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61 -je3
R
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61363TECHNICAL
$R~7INFOQRMATION Lt8KRA~Y
M5APRL
HANDBOOK
-'.1
1*.~.OF
ENV'IRONMENTA4L
NN
,E.
CJTheiss
F. Egan
H. Mileaf
McGRAW.HE001
AehronauWrtical
COPN,
N-
Service Divislibn
N. J&
Contrct
'S(60625
ECM
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or
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:IV
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techicalWn~tna
-7RWHIL
OKCMP-~IC
Ca
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Srvic
.4!
FOREWORD
W,V
purpose of this 1>60k is. to provide a convenient reference grurce in the f ield of env iron menotal
Jcotains un-to-date acientific and teivhnieal Information~ and projects the state-of thean; fair as possiible Into the futare. The book is Intended for use by p'-rsonnel of the United States
-materials application,
Anr For-cc and SupportiTY, industry in the areas of: preliminary vehlcledfsign;
ernv'ronmental
coinpnnr'vn1, equipment and SUbsystem Oeslgn and dcveloprnent; and eceliability
and univer~itt1n.. with
tustjilf,. A secondiary purpose '-j to provide a general text for use by colleges
j.
t ho hopp that at lea~'t one course in environmental enginee ring-will be giveti, and fha.. z-7ntitaliy
will 1)'- 4fecred in this field. It Is Maio hoped that this book will inltppI1Z the ti,3vbel..
ccrck.a n citife
i-n(,nr of texts in each of the varlouri areas covered.
Depuity
This report wan sponsored by the Environmental Division, Engineering Tept Directorate, Ohio
as
for I Pst and Suppo~rt, Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright- Patterson Air V'orce Base.
No. 61565, under Coli~rwAe No. AF33(616)-6252. The report was 'published
1lroj,:ct Nv. 13iY-,'Twsk
,Q(4
Nnverniw). 1961 -S ASD Tiechn~cal Hepurt TR 61-363.
'I,(
tto'
CTIih)e2n~
Q,4
-I
%J
1),rirjig the preparation of the report., E. C. Theiss, of the Environirentpl Division, Engivieerin~y1
'lest D;). f*cturate, Deputy for Test and Support.7 Aeroflauticaf. Nyatems Division, acted as Chief Project.
Mileaf of the Techiiicai Writing Service Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company
Eiccatilr!
N;
1
'c
:C L 'Mia'igl'
eFr0J
V Ii:
()!i
>
-.
ivause ci spacet. lini itadions, it is impossible to credit by name all of the individuals and organirrith;that, rupprlied material or iniormation. However, in cases where the editors drew extensively
Ge
f Mn individlial or organization, specific credit 1.3 given.I
01,3
Camn0' irarticular %alUte was the miaterial sr..pllec by the following expert consultants: Johnbike,
o;K.A
Je
Poe
rn:L-1t;1 and Johln Re 1garzi, Arnia Division; G. Chernowitz, AmriI
(%r~i
Atroou is;and -Charles Eiwen, American Machine and Foundry Co. ;Tr. Ehricke supplied
the iP !,.'l c11att for the Mlission Profile portions of Chapter 2, Mr. Eiwen th- '-ta for the Environkarul;sLs section of 'Thapter 4. Mr. Chernowitz the data for the Operational Analysis sectioa
'r, .-ti
q
1.
r
,.
%*
4 and the Tlest Procedures section of Chapter 6, and Messrs. Cornmat-ata andi regazzi Inu
Sfor 0Is? 'ie:t nicilul ies secr-tion of Chapter 6.
!>i a
COPYRIGHT CR~EDITS2
near
1'-krn 1-t1 I lfv~s of tire handbook arc, copyrighted by oz'ganizatio-as listc-i :.nder PEFERErICES
I;elript'.r and akt .&eproduced with permit;siorr of the. respective ccpyright ownovs. Any(1' CA
(if thus nrr'tecrial may not be made without the pez'missiour of the holders ofei
,)on.~t~t
r
.)( 0
-s2
pVV
A..
Aq flirlit vehicle syst'ms and their ground support equipr.,cnt ibecoi.e increatiingly complex, the nevd for envirtanim :Aal engineerL'g Rt all levels uf svstemn design becomes
miore Rcute. New environmbnttd are being encountered, and
sniinfewcrOn~ew~ll be coming more tirob ei1cn-' aE more
advanced flight vehicies are developed. As a restlIt, an
understannding of environments and environmentsil en~gineerIng is mnandatory' for the design of reliable equipment.
