be exceeded.
The assignment of acceptable risk is ultimately the responsibility of the owner of
the facility, based on advice from the designer. The following should be considered:
1.
2.
3.
For comparison, past Company practice has labeled design values with an
exceedence probability of 1 in 500 berthings (0.2%) as Low Risk and 1 in 100
berthings (1%) as Moderate Risk.
Frictional Forces
In addition to forces perpendicular to the fender panel, the fender system must be
designed to resist frictional forces in the plane of the panel. Frictional forces should
be obtained from Equation 900-3 and applied in any direction in the plane of the
panel that creates maximum stresses in the structural components.
Ff = (N)
(Eq. 900-3)
where:
Ff = design frictional force, lb.
= coefficient of friction between the ships hull and the fender
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The amount of stored energy in a structure is equal to the area under the load-deflection curve of the structure. In a linear, elastic system, potential energy is given by:
PE = 1/2 (K) (X)2
(Eq. 900-5)
where:
PE = potential energy, kip-ft.
K = spring constant of the system, kip-ft.
X = deflection of the fender, ft.
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Fig. 900-6
Rubber Fenders
Fig. 900-7
900-19
December 1993
eration should be given to compatibility of safety factors for the structure and
fender. This issue is discussed in detail in Section 2.2.6 of Reference 4
(Section 971). The possibility of providing extra energy absorption capacity in the
fender should be considered as part of the overall assessment of safety factors in
design loads and allowable stresses.
The performance of these fenders will be altered depending on the angular
approach of the tanker on the fender. Fender manufacturers offer methods to
analyze fender systems for different angles of approach. The fender connection
details as well as the breasting structure must be able to handle approach angles
(included angles between tanker side and fender panel surface) of at least 10
degrees. This angle may be smaller for ULCCs and VLCCs.
Another common practice is to use flexible tubular piles of high strength steel (steel
monopiles) cantilevering from the bottom as fenders. Rubber fender units are
usually attached near the top of the monopile, between the pile and the dock structure, to increase the energy absorbing capacity of the fender system. The use of
high strength steel increases the importance of considering weldability and susceptibility to local buckling.
The performance of flexible dolphins has been generally good, except for several
cases of localized buckling prior to attainment of the steel yield strength. This
should be considered when selecting allowable stresses.
In case of accidental overload, the monopile should be designed to maintain its
capacity through concentrated inelastic deformation. Portions of the piles where
inelastic deformation is possible should be designed to compact section requirements of API RP-2A (D/t < 1300/Fy, ksi). Other portions of the pile should be sized
to preclude local buckling (D/t < 60).
Spacing of Breasting Dolphins. The spacing of breasting dolphins, where isolated
units are used, should be about one-third the overall length (LOA) of the largest
tanker to be handled. To ensure contact with the parallel sides of the vessels to be
moored, however, the spacing limits are generally set a minimum of .25 LOA and a
maximum of .4 LOA for the largest vessel. If a wide range of tanker sizes is
expected, then intermediate breasting dolphins must be spotted between the end
dolphins. The parallel mid-body length of the smallest size tanker will control the
spacing of these intermediate dolphins.
End Breasting Dolphins. Experience has shown that the most frequently damaged
fenders are the end or corner breasting dolphins. Because of their critical exposure,
an increase in design energy for these fenders may be justified.
Fender Panel Design. Most fender systems include fender panels, frameworks that
receive the ships impact and distribute the impact force over a large enough hull
area so that no damage is done to the ship. The area of the fender panel must be
large enough to hold the peak pressure on the vessel hull under 5000 psf and preferably under 4000 psf. The fender panel should also be wide enough to span between
the transverse frames in the tanker, if possible. For a 270,000 DWT tanker, this
spacing can approach 20 feet.
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The contact surface of the fender panel must be covered with a material which
offers a low coefficient of friction in order to reduce friction loads between the
ships hull and the fender panel. Synthetic resins, high density polyethylenes, and
other engineering plastics are commonly used for this purpose. Corrosion resistance
should be considered when selecting materials for all hardware, including the
fasteners which attach the wear pads to the fender panel. The preferred material for
performance in immersion service is Monel; however, economics and availability
issues often dictate use of alternate materials. Due to susceptibility to pitting of
stainless steels and rapid depletion of zinc coating (galvanizing) in salt water, these
materials are not recommended for immersion service. Company materials specialists should be consulted when specifying materials for severe service environments.
It is important to specify beveled edges on the fender panel to prevent protruding
plates in the vessel hull from hanging up on the panel and overstressing the fender.
Fender panels should also be detailed to prevent mooring lines from catching on or
running underneath the panel. If barges are expected to use the wharf, the panel
design should prevent them from getting beneath the panel under all sea conditions.
When rubber fender units are used, it is usually necessary to install fender panel
chains to transfer the shear and tension forces from the panel to the support structure. Chain assemblies should be designed with a weak-link component (e.g.,
shackle) which will fail before structural damage occurs. Each assembly should
also include a turnbuckle to facilitate length adjustments during construction and
service life. The chains function as follows:
1.
2.
3.
Allowable Stresses. The maximum allowable stress under impact conditions for
structural steel members in wharf construction should typically be limited to 1.33
times the basic design stress given in the AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings. This factor is generally used
for extreme environmental loading conditions. Fendering units which impart near
maximum reaction forces with little deflection regularly subject structures to high
forces (see Figure 900-7). The potential energy stored in a deflected structure also
varies as the square of the bending stress. Therefore, using a very high allowable
stress drastically reduces the amount of overload capacity or safety factor before
reaching the ultimate bending capacity. This factor should be carefully considered
when setting the allowable stress for design of breasting dolphins.
Rated Approach Velocity. When Equation 900-2 is used to determine the design
kinetic energy, approach velocity is not explicitly considered. If the wharfs operators require a design approach velocity, Equation 900-1 can be solved for V using
the statistically based design energy. A typical maximum velocity is 0.4 to 0.5 feet
per second. A higher or lower value may be appropriate depending on wharf exposure and operational requirements.
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2.
Spring lines.
3.
Breasting lines.
If adequate mooring facilities are made available for good breasting and spring line
arrangement, a ship can be moored most efficiently virtually within its own length.
Bow and stern lines, due to their long length and poor orientation, are usually not
very efficient in holding a vessel at berth. The vertical angle of mooring lines
should be kept to a minimum and always less than 25 degrees. Horizontally applied
loads are more efficiently resisted as the mooring line gets flatter.
The spring lines hold the tanker in position longitudinally along the wharf and act
as shock absorbing elements. The breasting lines hold the tanker from drifting away
from the face of the wharf.
Mooring elements must be positioned to handle the expected range of tanker sizes.
