Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
Research in brief
176 Performance of tourism analysis:
a Caribbean perspective
Chandana Jayawardena and
Diaram Ramajeesingh
138 Editorial
140 Developing indigenous tourism:
challenges for the Guianas
Donald Sinclair
Research in brief
180 The state and tourism:
a Caribbean perspective
Hilton McDavid and
Diaram Ramajeesingh
Viewpoint
184 Tourism, linkages, and economic
development in Jamaica
Nikolaos Karagiannis
Viewpoint
188 Policy coherence and sustainable
tourism in the Caribbean
Anthony Clayton
Viewpoint
192 Terrorism and tourism:
Bahamas and Jamaica fight back
Godfrey Pratt
Anne P. Crick
Viewpoint
195 International hotel managers and
key Caribbean challenges
Chandana Jayawardena and
K. Michael Haywood
Research in brief
172 The feasibility of Sabbath-keeping in
the Caribbean hospitality industry
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Abstracts
&
keywords
Donald Sinclair
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003]
Abstracts & keywords
# MCB UP Limited
[ISSN 0959-6119]
[ 135 ]
[ 136 ]
[ 137 ]
Editorial
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 138-139
# MCB UP Limited
[ISSN 0959-6119]
[ 138 ]
Editorial
Table I
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 138-139
Year
Tourist arrivals (in millions)
Cruise passenger arrivals (in millions)
Total arrivals (in millions)
Room stock
1990
2000
2112
12.8
7.8
20.6
152,000
20.3
14.5
34.8
252,000
33
27
60
342,000
References
CARICOM/CTO (2002), Report on Caribbean
Tourism Strategic Plan, Caribbean Tourism
Organisation, Barbados, pp. 4, 34.
CTO (2002), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report
2000-2001, Caribbean Tourism Organisation,
Barbados, pp. iv, v.
Jayawardena, C. (2002), Future challenges for
tourism in the Caribbean, Social and
Economic Studies, Vol. 51 No. l, pp. 1-23.
[ 139 ]
Donald Sinclair
Division of Caribbean and Tourism Studies, University of Guyana, Queenstown,
Georgetown, Guyana
Keywords
Tourism, Comparative costs,
Cultural synergy, Innovation,
Guyana, Suriname
Abstract
As emergent tourism destinations,
the Guianas are new players in a
game in which rules have been
agreed, strategies defined and
competition has been intense.
New players succeed by
demonstrating creativity and
innovation and by seizing
comparative advantage. The
possession of unique natural
attractions, the presence of
indigenous communities or rare
cultural forms are all precious
resources commanding
comparative advantage for the
Guianas. However, because of the
special character of indigenous
tourism, development of that form
of tourism is not possible without
the articulation and
implementation of appropriate
policy measures. In the absence of
that policy infrastructure the
possibilities for error and conflict
are immense. This paper explores
the key challenges in the path of
the development of indigenous
tourism and suggests clear policy
guidelines that should inform the
development of indigenous
tourism in the pursuit of
comparative advantage.
Introduction
The Guianas comprise three territories
Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana
on the north-eastern shoulder of the South
American continent. Although much
similarity in demographics, topography and
economic condition exists among these three
territories, the paper will focus primarily on
the development of indigenous tourism in
two of the Guianas, which are part of the
Caricom (Caribbean Community and
Common Market) grouping Guyana and
Suriname. French Guiana is still an overseas
department of France and does not, at the
moment, envision a Caribbean destiny.
In view of the political reality of the
Caricom status of Guyana and Suriname,
there are distinct merits in the discussion of
tourism development methodologies for
Guyana and Suriname within a Caricom
framework, especially with technical
assistance from the Caribbean Tourism
Organisation (CTO). The other imperative
which justifies (or certainly makes urgent) a
bi-lateral initiative on tourism development
for Guyana and Suriname is the growing
need to define fruitful and constructive areas
of cooperation to counterbalance and defuse
tensions issuing from unresolved territorial
questions between the two countries.
Cooperation in areas such as tourism
development and sustainable uses of the
environment will do much to strengthen
goodwill and enhance the sense of shared
destiny between both populations.
[ 140 ]
Donald Sinclair
Developing indigenous
tourism: challenges for the
Guianas
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 140-146
Comparative advantage
For emergent tourism destinations,
especially in the Caribbean, sun, sand and
sea tourism would hardly be a major source
of comparative advantage. The more mature
destinations in the Caribbean the Bahamas,
Jamaica, Antigua and Barbados have long
since refined that form of tourism and are
even now challenged to retain market share
(Holder, 1996). The reality of this market
challenge has impelled traditional
sun-sand-sea destinations in the Caribbean to
consider and propose alternative resources
and experiences to drive product
differentiation.
The growth of the now copiously
referenced alternative tourism market has
been characterised by a desire on the part of
travellers to enjoy experiences that are more
rounded than has been the traditional reward
of mass tourism. A growing segment of the
tourism market has shown an interest in
going beyond (sometimes well beyond) the
beach; in pursuing attractions and
experiences that are available only in the
deep interior recesses of distant lands. Those
countries that possess rare and abundant
biodiversity and can point to remote or
indigenous communities practising cultural
forms that are different from the dominant,
Westernised traditions are in a position to
exploit comparative advantage in the
tourism market.
Strong economic stimulus exists in
Guyana and Suriname for the exploitation of
comparative advantage in tourism. Both
countries have been experiencing declines in
foreign exchange earnings deriving from
traditional export commodities. In Guyana,
reduced earnings from sugar, rice and
bauxite have contributed to a precarious
balance of payments situation. In Suriname,
a similar scenario exists where declines in
earnings have led to an unfavourable balance
of payment equation, which has in turn led to
the precipitous depreciation in the value of
the local currency the Suriname guilder
against most major currencies.
The fact that both Guyana and Suriname
postponed the embrace of tourism for a
number of decades can possibly be explained
in two ways. First, both countries possessed a
significant stock of natural resources that
could be exploited for economic development.
Guyana embarked on export-led development
with sugar, rice, bauxite, timber and
minerals as the leading lights. For Suriname,
[ 141 ]
Donald Sinclair
Developing indigenous
tourism: challenges for the
Guianas
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 140-146
[ 142 ]
Donald Sinclair
Developing indigenous
tourism: challenges for the
Guianas
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 140-146
Challenges
The discussion of the challenges facing
indigenous tourism in some ways revisits an
earlier proposition advanced by Smith (1996).
Consciously departing from the four S
(sun/sand/sea/sex) structure of mass
tourism that is pervasive in tourism
literature, Smith offers a four H structure.
Smith (1996) asserts:
[ 143 ]
Donald Sinclair
Developing indigenous
tourism: challenges for the
Guianas
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 140-146
Product integrity
Great care needs to be exercised in the
refinement and presentation of the
indigenous tourism product. Product
refinement and presentation that introduce
styles and modernisations that are
inappropriate to and incongruous with an
authentic indigenous tourism experience run
the risk of inducing suspicion in the minds of
the visitors that they may have been duped.
Worse, such presentations may be an affront
to the dignity of the community itself. A
debate has begun, for example, about the
eco-tourism casinos of the Philippines.
Also, the not uncommon practice in
Suriname where tour operators take into
indigenous communities boxed lunches
purchased in the city certainly limits
opportunity for the visitor to appreciate
indigenous cuisine.
On the other hand, product integrity is
maintained, for example, in the Bush Negro
community of Santigron in Northern
Suriname when visitors are put to sleep
communally in hammocks under one
thatched-roof hut, villager style. Satisfaction
of the quest for the authentic must be the
paramount imperative in the provision of an
experience of indigenous tourism. That
objective is sometimes more challenging
than it appears, and the process of adaptation
to tourism on the part of remote communities
is often a very complex undertaking that
sometimes results in the falsification of its
own cultural identity (Nunez, 1989) or the
dilution of local culture (Greenwood, 1989).
Alarms have also been sounded regarding
threats from a tourist monoculture around
[ 144 ]
Marketing
Appropriate and effective marketing is a vital
ingredient in the enterprise of indigenous
tourism in Guyana and Suriname, if it is to be
economically viable and produce rewards for
local communities. This is one area for direct
policy intervention. The tendency has been
noted in both countries for remote,
indigenous communities to be visited as the
add-on experience, while visitors are
already in the country. This practice may
derive from a number of factors, key among
those being the inadequacy of a marketing
policy that does not stress the tourism value
of that order of experience.