..
t
k"-
PUBLICATION REVIEW
V
th
-0
VV- L do-3r not Coaitlltute 'pzv-uv'
T~p~A~U1or
by Lim Air Force of the findinge or conclusions contained
hereii. It is published only for the exchange and stimulatia-i
of ideas.
E.C. THEISS
Projezct EnIF eer
CQNCURRED IN:
LOUIS SCHAFFEI
CoonelUSAF
r! rectorate of Engineering Test
Deputy for Test and-Support
A I
:LIP'
-N-1
)Director
~I$ncal
CONCURRtED IN:
AIiROVz)
EBY:f4i,
Colonel, USAF
Ass'k Deputy Commander/Test
anrd Support
~A
,.~~
v
A-
,~~~~~
*
~~
.-
..
~~ ~
.---
i.
7
i1
1 .,.-
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"
PREFACE
It
'
.4.
William L. Vandal
President 1960-1961
Institute of Enviror-mental Sciences
H. C. Jones
'President 1 g5g-1960
Institute of Environmuenta&l Sciences
Rlaymond G. Yaeger
Publications Vice President
Institute of Environmental Sciences
VV
IM"
a.
r-
1-
-l
'_
"-.".k
OF CONTENT11S
*TABLE
Chapter 1. Intr:oduction
Page
tif;to ,y of
r.uvironmenial F4nginecrirg
'QA
Tomperature Trst'ng .
I.
TX .
,St
I T. ;.
E~i ,snr e
Tlt oo, ca|
. .
....
.-.
. . .
.
.
..
..
...
. .
..
..
. .
.
. ..
..
............
.
....
......
..
I-.
...
1-
. .
.
. .
.1
.
t ....
. . . ..
1-10-io3..-. .
.
...
1-10
1-1...................
12
.
.
..................
........
1..............
2
...
and-%ro',s
-at
h;Ar2 Asrryta
1-12
......
p',.raitional Use
.7_
..........
7.,"
.. .
""
."- .~a
". .
. .
. .
.,
.'.
. .
. .i
".
.............
...
..
.
.
.
.Z
. .
.i
..
... .
2-20
........
............
-.
-----.
2 , .. .
.
_--
..
. .,
i".
.--
.".22
..
........................
.,
. ...
......
......
. .-...........
1,
'",l.
."k'
-,".
"R............................................
;!..
:.
...................
1.
.,n .
.-
............................
S"{il~.......
. ..
. .
... .......
.....
Compondensi-_aluavton
.,ittP.i1..
u~t.s'
P,..-.
-.
1-.
. .
; 0 .........................
,I n sophy
NicneniE
1-6
. . . ...
. .
"!,
1--
.......
.-
1-3
"
1-1
...
.<,,;
1-1.
..
........
.
2-2...
-'
2-23
VII
S....
:
. .
."
.z
--
-"
."
- - -
-""
-'. -
.-
I
-'
." .=
'.
-.
-'-.
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..
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.--*.
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l ;..
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.
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,"
.9.
,I
-;'."
"=-....
"
"
""
S.~~
.,:..j4
.,tujii
"i";h.,
,
ata
Missiori Pro_;lcs
Mi-:1dS...
.n
......
"
.s. .h-... .
. tatc,.
S~z,:. .
Vehh'|es
..
.. .
.
.
...
.............
.
..........
....
...
..
.............
"Poptiry Er.vironments
..
.
.
.. .
.
. .7 .
..
...
..
j
.- 27
..
..
," .
2-31
2-34
d L."2-a4
. .-
............
...........
. 2.
2-27
. ....... ..........
2-2.
., .
....
..
.
.
..
.",
...
....
.... .
.
(Continued)
'..V
'
..
*,.
2-35
.... .
....
..
.2-5
"
..
.
.
..................
. atel~cs
I. ,&~h
;,,Llmor
Indoci-i En,,romne.ts . .
,.
"N:,,..iy,
'w:',
9'9-,-'
.... ...
"Chapter
...,.
...
. . .........
' . .
is
'
...
. . . .. .
. ... ............
SI
Anbit nt Air Pr,-cre
A
.
1.':
..
..
...........
.. avid Vibiaion
.............
.,.
.Effects
..
..
..
........
.
.
.
.
.
....
I".....
.orites
..
..........
.. .
-avity ...
1:1::
-oat, s, lint
,*"
....................
nt,
Sii.4L
.,
...
. .
..
,r',o ........
. .... .
... ..
.......
.... ..
..
..
m';.
..........................
Flfects ........
... ..
"
;,,3-281
53-2B
.3-29
. .. .
.
.
....
33-9
. .