This often means that additional mooring dolphins must be spotted between the
ones on the extreme ends of the wharf. It may be desirable to have the breasting
dolphins also double as mooring dolphins to handle spring lines. Where practical
for example, at wharves where berthing is only on one sidethe mooring dolphins
should be set back from the breasting face of the wharf by as much as 100 to 150
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feet, to limit the upward component of the mooring pull (tanker light) and also to
reduce the navigational hazards.
In locations subject to large waves or seiches, the mooring system must be analyzed
to ensure that it has enough elasticity to accommodate expected tanker displacements.
Fig. 900-9
Circum.
Manila
28.4
1-5/16
15
49
31
106
9(1)
64
229
12
105
396
15
606
Size (inches)
57
64
84.5
129
1-1/2
126
142(1)
185
280
1-5/8
220(1)
220
248
322
488
2-1/2
492
744
693
1045
3-1/2
922
1383
1176
The theoretical mooring forces can be calculated as the sum of the current,
wave/surge, and wind forces, in various tide and vessel draft conditions. CPTC (San
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where:
N = number of hawsers that may be run to the dolphin (consult
Chevron Shipping Co.)
S = breaking strength of each hawser, kips
PD = design mooring force on the dolphin, kips
PT = theoretical mooring force on the dolphin in kips, calculated by
subjecting the design tanker to the wind, current, and wave forces.
The stresses caused by this design force are at a working stress level (i.e., they are
to be compared with soil or material allowable stresses).
Figure 900-10 lists design mooring forces used for selected Company facilities.
Wind Forces. The design wind velocity should be the maximum velocity expected
at the wharf site when a tanker is at berth. The design wind velocity should not, in
normal circumstances, exceed 60 knots, because in practice the tanker must move
off the wharf when a severe storm approaches.
Current Forces. In the preliminary design phase, studies should be made to determine current velocities and direction. Where large currents are present, studies to
determine primary current direction and variability may be justified. It is desirable
to locate and orient the wharf so that the wharf face is within 2 to 3 degrees of the
primary current direction. Mooring line forces are extremely sensitive to vessels
moored at an angle to current direction.
Other Forces. Three other types of design forces should be mentioned: surge
forces, ice forces, and wave forces Surge forces can arise in several ways; for
example, in harbors with narrow channels, passing ships can cause oscillation in
turning basins with resulting surging of moored ships. This happens along the
Houston Ship Channel. A second type of surging occurs in harbors subject to
seiching. Seiching is a long period (2 minutes to 10 minutes, typically) resonant
oscillation of a bay, inlet or lake. Monterey Bay in California experiences seiching.
For surging, the best solution (if the wharf cannot be relocated) is to run additional
mooring lines and keep them snugged-up. The breaking strength of these extra
lines, of course, adds to the mooring forces to be considered in design.
Ice forces can be a design factor in many areas of the world. Typically, broken,
floating sheets of ice move down rivers or tidal estuaries and exert force against the
tanker. A possible design condition is where an ice floe becomes trapped between
the tanker and the wharf resulting in large form-drag forces being developed.
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- Bow
550 kips/dolphin
440 kips/dolphin
- Spring
440 kips/dolphin
250 kips/dolphin
- Breast
250 kips/dolphin
- Spring
160 kips/dolphin
400 kips/dolphin
- Spring
350 kips/dolphin
- Spring
(Outer)
350 kips/dolphin
(Inner)
185 kips/dolphin
(Outer)
650 kips/dolphin
(Inner)
350 kips/dolphin
- Breast
- Spring
185 kips/dolphin
- Breast
385 kips/dolphin
Nikiski (1969)
80,000 DWT
(1) At BORCO, bow and stern dolphins handle both inside and outside berths.
(2) At NIKISKI, ice forces plus very high currents control design. Spring lines run to combined breastingloading platform.
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December 1993
Mooring Equipment
Mooring hooks, bitts, bollards, and similar mooring equipment must be provided to
hold the mooring lines. For major facilities, quick-release hooks are furnished to
reduce the manpower needed to castoff a tanker.
These hooks should be proof tested to 150% of their design load. The hooks and
their anchorages, depending on their configuration, may allow 180-degree hook
rotation in the horizontal plane, but it is usually not practical to design for the 180degree rotation. The variety of mooring line arrangements normally encountered at
a tanker wharf does not subject these hooks to such rotation. In addition, the hooks
should be able to handle loads acting at an angle of 30 degrees up from the horizontal. The trip mechanism must be able to release under full load and slack line
conditions. Figure 900-11 shows some typical hooks.
Fig. 900-11 Mooring Equipment
Manufacturer catalogs should be consulted for the rotation and combined rotations
available. Common suppliers of mooring equipment are Seebeck, Sugita and Washington Chain and Supply. Coating of steel mooring equipment should be specified
after consulting the Companys Coatings Manual. Good protection has been
obtained with polyamide epoxy over inorganic zinc. An additional coat of aliphatic
polyurethane is sometimes recommended for additional protection.
December 1993
900-26
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
1.
Piping manifolds
2.
3.
Metering facilities
4.
5.
Storage space
6.
7.
Boat landing
900-27
December 1993
8.
9.
Loading Gear
The connection to transfer crude or products between the tankers manifold and the
wharf piping is made with either cargo hoses or articulated metal arms. The choice
here depends on the type of product, design load rate, tanker size, and berth occupancy. For crude loading, the maximum rates shown in Figure 900-12 are recommended.
Fig. 900-12 Recommended Maximum Load Rates, by Vessel Class
December 1993
Vessel Class
29,000 DWT
40,000 BPH
44,000
50,000
53,000
60,000
66,000
75,000
73,000
75,000
150,000
150,000
212,000
150,000
216,000
150,000
251,000
180,000
261,000
180,000
900-28
Chevron Corporation
These rates are based on the venting capacity of the various tankers. For tanker
unloading, the peak rates are lower as they are governed by the ships pumps.
Typical rates are 75,000 BPH maximum for 200,000 DWTs and 100,000 BPH
maximum for 250,000 DWTs. For products transfer, the economical loading rate is
usually lower than for crude. Typical product rates are in the 5,000 to 25,000 BPH
range.
Marine Loading Arms. If it is economically attractive to design the marine
terminal for the maximum rates shown in Figure 900-12, fully-articulated, swingjoint arms are justified. These arms are readily available in sizes up to 16 inches.
Loading arms as large as 24 inches have been installed, but overall, their use is
limited. In selecting loading arm size, caution should be used if flow velocities in
excess of 30 feet per second are required. High flow velocities may cause cavitation, which can result in erosion damage, severe vibration, or fatigue failure in the
loading arm.
Swing-joint arms should be designed with counter-balances or controls that limit
the reaction force applied to the tanker manifold. This factor becomes increasingly
important for large tankers because their great draft necessitates very long and,
therefore, very heavy loading arms. The use of hydraulic control should be considered on these larger arms. Figure 900-13 shows a typical loading arm. Company
Specification CIV-MS-4074, Marine Loading Arms, and OCIMF Specification
Design and Construction Specification for Marine Loading Arms should be
consulted when preparing a specification for loading arms to be installed at a tanker
wharf.