The marketing of indigenous tourism is a
matter of some delicacy and sensitivity. Over
a decade ago in Guyana, a prominent resort,
located in an Amerindian area, caused
considerable offence through the publication
of an advertisement inviting visitors to see
the exotic Amerindians. The furore
generated prompted the company to
withdraw the offending newspaper
advertisement. An important challenge in
marketing indigenous tourism as well as in
the definition of the product is to avoid the
suspicion that people are being commodified,
or presented as inanimate curios. The
marketing of indigenous tourism in
Guyana is sometimes made more thorny
by the hypersensitivities of some
indigenous advocates who sense and
scream exploitation at the mere sighting of
any icon or representation of anything even
remotely associated with the Amerindian
way of life.
Policy intervention is therefore
appropriate and necessary. Policy confers
legitimacy on the development and
marketing of indigenous tourism, defines the
parameters within which such activity
should occur, sanctions the use of
Amerindian icons and motifs in promotion
and pronounces on the behaviours and
practices that would be appropriate for both
the entrepreneur and the visitor. Policy
intervention must be understood as the
responsibility not only of the public sector
Donald Sinclair
Developing indigenous
tourism: challenges for the
Guianas
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 140-146
Community involvement
The management of indigenous tourism on
the ground must be driven by the principle of
indigenous sovereignty over natural and
cultural resources that are the basis of the
tourism experience, and that principle
should under-gird all aspects of the tourism
operation. The community should be
involved in decisions concerning the
number, duration, frequency and schedules
of visits, locations to be visited, the payment
of visitor fees, the location of visitor
accommodations. Meaningful indigenous
involvement in every stage of the tourism
enterprise ensures the greater possibility
that the tourism enterprise would be on the
communitys terms and developed at a pace
and character endorsed by the villagers.
The seminal importance of this
prescription was made painfully clear to
some tourism consultants in Guyana, in 2001,
when they played a conciliatory role in what
was shaping up to be an ugly encounter
between residents of the Amerindian village
of Whyaka and the management of a nearby
resort. A complete breakdown in the
community/resort relationship had
occurred, leading to a considerable degree of
mutual antagonism and distrust.
Tourism enterprises not based on this
model of indigenous sovereignty can lay the
foundation for visitor behaviours that are
unacceptable and inappropriate, or for
tourism enterprises that may be perceived as
exploitative, even imperialistic (Nash,
1989).
Conclusion
Indigenous tourism, once recognised as a
basis for comparative advantage in Guyana
and Suriname, will require development that
is sensitive and enlightened if unfortunate
experiences are to be avoided. Piore (2002)
reports that the rush to develop alternative
forms of indigenous tourism sometimes
results in dislocation of indigenous peoples.
Unless there are clear policy prescriptions
that recognise, respect and safeguard
indigenous sovereignty over the resource
that is the basis of indigenous tourism, an
References
Foroohar, R. (2002), Getting off the beaten track,
Time, 22-29 July, pp. 34-8.
Forte, J. (1993), Amerindians and Tourism in
Guyana, ARU, University of Guyana,
Georgetown.
Forte, J. (1995), Amerindians and Poverty in
Guyana, background paper, ARU, University
of Guyana, Georgetown.
Fox, D. and Danns, G. (1993), The Indigenous
Condition in Guyana: A Field Report on the
Amerindians of Mabura, ARU, University of
Guyana, Georgetown.
Greenwood, D. (1989), Culture by the pound: an
anthropological perspective on tourism as
cultural commoditisation, in Smith, V. (Ed.),
Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of
Tourism, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, PA.
[ 145 ]
Donald Sinclair
Developing indigenous
tourism: challenges for the
Guianas
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 140-146
[ 146 ]
Ian Boxill
Department of Sociology, The University of the West Indies, Mona,
Kingston, Jamaica
Keywords
Development, Tourism, Culture,
Location, Education, Belize
Abstract
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
[ 147 ]
Ian Boxill
Towards an alternative
tourism for Belize
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 147-150
Table I
Key socio-cultural and socio-economic indicators for Barbados, The Bahamas and Jamaica and
Belize (1999)
Indicator
Barbados
The Bahamas
Jamaica
Belize
1,936
21
2,490
54
32.20
5,205
49 (1998)
5,224
77
32.87 (1998)
484
9
496
14
21.40
1,344
16
459
25a
16.19
Note: aestimated
Source: Caribbean Tourism Organization Statistical Report 1999-2000 (2000)
Tourism development is simply one
dimension of a set of development policies
that may be pursued by a country. Belize
would be better off with a development
process, or a tourism development policy,
which respects peoples ways of life, engages
them in a way that is psychologically,
intellectually and economically beneficial;
and sustains ecological systems without
which we cannot hope to survive for very
long. Of course, this type of tourism should
ideally help to bring about economic
transformation and must be sustainable.
Given its stage of development and its assets,
Belize is the one country in the Caribbean
region that is best suited to undertake this
type of tourism development. What are the
reasons for this? In other words, what are the
facilitating factors? They are as follows:
.
Belize is a low density tourism
destination. Both the land to visitor
density and the tourism penetration ratios
are relatively low.
.
Belize is a country with an abundance of
natural beauty, and has an ecological
system that is the envy of most of the
Caribbean.
.
Belize is located strategically in Central
America but is also washed by the
Caribbean Sea and therefore enjoys the
best of both worlds. Proximity to the USA
may also be seen as an advantage.
.
Belize has a diverse culture which
incorporates the major cultures of the
Americas: indigenous (Maya, Garifuna),
African/Creole, European (Spanish and
English), Hispanic and Asian.
Nonetheless, one must be mindful of some
limiting factors. These include:
.
Competition from other destinations in
the region in the mass market; especially
now from the rise of Cuban tourism,
which is the fastest growing in the region.
.
Social and cultural conflicts, which are
likely to arise from significant growths in
arrivals particularly as it relates to mass
tourism.
[ 148 ]
Ian Boxill
Towards an alternative
tourism for Belize
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 147-150
Cruise tourism
In relation to cruise tourism, there are
questions about its long-term benefits to the
Caribbean as currently constituted. Cruise
tourism often results in a considerable
amount of environmental problems for the
income that is earned (Patullo, 1996; Periera
et al., 2002). Still it remains an option, that
may be pursued, but only if properly
managed. However, there is an alternative or
complement to the status quo of cruise
tourism.
This approach to tourism, which is based
on collaboration of regional countries rather
than competition among them, is well suited
for CARICOM, especially in light of the
FTAA. This new approach is based on a
paper presented by Ian Boxill to the
Caribbean Maritime Institute and the
University of the West Indies (UWI) in March
2002. The project, entitled the Caribbean
World (CW), is an attempt to build on the rich
cultural history of the region, using the sea
as a mode of transportation, to create a new
tourism industry in the region. More
[ 149 ]
Ian Boxill
Towards an alternative
tourism for Belize
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 147-150
Community tourism
References
Conclusion
What is needed for this alternative to
succeed? To succeed, tourism planners in
Belize need vision, will and confidence.
Tourism is a serious business which requires
careful planning, evaluation and
administration. The model which I propose
means that governments would have to
invest seriously in education at all levels.
The UB and other educational institutions
[ 150 ]
Pat Wood
International Hospitality Management, London Metropolitan University,
London, UK
Chandana Jayawardena
Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences,
The University of the West Indies, Jamaica
Keywords
Cuba, Hospitality industry,
Tourism, Workforce, Education,
Vocational training
Abstract
Features a realistic perspective of
the current hospitality and tourism
paradigm in Cuba. Previews the
newly released hospitality and
tourism education strategy to be
rolled out in 2003. Provides an
evaluation of the tourism and
hospitality industry environment,
education environment, workforce
and change in policy. The authors
made three research trips to Cuba
in 1997, 2001 and 2002. A series
of elite interviews were conducted
in Cuba, Jamaica and the UK with
senior Cuban policymakers.
Current data and views from
Cuban partners and practitioners
are used to inform the discussion.