3-40
-tn'
-'
3-26
3-28
............................
.... .
';
.4
. -
.....
'." - .
3-.27
.....
"
................
',
3-25
-25
....................
' :vi,,
...
...
.......
1.
3-I
3-22
"
3-1
........................
. . . ...
.....
ol
3-26
..
9
S w
. ..
..
SC,
..
3-1
.......
.......
(-lar
"" i.Radi:'ion .
-''' ,
,.o
..
.
.
...
.
.- .
....
..
i.:-c:- Atntvl
Ow re ...
.....
.........
3-4!
...
................
....
...
i1
3-41
3-42
.................
3-52
Chanter 4.
Environmental Requirements
Page
"*',crri(atiins nSU'
St,2rds
. -.......
.....
........
. .
..............
4-2
..
........
4-6
-,
.................
oT
-i Eavironmeuiiai Analysis .....................
1k'It &
j!;'nvi~ricnricrtal
T,(
Analys~s
..
"'c
:),taii.c. Atv
,,
. .............
.
..
l. .;t.. ......
.
,tiit.on
..
.y .
..
..
4.
-. .
..
4-....412
...
..
.4-13
........................
Mission
fctivn-.............................4-14
4-14
4-15
...
.........
4-15
4-15
................
-HtSJ'
Ix
....
Stir
. .
.
'
Pan Fulfiliment
,nvi
:,lronmnentai N
C,5<-.',t
of R,
"s .q .
t":,
..
....
. .A.
.9...0
................
..........
.
.
,,
..
, ,t
"
4-22
.. .
5-1
5-2
.................................
.
. . . .. .
.,
'
5-2
.
of
4-91
En'ironireratal Protection
,'
,"'
4.' ,
4-19
l
'rcit,,tien.......................................
I.
. .
Chnipter 5,
4 - 1.
4-I8
........................
lto.
u. L3(1.i
.1-18
......
.
. .
'..
.."4-16
"A
'A4
4-4..
Us'*at~sl~it;:h.
4-i4
......................
n ,.f R(esult.
4-13
......................
"I1"Ple,,
ttit-a.'
C'unstc.kraio
cn'
4-6
Nio.l.l
:t
4-6
" " c ?.
.
...
....
..
.
...
...
. .
.
.. .
..
..
.
.
.. .2,
................
.
.
5-7
F12
'
%'
*.....
._
z22
.. ,,.
.,A
......
-.
Chapter b.
Fage
.
S.iu-ck
..
..
................
.
'l'c01oo
:;!ic:tinn
('T(iign (
.-.
...
,,iderationS
. ..............
Of Couliponjrt..
,'lC,.ti
Isolators
ofr
Sazvi
solator.
.
. ..
.................
..
r ,..
.
.....................
.........
..................
'Ill!.".! . oteCti .
qa !"',n
ot'c i . .
..
. .
..
..
. ...
....
......
. .
5-36
5-39
.
.5-42
..
.......................
.....
5-66
.....................
5-67
..
................
......
.
..
...
..
.. .
'
5-67
5-70
5-7G....-7
.......
. . .
. . .
..
"
5-4
..
5-4
..................
...
..........
.
...
...
,-.trf,'-."lf'T-ri,"
F,.rtricity Protection ...........
lt- nL.....
. .
.........
.......
Anti-icig
lr
5-"
5-44
..
,,.rjfi-,i
5-27
...............................
I'Ot-tr.in ...................
Deicio.z zrJ
.5-t
.........
.......
....................
.....................
...
.
.................
t s
,."tion
-.
of
q,
..
5-7
5- 7/6
'.
I.)
Chapter 6.
Test l
iirn, s.......
.....
Environmental TeLttng
....
.............
..........
ttio
,,n,
:"o
..............
'
"
,* l N U, ir'i,,
Facilities ...........
,l
.t "(sti,..
;i
...........
..
.......
.
..
...........................
6-2
......
..
..
................
..
.
.
.
.........
Iiig..
id. .
.
.
ei
-, i'-0(-
. ....
........ 6-3
6-3
.. ...
."
66-5
....
6-7
...............
..
r"
...........
..
C-8
6-9
.
6-9
O...................
n--12
..
..
...n.
..
Fi,H~ (Iolhrd:l
Fi'1.,"I
..
.
.
.;i-Aroimtnri
1
..
.
..
.
. . . . .
... .n............
..
.
.
. .
...
. .
...........
...
...
13
.-..
.
. .
. .. .
.......
t- 1.4
.. 6b
6-36
6-37
dardiztt'o:c
A;:,.i'
.-
..
..
6-."'