Hoses. For small, light-duty wharves, hoses can be used to make the piping connection between tanker, or barge, and wharf. Hose cranes should be furnished to help
lift and handle the hose sections. Hose for this application in conjunction with
tankers should conform to the Companys Specification PIM-MS-2923. Hose
obtained for use in connection between barges and wharves should conform to
Specification PIM-MS-3133. These hose specifications will be in the Companys
Piping Manual.
The hose handling areas, including the hose connection manifolds, should be
provided with spill containment (concrete or sheet metal) deck and curbs and a
collection tank or sump.
Arcing during Connection and Disconnection. To provide protection against
arcing during connection and disconnection, metal marine loading arms and cargo
hose strings should be fitted with an insulating flange or joint or a single length of
non-conducting hose. This will ensure electrical discontinuity between the ship and
shore. Cargo hose strings can be insulated with an insulating flange on the dock
piping riser. All metal on the seaward side of the insulating section should be electrically continuous to the ship; that on the landward side should be electrically
continuous to the jettys earthing system.
Critical Dimensions. When specifying marine loading arms, it is necessary to
record on the OCIMF data sheet (4.3 and 4.4) some critical dimensions relating to
the berth and tankers. Figure 900-14 summarizes dimensional data used for existing
Chevron Corporation
900-29
December 1993
Company terminals. These data can guide you in specifying these dimensions. The
numbered items correspond to dimensional designations given in the OCIMF specification.
For a new or modified terminal it is necessary to get a representative slate of vessels
that could reasonably be expected to use the facility. This effort should also
consider what type/size of vessels might be used in the future. The agreed slate of
vessels is usually developed jointly with Chevron Shipping (Ports & Navigation)
and the facility operators.
Defining the Marine Loading Arm Envelope. Prior to filling out the data sheets
to specify the marine loading arms, an initial planning study should be made to
define the required marine loading arm envelope as shown in Figure 2 and 3 of
Reference 9 in Section 971.
The plot of vertical and horizontal tanker manifold positions with respect to the
loading platform should identify the extreme envelope conditions, vessels at full
draft at low tide, and vessels at light draft at high tide. With this plot completed, the
following items can be considered:
December 1993
Deck height
Set-back from the berthing line
900-30
Chevron Corporation
Richmond
Berth 4
Pascagoula
Berth 4
Pascagoula
Berth 7
Empire
Tanker Sizes
(DWT)
To 50,000
75-150,000
30-100,000
30-100,000
To 150,000
Arms
(qty-size)
2-8", 4-12"
2-12", 3-16"
1-8", 1-10"
2-12", 2-16"
1-10", 2-16"
Primary
Service
Products
Crude
Products
Crude
Crude
Item
OCIMF
Reference
Surge(1)
Fore & Aft
4.3 d. & e.
Not avail.
Sway
4.3f
7'
7'
3'-0"
Not avail.
Not avail.
Heave at
manifold
4.3g.&h.
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
Top of
platform
to LLW
4.4.a
Approx 16'
Approx 25'
12'-6"
18'-6"
Approx
15'-10"
4.4b
8'-0"
7'-7-1/2"
3'-6"
5'-0"
5'
4.4c
9'-0"
10'-0"
7'-6"
8'-0"
7'-6"
Distance
between center
line of risers
4.4d
8'-8"
10'-0"
Approx 8'
10'-0"
10'-0"
(1) Value for surge fore and aft is combined with spotting allowance fore and aft of marine arm center line.
(2) Heave not separately identified. In protected waters heave is generally judged to be small, and normal arm envelopes can accommodate it.
Identification of the extreme tanker manifold positions that will govern the
geometry of the loading arms. Generally, the majority of tanker manifold positions will conveniently fall within a reasonable envelope. However, careful
consideration should be given to the few instances where a tanker manifold is
positioned well outside the normal envelope. The additional cost to provide
marine arms to meet an unusual, extreme case may not be justified. For such
situations take into account the following:
Chevron Corporation
Distance from center line of the marine arm risers to the face of the
loading platform
Spacing between loading arms
What is the expected frequency of this vessel at this terminal, and is this
expected to continue for a significant number of years?
900-31
December 1993
What is the frequency of the extreme tidal conditions that cause the
problem?
Are there operational changes that can be made to the loading procedures
to mitigate the extreme draft conditions for the vessel?
If the tanker handrail located outside the manifold causes an interference
problem, is it removable?
Another recommended step prior to filling out the OCIMF marine loading arm
data sheet is to review the loading arm envelope with the marine arm suppliers.
The two largest manufacturers of arms are:
Representatives from these manufacturers can provide valuable input regarding the
loading arm geometry. Items to be considered include:
Arm interferences with lateral sluing. The large triple swivel assemblies at the
outer end of the arms can cause interference problems at the extreme lateral
travel positions.
Electric Power
Power is required for lighting, impressed current cathodic protection systems, and
equipment such as loading arms, gangways, capstans, fire-water pumps, and reels
for oil spill boom equipment. Special outlets for welding are provided at some
installations.
December 1993
900-32
Chevron Corporation
Buildings
As a minimum, an operators shack with office, toilet facilities, and storage space is
usually provided. A major installation could well include a full operations-office
building, locker room facilities, bulk-cargo warehouses, shops, and a bunk house.
Navigation Aids
Navigation aids, such as lights and fog horns, must be provided in accordance with
the particular governing regulations. In the United States, the Coast Guard is in
charge and will outline their requirements when the Corps of Engineers permit is
filed.
Personnel Safety
Adequate personnel safety provisions are mandatory. There should be a minimum
of two escape stairways or ladders leading to boat landings. In addition, jacobs
ladders should be provided for all remote dolphins. Life jackets and life rings
should be provided as required by local regulating authority.
2.
A one-hour firewater supply of 500-1000 gpm for single berth docks, or a fourhour firewater supply of 2000-4000 gpm for multi-berth docks.
3.
4.
Drainage should flow away from loading pipes, arms, and shut-off valves.
5.
These guidelines are minimum requirements and may not always be sufficient.
Some foreign governments, for example, require much more elaborate fire protection and evacuation systems. Therefore, it is necessary to confirm requirements
with the specific government agencies issuing permits to the facility. It should be
noted that the Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) is compiling a
summary of recommended guidelines for fire protection and emergency evacuation.
Chevron Corporation
900-33
December 1993
Communications
The operations center on the loading platform must be furnished with a variety of
communications links. A telephone line should connect the wharf to the shore facilities. A radio system is needed to communicate with arriving tankers. Portable radio
sets are very useful in the mooring operation. Horns and buzzers can be used to
signal the operators when they are away from the office.