Cuba continues to be one of the
most mystical tourist destinations
in the world with a phenomenal
growth rate during recent years.
The new tourism education
strategy is a key for Cuba to once
again become the number one
destination in the Caribbean.
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 151-155
# MCB UP Limited
[ISSN 0959-6119]
[DOI 10.1108/09596110310470176]
Introduction
During the last decade, Cuba has recorded
phenomenal growth in tourism receipts. By
the mid-1990s Cuba ranked sixth in the
Caribbean tourism league. At the eve of the
last century, Cuba graduated to fourth
position, surpassing the Bahamas and
Jamaica. The new wave of success in Cuban
tourism has been the result of a well-planned,
optimistic development strategy. The current
tourism environment is summed up in the
words of Ibrahim Ferradaz Garcia (2002),
Minister of Tourism for Cuba:
Cuba is an archipelago of great natural
attractions including more than 300 natural
beaches and a very pleasant climate
together with the peoples warm hospitality,
rich historic and cultural heritage.
[ 151 ]
Figure 1
Arrivals from all countries to Cuba 1995-2001 (thousands)
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 151-155
[ 152 ]
Education environment
Identifying and analysing current and future
needs, trends and challenges of the
hospitality industry of the respective country
is essential to ensure success (Jayawardena,
2001a). The vocational education and training
(VET), which has grown up around the
tourism and hospitality industry, is integral
to that success. The hospitality and tourism
VET is, arguably, inspired by key models:
.
Switzerland using hotel schools;
.
Britain with college-based programmes;
.
Germany establishing the dual system;
and
.
the USA with industry-inspired provision.
The commitment in developing the human
resources needed for Cubas tourism sector
has laid a strong foundation for the future
success of the sector. For example, Cubas 19
hospitality schools, with over 1,000
professors, issue some 20,000 certificates
annually. With the most educated population
within the Caribbean, Cuba is using that
significant strength to choose and train
employees for tourism.
Informal discussion undertaken with
Cubans suggests that, in many instances,
managers from other sectors, with excellent
academic qualifications and professional
experiences, are attracted to the tourism
sector, particularly the hotel industry, to
quickly attain much sought-after US dollars
and higher income than in other sectors.
Accordingly, Formatur, the national training
and education agency for the tourism and
The workforce
In 2001, there were 838,000 tourism related
jobs with 18 per cent of the Cuban workforce
employed in tourism (WTTC, 2001). By the
end of 2001, the Cuban hotel industry
provided direct employment for 90,007
persons (63 per cent male and 37 per cent
female). Of hotel employees, 20 per cent have
university degrees in medicine, science,
teaching, etc. Over 75 per cent of the
hospitality and tourism workforce are
qualified to technician level and above
(Annuario Estadistico de Cuba, 2002).
However, the hospitality and tourism
workforce in Cuba still requires new training
initiatives to effectively handle the volume,
demands and expectations of international
travellers. The training associated with
productivity, quality and control
benchmarks belonging to the leading global
hotel systems have not been adequately
addressed to date. A lack of empowerment
and motivation is apparent among the hotel
workforce, in particular the housekeeping,
food and beverage areas.
[ 153 ]
Change of policy
In April 2001, Formatur, in association with
the Pan-American Confederation of
Hospitality and Tourism Schools
(CONPEHT), organised a conference with the
theme The role of the professor of the hotel
and tourism schools in Havana. The keynote
address focused on recent initiatives in
tourism and hospitality education and
training in various Caribbean countries
(Jayawardena, 2001b). The questions after the
keynote address from hospitality educators
in Cuba reflected noteworthy keenness in
[ 154 ]
Conclusion
Cuba is enthusiastically and strategically
embracing the opportunities and challenges
that its tourism industry is facing. It has
managed to survive and sustain the tourism
industry within an increasingly isolated
political system over 44 years. During the last
ten years it has recorded phenomenal
tourism growth rates. Cuba has well
References
Alonso, G. (2002), Eco tourism resources in
Cuba, Tourism in Cuba: An Update, Cuban
Ministry of Tourism Seminar, London,
November.
Annuario Estadistico de Cuba (2002), Oficina
Nacional de Estadisticas, Cuba.
CTO (2001), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report
1999-2000, Caribbean Tourism Organisation,
Barbados.
Cuba Travel (2002), available at:
www.cubatravel.cu
Direccion Nacional de Inmigracion y Extranjera
(2002), Cuba.
Ferradaz, G.I. (2002), Minister of Tourism, Cuba,
Interview, 2nd Iberian American Conference
[ 155 ]
Michelle L. McDonald
Student, Beeston, Nottingham, UK
Royston O. Hopkin
Spice Island Beach Resort, St Georges, Grenada
Keywords
Grenada, Hospitality management,
Human resource development,
Tourism, Stakeholders, Curriculum
Abstract
The quality of hospitality
education is a topical issue. It is
being increasingly realised that
the education level of tourism
employees impacts on the quality
of a countrys tourism industry. As
the most tourism-oriented region
globally, the Caribbean is slowly
awakening to the realisation that,
unless its tourism employees are
highly educated and skilled, the
region will continue to account for
an insignificant percentage of
world tourism arrivals. In Grenada,
hospitality education courses are
limited, given the small tourism
plant and comparatively low visitor
arrivals. Research was undertaken
by one of the authors, to explore
the opinions of the
accommodation sector about
current education provisions and
the future direction that courses
should take. Integration of all
stakeholders in the
implementation of the broad
education policy outlined by the
government is crucial to improving
hospitality education in Grenada
to ensure a competitive tourism
industry.
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 156-160
# MCB UP Limited
[ISSN 0959-6119]
[DOI 10.1108/09596110310470185]
[ 156 ]
Introduction
The importance of human resources to the
tourism industry cannot be disregarded. The
labour intensiveness of the industry implies
that:
. . . the human factor is fundamental to
development of the tourism sector since it
constitutes the very essence of quality in
tourism supply (Amoah and Baum, 1997).
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
Education policy
The Ministry of Education (2002) states that
one of the significant shortcomings of the
education system in Grenada is insufficient
links to national training needs and the
world of work. In the Strategic Plan for
Educational Enhancement and Development
2002-2010 (SPEED), the government
acknowledges that:
Education is the key to progress. It follows
that education is a principal contributor to
the development of human resources for
national economic and social improvement
(Ministry of Education, 2002).
[ 157 ]
Figure 1
Levels of employment in the tourism industry
[ 158 ]
Conclusion
For the first quarter of 2002, after the
aftermath of 11 September, Grenada was one
of only five CTO member countries to
register an increase over a similar period in
2001 (CTO, 2002). This is significant as it
demonstrates the potential that Grenada has
as a tourist destination.
One theme regarding education for the
tourism industry rings like a recurring
symbol throughout Caribbean nations. Baum
(1995) quotes John Bells opinion that:
Despite the labour intensive nature of the
hotel and tourism sector, and many technical
and practical skills involved, those hotel
training schools, invariably government
owned, that do exist within the region are
horribly under-funded, under-established and
in general treated like low grade technical
References
Amoah, V.A. and Baum, T. (1997), Tourism
education: policy versus practice,
International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 5-12.
Baum, T. (1994), National tourism policies:
implementing the human resource
dimension, Tourism Management, Vol. 15,
pp. 259-66.
Baum, T. (1995), The role of the public sector in
the development and implementation of
human resource policies in tourism,
[ 159 ]
[ 160 ]
Anne P. Crick
Department of Management Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona,
Kingston, Jamaica
Keywords
Tourism, Attitudes, Caribbean,
Internal marketing, Market share
Abstract
Tourism is the mainstay of the
Caribbean and the attitude of the
people in the region may have a
significant impact on the success
of the industry. This paper
analyzes the way in which tourism
authorities of three Caribbean
destinations have internally
marketed tourism to their host
populations in order to encourage
the desired attitudinal
expressions. A matrix of five
possible responses to tourism was
developed and each of the three
countries was found to occupy
different positions in the matrix.
An analysis of the internal
marketing strategies determined
that the countries adopted
different approaches based on
their particular challenges but
none of the approaches had
achieved lasting success. The
study concludes with
recommendations for future
research.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
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Introduction
Tourism is critical to the Caribbean,
providing substantial foreign exchange
earnings and jobs. A vital pillar
underpinning the industry is the friendliness
and warmth of the Caribbean people. Despite
the importance of these attitudes in tourism,
few studies have examined the subject and
there has been little, if any, analysis of the
structures and systems used to create and
enhance the appropriate attitudes.