...........
of Envirormental Testing
.--
36
"'"
-- Co,.A,1r'cd Environmental Testing ..
"3
6-36
.-
....................
.
6-31
.................
c tv
.11 and Tactics of Environmental Testing .
Proceturei r..
"
6-14
...
S( lectiv'i of "L'r
,,
..
.
ot Facilities ..............
.n.rn'.dS-lcction
i Proccd'.r.s .
..
..
.
.
.
...
.
.
.........
t39
45
..
,
Al
.....
..
..........
"J
p.'
.'
unuu
.q n t: '
" .
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
3.
1-3
2-1
-I
~~~2-2
...............
.... .... ..
1-11
........-
Meteor orbit.............................................-
22
2-4
2-5
Atino~spi'cric zones..................................................2-4
2-C
2-7
..
-.
-.
2-6
..
11u
2-14
)-15
2-7
2.3
2-
.... ..
..
...
2-14
2-1
M~tirnumi wind ispeed and s~hears exceeded 1%, 20% and 50%
a1 the ie.....................................................
.... . . . ......
i
2-15
2f
I.e?:tudinal
Itwil.in
-jct
run- on logarithrmic scale................................2-17?
Soia) inicr~i.......
.
.
.
.
(-mic
C-
~ ~
)i
(TI1'
1.1
...
2-103
ri
2-27
up to 420
2-29
ies......................................2-30
xill
-. TWI~I4~,,~
'WU4'W-f~7
2-13
2-17
'
wr
'-'22
21
.
..
1'.'
1r
2-6
I.:-i
2-5
. . . . . . .
~~
r'"777
.'~
.122
rr~ra
-211s
. .
3?
...
.95.
.*.2
3-1
..
.o ,
Acrotfyiarnic heating as a findlion of shape
Va~i at ion 01l decelerat Ion wi[th altlttuWe, reentry angle and
q,,jparameter....................................................2-36
Temlixiature versus speed to Mach 10..................................32
2-Z0
2-31
2
23
...
-;
.3-4
3 -5
"
3-2
2-9
2-3
.*
7-1
-41
3-10
311
It
:32
I-1..
312
3-12
. ......
3 -12
......................
linpoct is ed du ring freight car switrhing cperation
car
freight
of
accelerations
horlzoital
Maxiinor)
body vs ,witcliing impact Lspeed...................................312
( ks itcc rded during airiline test shipment. . .. ... .. ... ... .. .....
... . . .3-13
............
Vert IcalI and athwait~iip hull ouid dleck vibrations for ships.
..
3-13
;
3- 1
2 -7
3-1
3- II
c'~e0
tr:iu
te r Iepof
I' ) 0
. . ......
.
. ...................
OI'll
slr,'tUaitII'd fl;ll;
;tit"'P
31:
3-16
1
aircraft.................................315
................
........
No;,e c,.t:acteristics of [-GG aircr~nit.. ..
'Nuioe diai :tvi istics of Ds-52 airel aft.....................................
Vi1w1.1 ion k.".araclerl.9tics of four opt.rational missiles
2.-
1afr
t~.............................
..
..
...-
~ 17
ralt t'l
2.1 -
v(l
rt2(2I
tlton
17
.-.
. ..
,
..
.3-1
>''
-.
*..
3'3
-...
p
TITST OF ILLU.T RATIONS (Continued)
'J.
Page
i* -r
-25
Crack in
-27
corrolor
&'V"TO
4;' I,
.
3-20
3-21.
jYr
3-22
3-31
3-32
Meteorite int:irisity.................................
3-33
3-31
'3-3
3-"3
3-3G
3-37
3-33
3 -'0
3-'I I
Terupcraturcs
3-42
3-34
'-
'1-2
5-I
-2
r 3
A1
3-37
...........
occur
3-29
........
3-38
3-44
, *,
'-
3-48
4-10
.1
I'-
1'LICN
1.31 LbL
WlUi WIU
5-2
,J
ilUle
'"I.
A 1-ki
[1
at
Ti,.,
*:as'
riate
tn
e.-t
.5
a,
-
.i'';'
tar It.)
ii
ni
a'lcw............................................................5-15
-.
...
.'--*--,"..--------'..-----------
'..
-.
rage
S~harpi-adged plate turbillator
J8
...
...
PdAtype tiir1bilator...................................*.
5 1
5-10
5.17
5-I 1
17
5-12
5 -13
5-14
.)-15
................
5-17
5-17
18
5-18
.
5-t
5-19
5 -Slll-arid-tul.e
-18
5-19
5-20
flivt
5-21
5-22
5-2,3
5-24
5,-25
5-17
5-2~
~arrangement
systexrr.....