Gangway System
Most tanker wharves built today require the installation of fixed gangway facilities
for vessel access. On the most recent wharf projects, the gangways have been twopiece systems, an inboard section and an outboard section. The stair treads for each
section should be self-leveling or curved fixed treads that are relatively easy to walk
on in most operating positions. An envelope drawing of the tanker showing its
maximum limits of drift away from the berth and the maximum and minimum deck
elevations should be prepared to insure the gangway will satisfy all operating conditions.
A tower structure is typically required to support the gangway and its associated
control equipment. A motorized gear winch is commonly used to provide control of
the gangway. At Richmond Berth 1, the gangway has powered control in the
vertical plane, but the horizontal position is controlled by a swinging mechanism.
The gangway at Empire has powered control in the vertical and horizontal directions.
Washington Aluminum has manufactured the gangways installed at a number of
recently constructed tanker berths.
December 1993
900-34
Chevron Corporation
durability. The wharves at Richmond, for example, are provided with compactable,
self-inflating/self-deflating booms stored on wharf-mounted hydraulic/electric or
pneumatic powered reels. The reel assemblies minimize required storage area and
deployment manpower. These deployable booms are connected in an emergency to
permanent booms located under the wharves.
Government regulations in the United States are not very specific regarding spill
containment. The Code of Federal Regulations Section 33CFR154 contains general
oil pollution prevention regulations that must be followed for marine oil transfer
facilities capable of transferring oil from vessels of 250 barrels or greater capacity.
The Coast Guard reviews equipment and procedures in order to judge compliance
with this regulation. The facility must have access to enough equipment (boom,
towing vessels, etc.) and personnel to deploy the boom and contain the spill in what
the Coast Guard considers a reasonable time period. Of course, the facility must
also have access to a means of removing the spill once contained.
Many company facilities belong to local cooperatives that purchase and maintain
spill clean-up equipment. The extent of equipment required at a particular wharf
will depend upon what equipment would be available from the cooperative, if one
exists.
Drainage System
The loading platform requires a drainage system to collect, contain, and dispose of
spilled hydrocarbons in all areas where spills may occur. Typically, the spills are
collected in sumps on the wharf. The oil may then be disposed of by pumping it
into a ballast line if one exists. Some facilities rely on a vacuum truck to periodically empty the sumps.
Other Systems
The following systems may be required or desirable depending on particular conditions:
1.
2.
AirUtility or Instrument
3.
Sanitary Sewage
Chevron Corporation
900-35
December 1993
Categories of Mooring
Three general categories of mooring types are used for mooring tankers offshore:
Fixed Jetty or Sea Island. The vessel is tied up to fixed point mooring structures
and breasting against fenders on a fixed structure. A loading platform is usually
located at the center. This type of mooring is limited to shallow water and sheltered
locations or mild environments. The structures are fixed in location so the vessel
cannot be re-oriented to minimize wind, current, and wave forces if the weather
direction changes. Tankers must be handled by tugs, and very large tankers cannot
be accommodated because of their water depth requirements. Capital cost outlay
can be significantly larger than for a single point mooring. Still, this type of
mooring facilitates quick, clean, and simple loading or offloading when the location
is suitable. (See Section 920: Tanker Wharves.)
Spread Mooring. The vessel is held with ropes to buoys secured by anchors or
mooring dolphins from several points around the vessel circumference. This system
fixes the orientation of the vessel; the vessel generally cannot be re-oriented to minimize wind, current, and wave forces if the weather direction changes. Therefore,
although the mooring lines allow compliance to wave motions, spread moorings are
limited to mild environments. Moreover, connecting mooring ropes to several
points around the vessel is more time consuming and requires more maneuvering
than connecting to a single point.
Single Point Mooring. Single point moorings (SPMs) are preferred over conventional spread moorings when the moored vessel needs to be able to easily change its
heading in response to changes in wind, wave, and current directions. Because a
single point mooring restrains a vessel through a single point or axis, the vessel is
free to weathervane and find its heading of least resistance to the weather.
Another reason for restraining the vessel through a single point is to facilitate quick
and easy connection to, and cast-off from the mooring. SPMs are well suited for
use as loading terminals for both of these reasons.
December 1993
900-36
Chevron Corporation
CALMs do not lend themselves to quick connect or disconnect, so they are not suitable as loading terminals. They are typically used to permanently moor storage or
production and storage tankers, with lightering tankers loading in tandem or alongside. The rigid yoke is stronger and more durable than a hawser, and prevents collisions between vessel and buoy.
Soft YokeCALM. This mooring differs physically from the rigid yoke CALM
only in the connection of the rigid yoke to the vessel. Instead of hinges at the bow
or stern, a soft connection is made at the vessel. The vessel end of the rigid yoke
is connected to two pendulums suspended from the port and starboard sides of the
bow or stern. The pendulums are chains, weighted at their ends with a heavy rod
passing under the vessel and suspended from both chains. In this configuration,
vessel motions cause less loading on the anchor legs, but vessel to mooring connect
and disconnect is still not routine.
SALM. SALM stands for Single Anchor Leg Mooring; it is described here but
not specifically addressed by this section. As with the CALM type, the SALM is
suitable for use as an export terminal with hawsers between the vessel and SALM,
or as a permanent mooring with some kind of structural yoke between the vessel
and mooring. SALMs differ from CALMs in that the buoy on a SALM is anchored
to the sea floor by a single tensioned anchor leg rather than several catenary anchor
legs. The single anchor leg is often a rigid tubular structure, but always articulated
near the sea floor, where the base is held down by piles. Sometimes more articulations are employed along the anchor leg. The top of the anchor leg is buoyant,
providing the restoring mechanism, which is analogous to that of a pendulum, but
inverted and provided by buoyancy instead of gravity.
In addition to the hawser option, two types of structural yoke are commonly used to
fix the vessel to the buoy. Rigid yokes similar to those used for CALMs are
common. Another type, called a buoyant yoke, is unique to the SALM type. Here
the buoyancy that tensions the SALM is not in the top of the anchor leg but rather
on a submerged part of the yoke truss. This design is also referred to as a SALS,
for Single Anchor Leg Storage. Buoyant yoke SALMs are known to cause stress
and wear in the yoke-to-vessel hinge, with at least one catastrophic failure on
record.
Turret. A turret is similar to a CALM, except that the turret uses the vessels buoyancy to support the weight of the anchor legs. Consequently, no yoke or hawser is
required to attach the mooring to the vessel; the turret is either cantilevered off the
bow or stern, or built into the vessels hull. Turrets are not suitable for export terminals, because the tanker is permanently attached to the mooring.
Fixed Structure SPM. This type of single point mooring is used in shallow water.