This paper attempts to fill that gap by
critically analyzing how three Caribbean
destinations have internally marketed
tourism to their populations, specifically in
the area of attitudes. The paper begins by
defining internal marketing and describing
its role in tourism. The second section of the
paper highlights the importance of emotions
and attitudes in tourism and develops a
matrix of attitudinal responses towards
tourists. Section three of the paper analyzes
the internal marketing strategies of three
Caribbean destinations, especially as they
relate to the creation and maintenance of the
requisite emotions and attitudes in their host
populations. The paper concludes with a
discussion of the implications of this study
and areas for future research.
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 161-166
# MCB UP Limited
[ISSN 0959-6119]
[DOI 10.1108/09596110310470202]
[ 161 ]
Anne P. Crick
Internal marketing of
attitudes in Caribbean tourism
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 161-166
Figure 1
Tourism attitude matrix
[ 162 ]
Anne P. Crick
Internal marketing of
attitudes in Caribbean tourism
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 161-166
Method
The three countries represent a convenience
sample rather than a representative sample
of the region. Nonetheless, they do display
some of the variation in the region in terms
of stage of tourist development, size and
social and economic development.
The study involved three phases:
1 literature review review of brochures
and relevant tourism documents;
2 interviews of two key tourism officials
involved in internal marketing in each
destination; and
3 visits to the destinations.
The Caribbean
In this paper the term Caribbean refers to
the 34 countries that are members of the
Caribbean Tourism Organization. Most of
the countries in the Caribbean are former
plantation economies and colonies with a
population predominantly made up of
descendants of slaves. Tourism, with its
quick injections of foreign exchange and
opportunities for development and
employment, has been seen as critical to the
survival of most of the countries in the
region. The three countries selected for this
study have fully embraced tourism and have
dedicated significant resources to its
promotion and development.
Jamaica
Jamaica the third largest English speaking
country in the Caribbean has pursued
tourism seriously since the 1950s. As
traditional sources of earning such as
agriculture and mining have declined,
tourism has become more important as a
source of foreign exchange and employment.
The country was and continues to be a sand,
sea and sun destination, but has long ago
diversified and today is also known for its
vibrant music festivals, heritage and culture.
Promotions have always tried to portray the
diversity of the culture and as early as 1968
the Jamaica Tourist Board described its
promotional strategy as being:
To present Jamaica as it is a country with
its own character, cultural development and
idiosyncrasies.
[ 163 ]
Anne P. Crick
Internal marketing of
attitudes in Caribbean tourism
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 161-166
[ 164 ]
St Lucia
St Lucia was, until recently, highly
dependent on the banana industry as a
source of employment and foreign exchange
earnings. The loss of preferential markets
has meant that the country has turned more
fully towards tourism and today it is the
number one industry in the country in terms
of GDP, foreign exchange earnings and it also
accounts for a large percentage of jobs.
Originally a sand, sea and sun destination,
St Lucia has attempted to diversify into
cultural and environmental tourism. The
people of St Lucia remain central to the
promotions, however, since St Lucia has also
sought to highlight the diversity of its
heritage. One brochure describes the island
as being rich in history, a perfect blend of
French, British and African cultures. It
continues, explaining that the colourful
nature of history, culture and race makes the
locals unique and ideal for discovery.
Surveys indicate that St Lucians see
tourism as important with more than half of
the respondents believing that tourism had a
positive effect on their lives and provided
employment and financial benefits. This
belief tended to vary with the involvement in
tourism (Public Awareness and Attitudinal
Survey, 2001). Two potential problems are,
however, that the people of St Lucia see
tourism as being owned and managed by
foreigners and that more than half of the
respondents did not believe that St Lucia had
benefitted culturally from tourism
(Coathrup, 2002). There is also evidence from
the Public Awareness and Attitudinal Survey
(2001) that while tourism is seen as important
to the financial wellbeing of the country it
has not been fully accepted as a replacement
for agriculture formerly the countrys main
foreign exchange earner.
St Lucian authorities also admit to some
concern about the level of harassment of
tourists and the relative indifference that
some St Lucians hold towards the industry.
Statistics indicate that while those directly
involved in tourism can attest to its benefits,
those who are not directly involved are less
likely to see it as beneficial, suggesting that a
large number of St Lucians do not appear to
be strongly supportive of the industry.
St Lucia would therefore appear to have
much of its population in Quadrant E not
hostile to tourism but not particularly warm
to it either. This would be in keeping with the
fact that St Lucia can be described as being in
transition only recently having to depend
so fully on tourism as a source of foreign
exchange and jobs. The fragility of Position E
would be of concern to the authorities
however, because it can so easily move to the
The Bahamas
Like Jamaica, The Bahamas has a relatively
developed tourist product having been
seriously involved in tourism since the 1950s.
It is an archipelago of islands and is highly
dependent on tourism with four out of ten
jobs and 75 per cent of foreign exchange
earnings coming from the industry. Like the
other countries in this study, The Bahamas
has primarily sun, sand and sea tourism but
has recently tried to diversify by
encouraging visitors to come to explore the
natural delights of the family or out
islands. The out islands are portrayed as
being exceptionally friendly and welcoming
to tourists. The most recent advertising
strategy geared towards the USA is to
emphasize the closeness in distance as well
as friendship between the two countries
(Capron, 2001).
According to Bahamian officials, tourism
has been highly regarded by most Bahamians
because it is so central to the economy.
Despite this there are serious concerns about
two factors. The first is the fact that tourism
Anne P. Crick
Internal marketing of
attitudes in Caribbean tourism
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 161-166
Conclusion
The three countries examined have built
their tourism promotions on, among other
factors, the warmth and friendliness of their
people. Their internal marketing strategies
are therefore focused on trying to make sure
that when tourists come to the country they
do in fact experience this warmth and
friendliness. The study has shown that the
three countries are starting at different
points in the tourist attitude matrix with
Jamaica facing problems with the expression
and non-concealment of negative feelings,
The Bahamas, with the non-concealment of
negative feelings; and St Lucia, primarily
with a neutral or indifferent feeling to
tourism. Strategies used by The Bahamas
and St Lucia seem to be concerned about
getting their host populations to both hold
and express positive feelings while Jamaica
has shown a more segmented approach.
Despite significant expenditure in all three
countries, the internal marketing campaign
continues to be essential, indicating that it
has not been successful in creating the
desired attitudes. In fact, all three countries
have indicated that they intend to step up
[ 165 ]
Anne P. Crick
Internal marketing of
attitudes in Caribbean tourism
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 161-166
References
Alexander, D. (2000), US tourists finds locals
hostile, lazy, unreliable, The Sunday
Gleaner, 30 January, p. 1A.
Brown, K.L.A. (2000), Physical and
socio-economic impacts of tourist
recreational activities in Montego Bay, Ocho
Rios and Port Antonio, in Maerk, J. and
Boxill, I. (Eds), Tourism in the Caribbean,
Plaza y Valdes, Mexico, pp. 93-116.
Capron, A. (2001), Survey findings concern
tourism sector, The Nassau Guardian (on
line edition), 18 December.
[ 166 ]
John J. Issa
SuperClubs, Kingston, Jamaica
Chandana Jayawardena
Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences,
The University of the West Indies, Jamaica
Keywords
Holiday industry, Tourism, Quality,
Caribbean, Hotels,
Hospitality industry
Abstract
Seeks to review the all-inclusive
concept in the context of the
Caribbean. The origin of allinclusives in the world and the
Caribbean is analysed. The
concept was first introduced in
holiday camps in Britain during the
1930s. Club Med is credited for
popularizing the concept globally
in the 1950s. However, the credit
of introducing a luxury version of
the all-inclusive concept goes to a
Jamaican hotelier and co-author of
this article. In defining the
concept of all-inclusives, one
cannot ignore the significant role
Jamaica has played. Currently,
Jamaica has 17 of the best 100
all-inclusive resorts in the world.
Even though all-inclusives are
occasionally criticized, they are
seen as a necessary evil.
Concludes by predicting that allinclusives are here to stay in the
Caribbean and will play a major
role in tourism for the foreseeable
future.
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 167-171
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[ISSN 0959-6119]
[DOI 10.1108/09596110310470211]
The concept
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
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[ 167 ]
[ 168 ]
50,000 rooms more than one third are allinclusive hotel rooms.
The Organisation of American States
carried out a study of the economic impact of
the performance of the tourism industry in
1992 and 1997 in Jamaica. The study of 1992
concluded:
.
the all-inclusives generate the largest
amount of revenue, but their impact on
the economy is smaller per dollar of
revenue than other accommodation
sub-sectors;
.
the non all-inclusive accommodation
import less and employ more people per
dollar revenue than the all-inclusives;
.
the all-inclusives generate negative
foreign exchange earnings due to high
levels of imports;
.
in terms of direct impact, the all-inclusive
hotels make the largest contribution to
GDP with the largest non all-inclusives
second; and
.
all-inclusives generate a significant
proportion (52.6 per cent) of total foreign
exchange earnings generated by the
accommodation sector in Jamaica.
Sandals is currently designated as the official
resort of West Indies Cricket, with the Sandals
particular brand of color and fun introduced
to matches across the UK. SuperClubs and
Sandals are arch rivals, but the fact remains
that these two competing companies have
contributed significantly to the economies of
Jamaica, as well as to other countries in
which they operate. The contributions of
these two companies to the Jamaican
economy, in particular, are unprecedented by
any other business organisation.
Recent research
Paris and Zona-Paris (1999) considers any
hotel that may have an all-inclusive package
for all the guests or only a segment of the
guests as an all-inclusive resort. As a result
of this criterion, they were able to list 663
hotels in the world as all-inclusive hotels in
1999. Among these hotels, they then selected
100 of the best all-inclusives in the world.
According to the all-inclusive ratings by
Paris and Zona-Paris (1999), 48 of the 100 best
all-inclusive resorts in the world are in the
Caribbean. The country breakdown of these
48 resorts is provided in Table I.
It is not surprising that Jamaica, with 17 of
these resorts, has:
.
17 per cent of the worlds best; and
.
35 per cent of the Caribbeans best
all-inclusive resorts.
[ 169 ]
Table I
Best all-inclusive resorts in the Caribbean
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 167-171
Country
Jamaica
Bahamas
Antigua and Barbuda
British Virgin Islands
St Lucia
Barbados
Dominican Republic
Anguilla
Aruba
Bermuda
Cayman Islands
Grenada
Turks and Caicos Islands
US Virgin Islands
Total
No. of
resorts
17
6
4
4
4
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
48
35.4
12.5
8.3
8.3
8.3
6.2
6.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
100.0
[ 170 ]
Conclusions
Based on the current research, the following
are foresighted:
.
All-inclusives will continue to grow in the
Caribbean with a major influence on
customer service in the entire hospitality
sector in the Caribbean.
.
All-inclusives (along with cruise
business) will play a lead role in
creativity, innovations in new product
and service development and aggressive
marketing.
.
Luxuries of the all-inclusives in the past,
such as 24-hour room service, adjoining
golf courses, spas, valet service, fine
dining, and the choice of 5-6 restaurants in
one hotel will become common features in
most all-inclusive resorts in the
Caribbean.
.
All-inclusives will help in sustaining the
Caribbeans image as the most
romantic region for tourism. The
wedding/honeymoon segment
within all-inclusives will grow further.
.
Facilities for children and childcare
within family all-inclusives will become
more sophisticated and age bracket
(under 5, 5-8, 9-12, young teen, etc.)
segment-specific facilities will be
developed.
.
The element of nudeness as a natural
aspect of life will become more popular in
adult all-inclusive resorts. The trend set
by SuperClubs on nude weddings on
Valentines day in 2001 will grow, in spite
of serious criticisms.
.
The importance of the quality and
variety of the Entertainment element will
grow further in all-inclusives and will be
used as the benchmark by most of the
other categories of resorts in the
Caribbean.
References
Brown, D., Elmes, L. and Medina, G.Y. (2000),
A Study of the All-inclusive Sector in the
Caribbean with Emphasis on
Dominican Republic and Jamaica, Graduate
Paper, The University of the West Indies,
Jamaica.
[ 171 ]
Research in brief
The feasibility of Sabbath-keeping in the Caribbean
hospitality industry
Eritha Huntley
Tourism and Hospitality Management, University of Technology, Jamaica
Carol Barnes-Reid
Department of Nutrition, Tourism and Hospitality Management,
Northern Caribbean University, Mandeville, Jamaica
Keywords
Tourism, Hospitality, Religion,
Hospitality industry, Hotels,
Holiday industry
Abstract
This article addresses religious
tolerance for Sabbath-keepers in
the hospitality industry. The
authors approach this issue by
assessing the perception of
managers in the Jamaican tourism
industry on this topic. A major
finding was that managers are
reluctant to employ persons who
have a strong desire to observe
the Sabbath. The researchers also
discovered that the law does not
provide specific provisions to
protect the rights of Sabbathkeepers. Managers are, however,
willing to make arrangements to
facilitate these individuals
whenever possible. This augurs
well for students of hospitality
management who desire to
observe the Sabbath. More
research on this topic is needed
since this study is by no means
exhaustive.
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 172-175
# MCB UP Limited
[ISSN 0959-6119]
[DOI 10.1108/09596110310470220]
[ 172 ]
Introduction
The hospitality sector is the most visible and
labour-intensive sector in the tourism
industry. As a result, the demand for
employment is constantly increasing as more
hotels are being developed across the world.
The industry is characterised as having very
flexible working hours and a shift system
that requires some employees to work at
hours and on days that would be considered
unusual in traditional businesses. The
decision to pursue a career in the fields of
tourism and hospitality management, for an
individual who observes the Sabbath, is
therefore, one that requires deep
contemplation because of the possible
ramifications of such a decision. Foremost, is
the obvious impact that the required working
hours within the industry will have on an
individuals desire to keep their Sabbath.
Observing the Sabbath is based on the
instructions of the Ten Commandments
given to the children of Israel. This custom is
practiced not only by Jews, but by other
Protestant religions including Seventh-day
Adventists and Seventh-day Baptist.
Generally, most Sabbath-keepers consider
the period between sundown on Friday to
sundown on Saturday as holy hours.
Likewise, Sunday is considered to be a holy
day by some Protestants religions such as
Pentecostals. Muslims, Hindus and other
religious groups do not prescribe to this
religious thinking, but may consider other
days in the week as holy.
This article will, therefore, seek to identify
the hospitality industrys position on
employing Sabbath-keepers. The authors
bring a unique perspective to this research
since at the time of this research they were
both lecturers in the Nutrition, Tourism and
Hospitality Department of Northern
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Research objectives
1 To determine the availability of degree
programmes in hospitality management
by Sabbath-keeping religious institutions.
2 To investigate the attitude of the industry
towards these individuals.
3 To investigate the feasibility of
individuals who worship on Saturday
pursuing a career in the hospitality
industry.
Degrees in hospitality
management
A review of programme offerings from
universities around the world revealed that
only a few Sabbath-based, religious schools
offer programmes in Tourism and/or
Hospitality Management. In Israel, for
example, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
seemed to be the only Jewish University
offering a Bachelor of Arts in Hotel and
Tourism Management[1]. Likewise, Northern
Caribbean University is, currently, the only
Seventh-day Adventist institution that offers
a degree in hospitality management. The
apparent reluctance by religious institutions
to train men and women for the hospitality
industry has its roots in the religious
doctrines that govern them. NCU has,
however, accepted a role in preparing men
and women to contribute to the development
of the Caribbean tourism industry. Even
though the majority of the students enrolled
in the Hospitality programme are not
Sabbath-keepers, those associated with the
Seventh-day Adventist church do have major
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Methodology
The population for this study was selected
from areas in Jamaica such as Kingston,
Trelawny, St Elizabeth, Ocho Rios, Montego
Bay and Negril. The researchers conducted
interviews with 12 individuals who held
well-articulated views on the research topic.
The list of interviewees comprises:
.
human resource managers;
.
resident managers;
.
general managers; and
.
administrative assistants.