A jacket or column structure is piled into the sea floor and the vessel is attached to
this structure by a hawser or by a soft yoke or wishbone yoke arrangement
similar to the one described for the soft yoke CALM. The top of the structure is
fitted with a turntable for weathervaning, and in the case of a hawser connection,
the structure is protected from vessel collisions with an impact energy absorbing
fender. Hawser-fixed structure SPMs are suitable as loading terminals.
Chevron Corporation
900-37
December 1993
Hawser-CALM Installations
Hawser-CALMs (sometimes called SPM buoys), are manufactured by several
firms and used throughout the world. In mild environments and moderate water
depths, CALMs are inexpensive and familiar. Many components can be purchased
from stock. Tankers do not normally require tugs for assistance during mooring,
although a launch is required to handle mooring hawsers and crude transfer hoses.
Moreover, CALMs have been designed to handle up to 5 separate products through
multiple pass swivels capable of accommodating transfer rates beyond 60,000
barrels of oil per hour. This section focuses on hawser-CALMs because they are the
most commonly used type of single point mooring for loading terminals, but some
of the information contained here, such as on chains, anchors, and hoses can be
applied to other types of moorings.
Description. A typical hawser CALM installation (Figure 900-15) consists of (1) a
submarine pipeline or pipelines from shore or offshore production facility to the
buoy site, (2) a pipeline end manifold (PLEM), (3) underbuoy hoses connecting the
PLEM to the buoy, (4) the CALM buoy, including turntable and product swivel
assembly, (5) hoses (usually floating) connecting the CALM to the tanker, (6)
mooring chains and anchorage for the buoy, and (7) hawsers from the tanker to the
buoy.
The underbuoy hoses are connected to the stationary buoy body, which is restrained
from rotating relative to the seafloor. The floating hoses are connected to a section
of the buoy called the rotating cargo manifold or turntable, which is free to rotate.
The tanker is moored to the turntable and is therefore free to assume a position of
least drag due to wind, waves, and current.
The CALM-type SPM was developed and patented by the Shell Development
Company, and the buoys are manufactured under license to Shell.
Manufacturers. At the present time, CALM systems are manufactured by the
following firms:
December 1993
900-38
Chevron Corporation
current design features is readily available from the manufacturers. Some manufacturers, keep a sizable inventory of CALM components on hand for immediate
delivery and installation.
Vessel Data
Figure 900-32 lists general characteristics of tankers ranging in size from 16,500 to
500,000 L.T. DWT. Also, Chevron Shipping publishes a volume called Vessel
Profile Sheets, which is useful for compiling specific or generic data about the
vessels (Reference 10 of Section 972).
1.
2.
Chevron Corporation
Length overall
Beam
900-39
December 1993
Depth
Maximum loaded draft
Minimum loaded draft
3.
4.
5.
Fluid Flow
1.
2.
3.
4.
Product data:
Pumping pressure
Anticipated loading and/or discharge rate
Fluid temperature
Viscosity
Gravity
Pumping pressure for a discharging tanker is normally 150 psi at pumps and
about 120 psi at the ships rail. Loading rates are limited by the tank venting
system; refer to the approximate maximum rates shown in Figure 900-12.
Average loading rates will be about 85% of maximum due to starting up and
topping off operations.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Environmental Conditions
Information on environmental conditions for any location is available from CPTC
(La Habra).
1.
December 1993
Safety area around and under the buoy. Tankers require a certain amount of
safety area around the buoy to maneuver. The necessary safety area will vary
with each location and the size of the largest tanker anticipated. Tankers must
normally approach the buoy into the current or wind, whichever controls. The
safety area can be as little as two ship lengths to as much as four ship lengths,
900-40
Chevron Corporation
depending on the direction and intensity of the prevailing winds and currents.
Three thousand feet is considered a desirable minimum distance to shoal water
(minimum depth). Adjacent CALMs should be separated by at least three (preferably more) ship lengths. Buoys should be separated from nearby structures
such as platforms or floating production systems by at least 1.5 miles.
Sufficient water depth is required for the fully loaded tanker to clear any pipelines at low tide with a 10% margin. Also consider whether the anchor chains
can become an obstacle to the tanker. Tankers have been known to catch on
anchor chains with their bulbous bows.
Preliminary layout can usually be made from U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
charts. In locations where water depth changes sharply, CALM buoy may not
be the suitable choice for a marine berth.
2.
Tidal conditions:
3.
4.
5.
One minute sustained wind velocity at an elevation of 33 feet above the sea
surface should be used for the return interval selected.
6.
7.
Also consider current velocity and direction versus depth below sea surface.
Chevron Corporation
900-41
December 1993
8.
Normal current:
9.
Velocity
Direction
Cause of current (i.e., tidal or littoral). If tidal, check patterns for rips or shear
lines which could cause problems with tanker motion around the buoy.
Minimum
Maximum
13. Underwater visibility; distance. Poor visibility will normally increase installation costs due to reduced diver efficiency.
14. Underwater obstructions. Plan on performing a side scan sonar survey of the
installation area and consider a wire rope drag survey.
15. Ambient temperatures:
Maximum
Minimum
2.
Navigation light:
3.
Fog horn:
4.
December 1993
900-42
Chevron Corporation
5.
6.
7.
8.
Tugs:
9.
Any locally?
Experienced with mooring and survey work?
Chevron Corporation
900-43
December 1993
December 1993
900-44
Chevron Corporation
offset in response to the static forces, and then is offset further by the amplitude of
the tankers motion response to waves.
Moored vessels also have motions at frequencies well below the wave frequency
range. These motions, known as second order motions, or slowly varying drift,
can be an important design consideration, depending on the spring-mass properties of the moored vessel. They occur when wave groups excite the natural motion
response period of the moored vessel.
Calculation Methods. Static mooring forces can be estimated by hand using
formulas and graphs contained in the following references (see Section 972). These
references are very easy to use and contain sample calculations.
Reference 8 is applicable for wind and current forces on very large crude
carriers (VLCCs), i.e., tankers ranging in size from 150-500 thousand tons
deadweight.
Reference 16 provides methods for quickly estimating wind, current, and wave
forces. Much of the wave force data, however, is valid only for relatively small
vessels such as drill ships.
Chevron Corporation
900-45
December 1993
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900-46
Chevron Corporation
Chain Design Criteria. Chain size and grade are determined by the required
strength and weight. Chain breaking strength should be adequate to survive a load
about 2 times the tension developed by the design horizontal force on the buoy
(survival condition factor of safety = 2), and to operate with a tension factor of
safety of 3.
Maximum allowable buoy offset is a function of the underbuoy hose design. Offsets
within 10% of water depth can normally be tolerated. Buoy offsets can be reduced
by using heavier chains and higher working tensions (pretensions).