They have an average of over nine years
experience in the tourism and hospitality
industry.
The research instrument comprised a
number of questions that was administered
to members of the study population. The
[ 173 ]
Figure 1
How do you feel about making schedule
changes to accommodate Sabbath-keepers?
[ 174 ]
Figure 2
Would you recommend a career in the
hospitality industry to a Sabbath-keeper?
Table I
Would you recommend a career in the hospitality industry to a Sabbath-keeper?
Percentage of
respondents
Responses
It depends on the department and entry level of the individual
It depends on the persons commitment to their religion and their job
Being a Sabbath-keeper limits the employees scope for performance and advancement
There is no guarantee that time off will be given on the Sabbath
The shift system facilitates all employees
From experience, Sabbath-keeping employees have performed very well
Conclusion
It is apparent that there are challenges here
for persons who desire both employment in
the hospitality industry and a commitment to
their religion. Communication of
expectations and beliefs is critical to this
process. Sabbath-keepers may also consider
alternative sources of employment such as
becoming entrepreneurs. This would allow
them to provide services that would not
conflict with their beliefs, and at the same
time become a source of employment for
others with similar beliefs.
Society is changing and with it, the views
on holy days should change. Flexi-week
might be the answer, where persons are
given the opportunity to work any five or six
days a week instead of the traditional
Monday to Friday/Saturday. It is evident
that the Jamaican government is concerned
about this issue, since they are currently
enacting legislation to provide greater
protection for individuals who may have
diverse religious persuasions. This would
25.0
33.3
8.3
8.3
16.7
8.3
Note
1 For more information see www.bgu.ac.il
References
Byer, A. (2001), Religious accommodation
increasingly important issue, South Florida
Business Journal, Vol. 21 No. 145, p. 3.
Meinhardt, J. (2002), Religion more of an issue
for human resource managers, American
City Business Journals, available at:
www.bizjournal.com
Misek, M. (2002), In theory and in practice:
especially now, religious tolerance is
important, Lodging Magazine, available at:
www.lodgingnews.com
[ 175 ]
Research in brief
Performance of tourism analysis: a Caribbean
perspective
Chandana Jayawardena
Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences,
The University of the West Indies, Jamaica
Diaram Ramajeesingh
Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences,
The University of the West Indies, Jamaica
Keywords
Analysis, Foreign exchange,
Growth, Tourism,
Financial performance, Revenue
Abstract
Introduces a new concept,
performance of tourism (POT)
analysis as a tool for measuring
the performance of tourist
destinations. Comments on the
Caribbean regions
overdependence on tourism, and
examines the scope of foreign
exchange leakage. Tourism in the
Caribbean generally grows faster
than the world average. Often the
success of tourism is measured
from the gross figures rather than
the net figures. Presents data
from four Caribbean countries,
Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba,
Jamaica and St Lucia to explain
the concept. Key findings reflect
surprising results. Based on the
analysis done, a relatively new
tourism destination in the
Caribbean, Aruba, has
outperformed mature tourist
destination, Jamaica, by 16 to
one.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
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Introduction
The Caribbean currently ranks sixth in the
world in terms of tourism receipts and
attracts a little over 3 per cent of tourist
arrivals in the world. For many years now,
the key benefits and performance indicators
in the region have increased faster than all
other regions of the world. Particularly in
terms of tourism investment, visitor arrivals,
tourism receipts and direct and indirect
employment, the Caribbean has
outperformed other regions (Jayawardena,
2002). These indicators also suggest that the
Caribbean, in general terms, is
overdependent on the tourism sector.
Success of tourism cannot be judged from
gross figures. A more meaningful
measurement will be to look at the net
tourism receipts and, then, analyze the per
capita net tourism receipts. Most
governments, national tourism organizations
and trade associations in the Caribbean tend
to focus on tourist arrival figures and total
tourist receipts to communicate success of
tourism to the general public. This is similar
to judging the success of a large corporation
purely from the revenue figures, while
ignoring gross profits, net profits and return
on investment.
This paper attempts to assess the impact of
tourism on four countries in the Caribbean,
Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Jamaica, and
St Lucia, by developing a performance
schedule that include both gross and net
measurements.
Dependence on tourism
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[ 176 ]
Table I
Contribution from tourism in 2002: estimated economic indicator percentages
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 176-179
Aruba
Jamaica
St Lucia
Rounded average
21.0
34.6
61.2
74.3
13.8
38.0
31.0
62.7
7.7
19.1
36.8
31.1
16.8
35.4
60.5
43.3
15
32
47
53
[ 177 ]
Performance analysis
In analysing the performance schedules of
the four countries, the most striking feature
of the data to emerge put Jamaica as the best
performer in five out of nine areas
considered in the performance of tourism
(POT) analysis.
Tourist arrivals among the states varied
quite significantly. Of the four, however,
Jamaica was by far the single largest
destination with arrivals of 1.2 million in
1998. In contrast, total arrivals for the three
smaller states were roughly 1.1 million.
Therefore, Jamaica had more arrivals than
the other islands combined. As in the case of
tourist arrivals, there were variations in
Table II
Performance of tourism (POT) analysis
Tourist arrivals
Average tourist nights
Total tourist nights
Expenditure per tourist stay (US$)
Expenditure per tourist night (US$)
Gross tourist receipts (US$)
Foreign exchange leakage (%)
Net tourism receipts (US$)
Population
Per capita net tourist receipts (US$)
Best performances
Overall ranking
Note: Based on 1998 data
[ 178 ]
Antigua and
Barbuda
Aruba
Jamaica
St Lucia
Best performer
Worst performer
234,300
7.3
1,710,390
1,020
140
239,454,600
25
179,590,950
65,366
2,747
2
Second
647,400
7.6
4,920,240
873
110
541,226,400
41
319,323,576
68,683
4,649
1
First
1,225,300
10.9
13,355,770
1,000
92
1,228,730,840
40
737,238,504
2,624,419
281
5
Fourth
252,200
8.7
2,194,140
1,159
133
291,820,620
56
128,401,073
152,530
842
1
Third
Jamaica
Jamaica
Jamaica
St Lucia
Antigua and Barbuda
Jamaica
Antigua and Barbuda
Jamaica
Aruba
Jamaica
Conclusions
The statistical analysis outlined, earlier,
make it possible to draw some tentative
conclusions about the role and importance of
tourism to island states within the Caribbean
region. There is no doubt that there are
differences in tourism performance among
the island states. One of the sharp differences
lies in the arrival and gross revenue figures of
these countries. On the surface, these figures
would seem to suggest that the smaller states
benefited less from tourism activities than
their larger counterpart. Apparently, the size
of the industry and the volume of tourist
arrivals are not the determining factors of
tourism contribution to any given economy.
Jamaica, which recorded the lowest per
capita net receipts, attracted less than one
tourist per citizen. In fact each of the three
smaller states hosted more tourists per capita
compared with Jamaica and also commanded
higher revenue per tourist night. These
results, therefore, do suggest that there is a
strong link between per capita net receipts
and tourist per capita.
There is no doubt the smaller states have
come to rely on tourism as the main engine of
economic growth. This position is supported
by the data given in Table I which show that
the industry in the three smaller islands, on
the average, is projected to generate one in
every three jobs, around half of their foreign
exchange inflows and between 43 per cent
and 74 per cent of capital investment. This
overt reliance raises the all-important
question as to whether specialization/
dependence on a single industry is
compatible with economic growth.
Finally, although it is not possible to state
with any degree of certainty, it would seem
that population size has some influence on the
industry per capita contribution to the
national economy. This is noted against the
background that the three smaller states had
populations ranging between 65,000 to 152,000
persons. The issue as to whether population
size and tourism contribution to the national
economy is correlated needs further
References
Belisle, F.J. (1984), Tourism and food imports:
the case of Jamaica, Economic Development
and Cultural Change, Vol. 32 No. 4.
CTO (2002), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report
2002-2001 Edition, Caribbean Tourism
Organization, Barbados.
Grassel, W. (2002), Small countries and
specialization: services as growth engines,
Paper presented at a Forum, The University
of the West Indies, Jamaica.
Jayawardena, C. (2002), Future challenges for
tourism in the Caribbean, Social and
Economic Studies, Vol. 51 No. 1, pp. 1-23.