Chain length is governed by water depth, pretension force, design load, weight of
chain, and the use of clumps or weights. Under the design load the chain should not
lift off the bottom 1) at the point of attachment to the pile, or 2) if anchors are used
instead of piles, at the point where less than 100 feet of chain remains on the sea
floor before an anchor.
Chain calculations are discussed in the latter part of this section.
Chain Tension and Wear. Chains are pretensioned during installation of the
CALM buoy. The pretensioning serves to stabilize the buoy and reduces the amount
of horizontal movement under load.
The chain pretension angle from horizontal at the buoy is usually in the range of 60
degrees for buoys in about 100 to 120 feet of water, and requires about 10 to 15
tons of pretensioning force.
Chain wear normally occurs in the dip section (where the chain contacts the
bottom) on catenary anchor legs. Sometimes heavier chain is used in this region to
reduce the effect of wear.
Use of Clumps. Clumps are sinker-type weights attached to the chain to provide
additional weight without going to a larger chain size. They have been used on
buoy anchorages employing 4 anchor chains for tankers around 100,000 DWT and
for deep-water installations to reduce the chain size and length. Clumps tend to
reduce the spring action of the mooring system which is not desirable in shallow
water, and provide another component of the system which requires inspection and
maintenance.
Calculations. The design of a mooring chain system involves trial and error calculations to establish the required chain size and pretension angle. Mooring analysis
calculations are used to check buoy excursion under load, chain tension, length of
chain required, and other properties of catenary curves.
If the anchor legs are composed of uniform material, with no clumps or subsea
buoys, and if chain elasticity and drag forces along the length of the chains can be
neglected, then hand calculations may be possible. Figures 900-17 and 900-18,
which are taken from the API RP-2P, contain the formulas which can be used for a
simple catenary. This Recommended Practice also contains sample calculations.
A more complete mooring analysis can be performed by CPTC (San Ramon) using
state-of-the art mooring analysis programs and techniques.
Chevron Corporation
900-47
December 1993
December 1993
900-48
Chevron Corporation
Anchorage Design
Anchors should be designed to hold the chain under the maximum horizontal
design loading on the buoy.
Piles Versus Anchors. Chains can be anchored to the sea bottom by the use of shiptype drag embedment anchors or by pile structures driven into the sea bottom.
Some of the factors to be considered in choosing between piles or anchors are as
follows:
The exact location and holding power of a pile can be more precisely determined than for a drag embedment anchor. Because of this uncertainty, drag
anchors have to be tested to higher tensions than do piles.
Anchors which are well embedded during installation will still have a tendency
to creep before taking a permanent set. Anchor chains will require periodic
retensioning until the anchors stop moving. Piles do not creep.
An anchor may be pulled out or displaced if the force applied by the chain is
above horizontal. This situation could occur if the bulbous bow on a tanker
hooks under a chain.
Generally, drag embedment anchors are less expensive to purchase and install
than pile anchorages.
Embedment Anchors. The most commonly used types of anchors are the Navy
Stockless, the LWT type (Danforth) and the STATO anchor. Anchor dimensions are
shown in Figures 900-19 through 900-23.
Figures 900-24 and 900-25 give holding power versus weight for 14 types of
anchors based on tests conducted by the U.S. Navy. More current information (for
14 different anchor types) can be found in the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratorys
technical data publication Drag Embedment Anchors for Navy Moorings (Reference 17, Section 972).
Pile Anchors. Several types of pile anchors can be used for single point moorings.
The most common, single or multiple driven piles, are depicted in Figure 900-26.
Piles can also be drilled and grouted, or jetted into the sea floor. Another less
common type of anchor pile is the suction pile. Suction piles are similar to oldfashioned diving bells. After lowering onto the sea floor, a vacuum is applied to the
cavity, sucking the piles edge into the ground.
Chevron Corporation
900-49
December 1993
December 1993
900-50
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
900-51
December 1993
December 1993
900-52
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
900-53
December 1993
December 1993
900-54
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 900-24 Anchor Chain System Holding Capacity at the Mud Line in Hard Soils (Sand and Stiff Clay)
Chevron Corporation
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December 1993
Fig. 900-25 Anchor Chain System Holding Capacity at the Mud Line in Soft Soils (Silt and Clay)
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Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
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December 1993
Mooring line material should not be mixed. For example, do not use one polypropylene line and one nylon line, as the stretch versus load characteristics are different
and one line will take a disproportionate part of the load.
Design CriteriaStrength
Tests have indicated that nylon ropes will take a permanent stretch when normal
working loads of over 40% of breaking strength are encountered for an extended
period. Assuming that the two-rope system will take the load equally, it can be
considered logical to dimension the ropes to reach the design load when the two
ropes acting together take 80% of the static breaking strength of one rope.
Under actual mooring conditions, the two ropes may not take the load equally, since
the ship has a tendency to yaw, throwing more load on one rope. Under the most
severe conditions at design load, in the event all the load were taken by one rope,
the buoy design load would equal the actual breaking strength of one rope (80% of
the static breaking load).
Length, ft
100,000 DWT
110
200,000 DWT
150
250,000 DWT
160
175
The length of lines does not include the sections of chafing chain at the buoy or at
the ships end, which will add about 15 feet total.
Special consideration should be given to:
Ships with unusually high freeboard. These vessels can be drawn uncomfortably close to the buoy when in ballast.
Rope Data
Static breaking strengths of rope vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer.
The information in Figure 900-27 is a good approximation for preliminary design
purposes.
Cost
Current costs for synthetic mooring rope suitable for SPM hawsers are available
from rope vendors such as Samson Ocean Systems (Boston) and British Ropes
(London).
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Chevron Corporation
Polyester
Nylon
Polypropylene
10
280,000
322,000
194,000
12
396,000
451,000
270,000
15
606,000
680,000
400,000
18
857,000
950,000
560,000
24
1,250,000
1,425,000
740,000
Sumitomo
Bridgestone
Pirelli
Manuli
Kleber
Yokohama
Dunlop
Head Losses
Head losses in hoses vary from 10% to 25% greater than losses in an equivalent
steel pipe. The percentage increase will be higher at low velocity and low viscosity
(1 cs), and around 10% for viscosities 10 cs and above and for throughputs in the
range of 30 to 40 fps. Figure 900-29 is a graph of head loss versus throughput.
Hose Specifications
Company experience indicates that hoses meeting the following general specifications will perform satisfactorily under normal operating conditions:
Chevron Corporation
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December 1993
I.D.
(in.)
Flow
Area
(sq.in.)
Flow
@ 40 fps
(lb/sec)
BPH
@ 40 fps
(S.G. 0.85)
Nom.
O.D.
Selfloat
Hose (in.)
Nom.
O.D.
Submarine
Hose (in.)
Wt/30'
Selfloat
Hose (lb.)
Wt/30'
Submarine
Hose
(lb.)
Min.
Bending
Radius
(ft)
8.0
50.3
760
9,200
16
10.125
1,670
940
10
10.0
78.5
1,182
14,300
20
12.25
2,350
12
12.0
113
1,708
20,650
22.875
14.5
16
15.25
183
2,760
33,400
28.25
20
19.25
291
4,390
53,200
33
24
23.25
426
6,400
77,600
30
29.25
674
10,100
123,000
36
35.25
978
14,700
178,000
Notes:
Max. Tension
Tons
Zero
Press
Work
Press
55
46
1,350
86
72
3,000
1,760
125
104
18.5
4,500
2,800
222
185
23.375
5,700
4,300
10
340
290
4,900
(1)
500
417
38.5
27
7,750
12
Flanges: 150 lb. ASA flat face, weld neck, carbon steel
Bolts: 316 stainless or Monel (Monel for most severe corrosive conditions, K
Monel if additional strength is required)
Refer to the latest edition of Reference 7 (Section 972) for up-to-date standard specifications. Company Specifications for oil suction and discharge hoses for SPM
offshore moorings are provided in PIM-EG-3092-D.
Underbuoy Hoses
Underbuoy hoses, also referred to as submarine hoses, connect the buoy to the
pipeline end manifold (PLEM). In order to function properly, these hoses must be
capable of movement to accommodate vertical rise and fall of the buoy due to tides,
waves, and swells, coupled with horizontal movements of the buoy due to tanker
mooring forces. Since at least two hoses are used in most installations for tankers
over 50,000 DWT, provision must be made to prevent the hoses from rubbing
against each other and wearing. The life expectancy of underbuoy hoses is normally
about 2 to 3 years, but it can be shortened considerably if chafing is allowed to
occur.
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Chevron Corporation
Fig. 900-29 Head Loss Versus Throughput for Smooth-bore Hoses in SPM Service
Chevron Corporation
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December 1993
Three basic configurations for underbuoy hoses are currently used; they are (1)
Bow-leg (Chinese lantern), (2) Lazy S (or lazy wave), and (3) Steep S (for
steep wave). Figure 900-30 illustrates these configurations.
Fig. 900-30 Basic Underbuoy Hose Configurations
Buoyancy Systems. For any of these configurations, the hoses must be provided
with buoyancy in order to obtain and maintain the desired configuration. Two types
of buoyancy schemes have been used: (1) monocellular bead-type floats which
clamp around the hose, and (2) steel buoyancy tanks with adjustable buoyancy.
The bead-type floats are less expensive but tend to break and are, therefore, more of
a maintenance problem. The steel buoyancy tanks are more expensive, but once
installed, do not require much maintenance. The steel buoyancy tanks have adjustable buoyancy by means of the air/water (or air/oil) ratio within the tanks.
Floating Hoses
Floating hoses, which connect the ship to the buoy, have two major wear points: (1)
at the connection to the buoy, and (2) at the connection to the ship.
Buoy Connection. The section of hose closest to the buoy undergoes considerable
flexing due to wave and current action. This section of hose is frequently of a
special design called variflex to withstand the additional bending forces. Some
buoy manufacturers have attempted to minimize this problem by installing Chiksan-
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Chevron Corporation
type swivel joints at the hose connection to the buoy. These swivel joints have
proven troublesome in that they become frozen and, in some cases, leak. The
swivels are not recommended at this time.
Ships Connection. The section of hose or hoses which bend over the ships rail
undergo considerable wear due to handling, bending, and chafing. These sections
are generally smaller diameter hose than the floating hose for three reasons: (1)
lower weight, so the ships derrick is able to pick up the hose and not overload the
derrick, (2) smaller hose is more easily bent over the ships rail, and (3) smaller
hose is less expensive to replace. Figure 900-31 shows lifting weights for various
sizes of floating hose.
Fig. 900-31 Lifting Weights for Three Sizes of Floating Hose (12-inch, 16-inch, 20-inch rail
hose, based on Dunlop Selfloat Hoses)
Flotation Systems. Three types of hose flotation systems are in general use today:
(1) monocellular bead-type floats which attach to a submarine-type hose, (2) integral flotation material formed continuously around the hose, and (3) a float-sink
hose system with either an air-filled jacket or a companion air tank made from pipe
sections.
Chevron Corporation
1.
Bead floats are made in two half-sections and are bolted or cemented together
around the hose. The floats are made from styrofoam or polyurethane formed
inside a hard, tough plastic shell. Users of bead-type floats have had problems
with breakage and loss of the floats.
2.
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December 1993
other at the flanges. Users report satisfactory service. Flotation provides about
25% reserve buoyancy. At the present time, the largest size made by Dunlop is
24 inches, but larger sizes are on the drawing boards.
3.
The float-sink hose system is used in Japan because of government requirements that the hoses shall not restrict navigation in crowded harbors. The floatsink hose system has a jacket around the hose which is inflated with
compressed air to bring the hose to the surface when ready to moor a tanker.
After the tanker has vacated the berth, the air is bled out of the jacket, and the
hose is allowed to sink to the bottom. Users report no problems with the
system as long as the sea bottom is covered with silt. On sandy bottoms,
chafing of the air-jacket is a problem. Some users in Japan remove the floating
hoses when the berth is vacant to prevent damage to the hoses and to comply
with government regulations. Float-sink hose systems should not be considered
unless mandatory by governmental authority.
Length of Floating Hose. The length can be determined from a summation of the
following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Freeboard in ballast
5.
6.
Bow-Loading
The hawser-CALM installation is well-suited for loading tankers by the bow.
However, few existing tankers are equipped for bow loading and require retrofit of
a bow manifold and necessary deck piping to take advantage of bow loading
through a shorter hose.
Hose Maintenance
To provide maximum berth availability, the installation of valves to isolate the
underbuoy hoses should be considered. If valves are installed and a leak should
occur in one hose, it may be isolated. Loading or unloading operations may be
carried out at reduced throughputs until the hose is replaced. If more than one
floating hose is used, the floating hoses should be valved at the buoy for similar
reasons. Butterfly valves with wafer-type construction are often used. These valves
occupy less space and are less costly than gate or ball valves, but they do not have
good tight shutoff characteristics.
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Chevron Corporation
Fire Protection
Fire protection or fire fighting equipment is not normally installed on the buoy. If a
diesel generator or other sources of ignition are installed on the buoy, an automatic
CO2 system may be worth considering.
Compartments
Buoy hulls are normally divided into a number of water-tight compartments. These
compartments are often filled with flotation materials such as polyurethane foam to
prevent capsizing in the event of damage to the hull. However, manufacturers are
getting away from this practice now, because it hinders leak detection. Some buoy
manufacturers designate one compartment as a spare parts or storage compartment
and fit it with a manway hatch.