UN (1996), Caribbean Voice, United Nations,
Geneva.
UNEP (2002), Tourism, United Nations
Environment Programme, Paris.
Wilkinson, P.F. (1987), Tourism in small island
nations: a fragile dependency, Leisure
Studies, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 127-46.
Wint, A. (2002), Competitive disadvantages and
advantages of small nations: an analysis of
inter-nation economic performance, Journal
of Eastern Caribbean Studies, Vol. 27 No. 3,
pp. 1-25.
Witter, M. and Ramjee Singh, D. (1986), An
analysis of the internal structure of the
Jamaican economy: 1969-1974, Social and
Economic Studies, Vol. 35 No. 1.
WTTC (2002), The Impact of Travel and Tourism
on Jobs and the Economy, TSA Research
[ 179 ]
Research in brief
The state and tourism: a Caribbean perspective
Hilton McDavid
Department of Management Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona,
Kingston, Jamaica
Diaram Ramajeesingh
Department of Management Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona,
Kingston, Jamaica
Keywords
Tourism, Developing countries,
Economic conditions,
Regional development,
Government, Economic growth
Abstract
Tourism, today, has not only
emerged as the engine of growth
but also become the largest and
the fastest growing sector in the
Caribbean. For this reason the
industry is now viewed as one of
the leading instruments of
development in the region. Given
the importance of the industry, it
is incumbent on governments to
orient tourism growth towards
meeting the socioeconomic needs
and environmental requirements of
the region. To meet these
objectives, however, regional
governments are required to play a
greater role in directing and
shaping the future development of
the industry. This paper strongly
argues in favour of a greater role in
the industry, both through direct
and indirect market intervention,
by governments of the region.
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[ 180 ]
Introduction
Caribbean states have long been
characterized as open, dependent economies
with their export focus limited to few
primary products in areas of agriculture and
mining. These industries, which were the
mainstay of regional economies for many
decades, have failed to provide the economic
stimuli needed to engender growth and
development.
For some time now, tourism has replaced
these stagnating industries as the engine of
growth and has become one of the fastest
growing sectors in many of the island state
economies. The industrys key indicators
have outperformed, on a worldwide
comparison, those in other regions of the
world.
Jayawardena (2002) argued that this
success was not due to any consorted effort in
planning nor strategic posturing by regional
governments. The industry, it is argued,
simply drifted into prominence because of
the failure of the traditional sectors to
perform adequately.
It is argued, here, that the sustainability of
the industry requires regional governments
to be more proactive in planning its growth
and development. The enabling role of the
state is critical in this process because the
industry provides both positive and negative
externalities which conflict with each other.
Arguably, the state, through good
governance, intelligent regulatory policies
and planning can minimize or even mitigate
some of these inherent conflicts.
This paper begins with an examination of
the economic importance of tourism to
Caribbean economies. The discussion
continues by looking at the potential roles of
government in tourism development. The
final section provides a summary of the
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at
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[ 181 ]
Non-market intervention
In general, the role of the government in
tourism is motivated by the sectors potential
to contribute significantly to the
enhancement of human and economic
development. The non-interventionist role of
the government, which can assist in
achieving these objectives, should be limited
to legislation and regulation, planning and
coordination and stimulation.
[ 182 ]
Stimulation
Tourism contribution to GDP means that any
induced effects by government, in this sector,
would produce a significant impact on the
entire economy. According to Mill and
Morrison (1985), governments can stimulate
tourism in three ways:
1 provide financial incentives;
2 sponsor research; and
3 engage in marketing and promotion.
Financial incentives can take many forms
and can include low interest loans, duty
exemption and/or the granting of tax-free
holidays to the industry. In situations where
there is scarcity of domestic investment
funds, government can provide tax
exemptions on profits and guarantee the
repatriation of funds.
To enhance human development it would
be more appropriate if governments were to
target small hotels, great houses and small
communities with a view to providing
financial and other forms of support.
The limited degree of excludability and the
high externalities make government an ideal
agent to sponsor tourism research. In the
Caribbean, there is the need for research to
move away from beach tourists to other
groups that yield benefit to a wider
cross-section of society and provide a greater
depth to the tourism product, so that it
References
Summary and observations
Because of the importance of tourism to the
region, it is incumbent on governments to
orient tourism growth towards meeting the
socio-economic objectives and
environmental needs of the region.
According to Wahab and Pigram (1997), it
must coincide with the destinations value
system, cultural integrity, and satisfy the
needs of the local population.
There is, however, an innate contradiction
with the optimization of tourist visits, and
the mitigation of undesirable externalities.
Solution to this problem should be state and
not private sector driven. Such intervention
can be justified by the economic and social
needs of the region.
In the Caribbean, governments have been
providing subsidies to counteract external
and internal shocks. They, also, have been
providing guarantees and assuming risks.
The scope of public actions continues to be
massive, even though they are articulated
and coordinated in different and new ways.
In spite of this, it can be argued that the
regional industry will be controlled and
shaped, to some extent, by the multi-lateral
[ 183 ]
Viewpoint
Tourism, linkages, and economic development in
Jamaica
Nikolaos Karagiannis
Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies,
University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica
Keywords
Development, Strategic planning,
Jamaica, Tourism,
Industrial performance,
Economic indicators
Abstract
This article offers, briefly, a
production-oriented development
framework for Jamaica, based on
growth-promoting linkages
between tourism, commodity
production sectors, and
complementary and related
service industries. These linkages
can boost the Jamaican
endogenous competency and
industrial competitiveness, while
improving the countrys
macroeconomic performance.
Alternative development policy
considerations are also within the
scope of this article.
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[ 184 ]
Introduction
The direction in which the Jamaican
economy is pointed, at present, seems to be
somewhat random, depending on the current
state and vagaries of the global market rather
than based on long-term development
planning. The impact of the 11 September
2001 terrorist attack on the travel industry
shows the danger of heavy reliance on an
industry that is changing and is also
subject to volatile factors, particularly the
transport industry and developments in the
oil market.
Attention will have to be drawn to the part
played by tourism in the Jamaican economy,
as the lack of an overall integrated policy has
limited the contribution of tourism growth to
the countrys socio-economic development.
In formulating policies for economic
restructuring and diversification, it is
imperative, therefore, to recognise the
critical elements of the system in terms of
deriving a long-term strategy, and to show
the relative position of endogenous strategic
components. Failure to do so can easily lead
not only to short-run, highly partial
considerations, and short-term measures,
dictated by pressing problems (e.g. national
debt, stagflation) but also to the adoption of
an ad hoc approach to development which
may be in conflict with the goal of a stronger
economic fabric.
This article considers the potential for
development-promoting linkages between
tourism, commodity production sectors,
and complementary and related services
in Jamaica, while charting a
developmental state framework for the
countrys industrial rejuvenation and
competitiveness.
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
Nikolaos Karagiannis
Tourism, linkages, and
economic development in
Jamaica
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 184-187
[ 185 ]
Nikolaos Karagiannis
Tourism, linkages, and
economic development in
Jamaica
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 184-187
[ 186 ]
Conclusion
The current conditions in the world economy
may increase the potential advantages of
pursuing governed-market policies. In the
Jamaican case, such an approach will utilise
and maximise productive resources available
Nikolaos Karagiannis
Tourism, linkages, and
economic development in
Jamaica
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 184-187
References
Karagiannis, N. (2002), Developmental Policy and
the State: The European Union, the East Asia
and the Caribbean, Rowman & Littlefield,
Lanham, MD.
Karagiannis, N. and Salvaris, C.D. (2003),
Economic development and tourism growth
in Jamaica: the challenges of the strategic
approach, in Jayawardena, C. (Ed.),
Caribbean Tourism: Visions, Missions and
Challenges, Ian Randle Publishers, Kingston,
Jamaica.
Lopez, J. (1998), Growth resumption and long-run
growth in Latin American economies: a
modest proposal, International Papers in
Political Economy, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 1-22.