Grease Fittings
The most frequent maintenance operation on the majority of SPM buoys is greasing
the turntable bearings and/or bogie wheels each month. On some buoys, the manufacturers have installed one grease fitting to service several bearings. Users have
found this system not dependable because of plugging in the grease pipes and subsequent failure of the bogie wheel bearings. Bearing failure of this type can be
avoided by providing each bearing with its own grease fitting.
Navigation Aids
The governmental authority having jurisdiction over coastal marine facilities (Coast
Guard in the U.S.) will normally advise on the necessity for aids to navigation, such
as lights, fog horn, and radar reflector. They will normally recommend color, intensity, and flashes per second for the light intensity and duration for a fog horn and
requirements for a radar reflector. In the event no authority has jurisdiction in the
area, the terminal designer can select appropriate navigational aids with help from
Chevron Shipping.
Navigation Lights
Navigation lights operating on 6- or 12-volt batteries are available. They can be
equipped with red, white or amber lenses and can flash with any regular recurring
characteristics, including a code letter. The Wallace and Tiernan model FA-250 or
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December 1993
equal, equipped with automatic lamp-changer and photo-cell switch, makes a good
installation. Batteries should have amp-hour capacity to last a year.
Winker Lights
Floating winker lights are advisable for attachment to the hose to warn shipping
away from the hose and to assist the tanker during night mooring operations.
Floating winker lights can be made from portable marine beacons, packaged in
flotation housing, operating on dry cell batteries.
Fog Horns
Battery-operated fog horns are available which meet U.S. Coast Guard requirements. A fog signal similar to Model FA-232 041 manufactured by Automatic
Power, Inc., will operate about a year on a 6 volt, 1000 amp-hour capacity battery.
The fog horn may be remotely operated by a pulse-coded radio signal like a garagedoor opener.
Transportation
When the buoy is floating in the water without the chains attached, it has a high
center of gravity, and while it will not readily capsize, it is not very stable. If the
buoy must be towed any distance, special precautions should be taken.
1.
2.
Place about 5000 pounds of ballast on the skirt opposite from the towing bridle.
3.
A special transporter ship is often used to deliver the buoy from the manufacturer to
the site.
December 1993
1.
2.
Lay out and stretch the anchor chains. If anchors are used, this will probably
be done during anchor installation.
3.
Proof-load the anchor system by pulling on each of the two opposite anchor
chains about 35% of the breaking strength of the chain.
4.
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Chevron Corporation
5.
6.
Install underbuoy hoses and position buoyancy tanks, or beads. The hose can
normally be made up on shore, tested, and towed to the buoy site. The buoy
supplier will specify the spacing of the hoses.
7.
Install floating hoses. These hoses can normally be made up and tested on
shore and towed to the buoy.
8.
9.
Check out all systems. The buoy supplier should be required to have a representative on hand to ensure the various components are assembled correctly to
validate the guarantee.
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December 1993
arrows for orientation, pipe sizes stenciled on the ends, and any other visual aids
that would expedite underwater work.
Before installing underwater facilities, such as the pipeline end manifold, good
photos from all angles should be taken so that subsequent maintenance divers can
be readily instructed. Photos are also helpful if modifications are to be made after
installation.
Operation
General Procedure. When the tanker is about 24 hours away, the terminal is notified of ETA for mooring master to come aboard. When the tanker is about 6 miles
away from the terminal, the terminal launch takes the Mooring Master and assistants (if any) aboard the tanker.
The launch then goes to the buoy and moves the hoses out of the path the ship will
take on its approach to the buoy. The tanker approaches the buoy up-current or upwind, whichever controls. The mooring lines are then picked up by the tanker with
assistance from the launch, if necessary.
The launch stands by the tanker during loading or unloading operations. It is not
normally necessary or desirable to put personnel on the buoy. Mooring operation,
exclusive of bolt-up time for the hoses, is about 1 hour.
Weather Factors That Affect Operations. The limiting sea conditions which
affect mooring operations are the highest seas the launch can work in. Normally, a
6-foot sea will be the limiting condition for a terminal launch about 60 feet long.
When the tanker is moored, it can remain moored as long as design conditions are
not exceeded, or until the Mooring Master or ships Captain feel it prudent to vacate
the berth. The hoses should be disconnected when seas exceed about 10 feet
because of possible hose damage.
Pressure Surges. When loading a tanker, care must be taken not to close valves in
the tanker manifold too quickly. If valves are closed suddenly, heavy surge pressures within the hose, buoy and pipeline systems could result. Some tankers have
power-operated gate valves which can close in seven seconds. If these valves were
closed without proper notice to the pumping source, the pressure surge could
overpressure various flanges, expansion spools and fittings, causing leakage.
December 1993
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Chevron Corporation
The primary choice for cathodic protection is between galvanic and impressedcurrent systems. The choice will be dictated in part by the salinity of the water at
the facility.
For information on cathodic protection systems refer to the Companys Corrosion
Prevention Manual, Section 500.
942 Coatings
Organic coatings such as coal tar epoxy, vinyl, epoxy glass flake (e.g., Ameron
Tideguard 171), and epoxy or vinyl over inorganic zinc systems have been specified for splash zone corrosion protection at recently constructed wharves.
Specific information about recommended coating materials and methods can be
found in the Companys Coatings Manual, and the Coatings Manual Quick Reference Guide. Proper specification and inspection of surface preparation and application methods are paramount to good coating performance. Company materials
specialists should be consulted when selecting coatings for any major job.
All organic coatings can be subject to damage during installation. Touch-up repairs
on site can be very difficult, particularly in cold climates where curing times may
be extended, or not practical. Epoxy splash-zone compounds used for touch-up
below the waterline must be rated to cure under water. PVC wrap (Pile-Gard) has
also been used successfully for coating repair. More expensive Monel-clad steel
may be used as an alternate to minimize installation damage. However, the Monel
must be justified economically. Refer to the Coatings Manual for recommendations.
Chevron Corporation
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December 1993
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Chevron Corporation
Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC). A vessel ranging from 160,000 to 320,000
DWT.
Yoke. A rigid structure with hinges at both ends. It connects a ship to a buoy.
PIM-MS-2923
PIM-MS-3133
200 psi Hose for Barge Operations (in the Piping Manual)
COM-MS-4771
970 References
971 Terminals and Wharves
Chevron Corporation
1.
British Ship Research Association, Research Investigation for the Improvement of Ship Mooring Methods, First Report, BSRA Report NS. 179,
Wallsend Research Station, 1967.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Page, J. S. Cost Estimating Manual for Pipelines and Marine Structures, Gulf
Publishing Company, 1977.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
Oil Companies International Marine Forum, Design and Construction Specification for Marine Loading Arms, Witherby and Company Limited, 1980.
December 1993
1.
2.
3.
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Chevron Corporation
4.
Design Manual, Harbor and Coastal Facilities, NAVFAC DM-26, Dept. of the
Navy, July 1968.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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