[ 187 ]
Viewpoint
Policy coherence and sustainable tourism in the
Caribbean
Anthony Clayton
Sir Arthur Lewis Institute for Social and Economic Studies,
The University of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 188-191
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[ISSN 0959-6119]
[DOI 10.1108/09596110310470266]
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
Keywords
Sustainable development,
Tourism, Policy management,
Growth, Economic conditions,
Environmental risk assessment
Abstract
The common failure to give due
weight to environmental and
social factors creates a risk that
that short-term economic growth
objectives may be traded off
against long-term objectives, such
as environmental quality. This
potential policy conflict may be
exacerbated in the developing
countries that are undergoing
structural adjustment, as the
associated trimming of non-core
public expenditure will typically
include measures designed to
manage the environment. Thus the
long-term future of the vital tourist
industry might be compromised in
the process of meeting short-term
public expenditure reduction
targets. The solution lies partly in
improved policy coherence; microlevel prescriptions are more likely
to be sustainable per se and also
help to underpin a wider process of
sustainable development if the
appropriate policy framework is
analysed and evolved integrally, as
part of a coherent national plan.
The need, therefore, is for an
appropriate, flexible structure that
could capture the business,
environmental and developmental
aspects of tourism.
Policy conflicts
[ 188 ]
Anthony Clayton
Policy coherence and
sustainable tourism in the
Caribbean
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 188-191
[ 189 ]
Anthony Clayton
Policy coherence and
sustainable tourism in the
Caribbean
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 188-191
[ 190 ]
References
Clayton, A. (2000), Sustainable tourism: the
agenda for the Caribbean, Worldwide
Hospitality and Tourism Trends Journal,
Vol. 1, pp. 60-78.
Clayton, A. (2001), Developing a bioindustry
cluster in Jamaica: a step towards building a
skill-based economy, Social and Economic
Studies, Vol. 50 No. 2.
Clayton, A. (2002a), Cleaner technologies: the
implications for developing nations, in
Pantin, D. (Ed.), The Economics of Natural
Resources, the Environment and Sustainable
Development.
Clayton, A. (2002b), Strategies for sustainable
tourism development: the role of the concept
Anthony Clayton
Policy coherence and
sustainable tourism in the
Caribbean
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 188-191
Further reading
Clayton, A. (2003), Sustainable tourism:
the agenda for tourism professionals in
the Caribbean, in Jayawardena, C.
(Ed.), Tourism and Hospitality
Education and Training in the
Caribbean, The University of the West
Indies Press, Jamaica.
[ 191 ]
Viewpoint
Terrorism and tourism: Bahamas and Jamaica fight
back
Godfrey Pratt
Morgan State University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
Keywords
Tourism, Competitive advantage,
Terrorism, Economic growth,
Bahamas, Jamaica
Abstract
This study highlights the fragility
of the tourism industry in
developing countries. The
overdependence of the Bahamas
on the tourism industry, for
economic development, is brought
into focus here. The adroit efforts
of the directors of tourism for both
the Bahamas and Jamaica are
highlighted. Both governments
saw the need to immediately fund
a revised marketing and
advertising campaign, in the
aftermath of 9/11. An important
factor in the recovery of both
destinations is the extent to which
a coalition of public and private
sector tourism stakeholders in
both countries committed
themselves to resolving the crisis
quickly at hand. The commitment
of the public and private sector in
these countries, to safeguarding
and promoting this industry
probably positively correlated to
the importance of the industry to
the economy of the countries, as
evidenced by tourisms
contribution to their GDP.
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[ 192 ]
Introduction
The terrorist attack in the USA on
11 September sent a shock wave throughout
the tourism industry in the Caribbean. The
complete cessation of flights between the
USA and the Bahamas occurred for the first
time in history, in the days following this
event. Hotels in the Bahamas emptied as soon
as their US-bound guests arranged their
return transportation home. Conventions,
business meetings and pleasure travel were
cancelled en masse, as paranoia about the
security of air travel set in.
At the same time, total air arrivals to
Jamaica fell by 41 per cent. In subsequent
weeks this decline narrowed to a recorded 23
per cent, and was estimated even later to be
about 16 per cent. Tourism accounted for
over 70 per cent of the Bahamas GDP, and
about 65 per cent of direct and indirect
employment, according to the Bahamas
Chamber of Commerce. About 80 per cent of
tourists visiting the Bahamas came from its
major market, the USA. Although the
Bahamas was a popular cruise destination
the lions share of revenue generation came
from visitors who flew down and stayed in
hotels. This industry, however, contributed
under 8 per cent to Jamaicas GDP and
produced an estimated 160,000 direct and
indirect jobs for Jamaicans. Although
Jamaicas dependence on tourism was not as
crucial as that of its neighbor to the north,
the situation was still very grim. With 72 per
cent of Jamaicas air arrivals coming from
the USA, both countries were obliged to
direct their attention toward the reluctance
of their major travel market to fly, following
the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
The task of the Bahamas Director General
of Tourism, Vincent Vanderpool-Wallace was
clear cut. He needed to direct aggressively
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at
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Background
Prior to 9/11, both the Bahamas and Jamaica
had embarked on aggressive sales and
marketing strategies, designed to capture
significant portions of the tourism market for
the Caribbean area. Because of historical
ties, proximity, and accessibility, the USA
was the major tourism market for both
countries. The bulk of the US visitors to both
countries originated from the South Florida,
and the New York/New Jersey markets.
Synopsis
Both the Bahamas and Jamaica had the
advantage of being very close to the USA,
both geographically and in terms of
accessibility. The Bahamas was between
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
Godfrey Pratt
Terrorism and tourism:
Bahamas and Jamaica fight
back
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 192-194
[ 193 ]
Godfrey Pratt
Terrorism and tourism:
Bahamas and Jamaica fight
back
[ 194 ]
Viewpoint
International hotel managers and key Caribbean
challenges
Chandana Jayawardena
Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences,
The University of the West Indies, Jamaica
K. Michael Haywood
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Guelph, Guelph,
Ontario, Canada
Keywords
Hotels, Management styles,
Tourism, Managers,
Ethnic groups, International trade
Abstract
Broadly categorises hotel
managers. Uses lessons learnt by
managing hotels in the Caribbean.
Presents two recent models in the
context of the Caribbean. States
that clear awareness of the ABC
related to the host community is a
key step in public relations.
Presents the ideal attributes and
prerequisites for success in
international hotel management in
a nutshell. Categorises Caribbean
countries based on the ethnic mix
and historic reasons for negative
attitude towards tourism.
Expresses views on key
challenges that expatriate hotel
managers face in the Caribbean. In
conclusion, makes brief
recommendations to international
hotel managers planning to work
in the Caribbean.
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Introduction
The Caribbean has always attracted
foreigners. History records adventurous
encounters of famous visitors such as
Christopher Columbus, Lord Nelson and
Captain Morgan. During the twentieth
century, the Caribbean attracted many
well-known expatriate writers, actors and
musicians of the likes of Ernest Hemingway,
Ian Fleming, Errol Flynn and Harry
Belafonte to name a few. In addition, the
Caribbean has an impressive record of
attracting millions of tourists, thousands of
international hotel managers, hundreds of
major hotel investors and most of the
international hotel corporations during the
last 50 years.
[ 195 ]
Figure 1
ABC X 2 model for international hotel managers
Figure 2
Needs versus knowledge pyramid (NKP model) in hotel management
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Challenges
There are various types of challenges faced
by international hotel managers operating in
the Caribbean. These challenges can vary
from destination to destination depending on
the historic background of the country and
the current ethnic mix of the population in
the respective Caribbean nation. Based on
[ 196 ]
Conclusion
Different regions in the world pose different
management challenges. The Caribbean, by
[ 197 ]
[ 198 ]
References
CTO (2001), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report
1999-2000, Caribbean Tourism Organisation,
Barbados.
Jayawardena, C. (2000), International hotel
manager, International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management,
Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 67-9.
Jayawardena, C. (2001), Challenges in
international hospitality management
education, International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management,
Vol. 13 No. 6, pp. 310-15.
Jayawardena, C. (2002), Mastering Caribbean
tourism, International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management,
Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 88-93.
Skogstad III, S. (Ed.) (1998), Caribbean Basin
Profile, Caribbean Publishing Company Ltd,
Cayman Islands.
Book reviews
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 199-200
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[ 199 ]
Book reviews
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
15/3 [2003] 199-200
[ 200 ]