5-29
5 -30
S~!leignut
I 5 rc.
55 -"15
.......
...
...........
. . . .
..........
,-
..........
5-22
........
5.i
'
. . . . ........
)peet
.............
..
.....
...... . . . . ......
5-?4
1l*lciIt
ut with thread sngf.Liy dieformed Inwardly
to grip screow throad tightly................................................
5-3
~
.
.37
520
52
~-.')
.........................
5 -2.1
5-31
..
'1
5-31%
Swi;I-QWt(h
Iil'ig .st(2TIng
..
5-31
clap..........................................5-32
~ 1 citnothirour'iou
.'
f r,
onl
lwng-body I-clay
twifcx~h)' canss....................
-
.....................
5-33
if
VFW~
t'iA
r..'A
',~.
Page
i W"1tI A
5. A()
5- '2
5-14
5-45
5-48
..*
A............
5-19
5-50
5-711
!5
~?
534
A, A..
...........................................
,.
53u
5-35
5_7 2
.4
A....,.A,
...
5-33
. . . . . ...
. ..........
5-43
.....
5-3
5-37
5-37
,A,.......
....
.
..
5-37
A, A,
-c
.A,..
.-
8
5-39
;~~
5-40
5-5
5-57
5-43
.................
5 - F,R
A..............................542
1150
~~
'
A.
5-54
~*
5-5
Nui
supported by linear spr~ngs..................................5-44
5- 0
5-Ci
F'-1,2
5-'
5-"1
5-44
....
I~terziiliii
I~ ;i
cei'i-o
-g~viy
ounting system................................5-46
~duryr
V%.
moun~nting system................................A!
xvii
"r
M=
-
.4
All
.1j.Zh -11%;AL-4
.A
'A
jt
r~Page.
-- I
5-7f)
joint..........................
*.d
.--
-~~o
..
5-74
..-
i-Y7C
...................
...
. .
. . ..
it
' ""pcr
and empennage ...........
for
wing,
nacelle
Anti-icing system
...-
..
5-73
49-...
. . . . .......
: .
.
.......
..
.,
.......
66
f!-,
..
5-68
..
....
..............
5-79
5-89
5-81
,-82
5-C3
.. -
5-73
...........
5-73
.
reo
5-87
Amount of vainixi
5-18,
.........
....
.
f;-2
.
Typ, al accelerometers . ,. ..
Tvyical data handling system . . .
....
.
.
. ............
. ..,.
. . .
(-5
0-7
(;-"I
t,/mt
y sy.'t(-ti.
...
. .
.
.
.
.
.......
.. .
.......
....
I.;
S.
1). '
-.. I
'-,
ro:.
,.,,
......................
".
6-7
......
.
...
' ..
"
d
6-8
... .
.................
6 15
..................
-12
6-14
.........
.
.......
',
6-11
6 i2
.
.
..
6-11
...........
............
.
... .
"
..
6-10
"-1V
d etup ................
6-
.
...........
.....................
6m8
.
yi:IhAl systein laboratory te.st .. . . ...... ... ... .. ... . ......
Analyzer
S,,.strn test -- "'paddlewheel" satellite in Dynamic
iI
5-77
.
.......
. ,
06
6-6
5,
5-75
...........
C-0
-. ......
......
. ..
C-4
5-75
C-1
5-74
..........
. .
......
..
;4
5-72
RLjngc
5-72
5-73
................
5-80
..
.. ..
....
in ait
........
5-85
of pro-von
....
......
.-84
5-71
......
......................
B-47B .............
'
...
...
.. .
5-78
21
5.-66
'
6-1,
.11
4
"
---
j~(*'Page
6-164
..
1;
6-1
20
6-.
C.- 2
r3-??
C-23
....
..
69
...
,2l
Sairl
r-9~7
dusL chamber...............................................6-21
28
6-21
'3-29
1i;iosion chanxr..............................................
C- 3()
C-3j
1-32.
22
C-I
C -3
L'ual-cliainlk,;
with~
Co ie
3
Sr:'
6-25
2"
*1
Lu'
eiinperature- altitude simulator
atsl.lite interfirz-riv:~ne on
~h.nCal
-
(lc~uic tt-,1',1trl'i
rc;r~cdini L-iz
~(jO.S
6-25
lcrsac
acility..........................32
Aet,i~.tc - im trhaiitcz, vib~ration facility...............................6-28
Tnryfi,ti dvnarnifs facility.............................................6-28
r'St -. qS)h( inlnn ve'hile(ifnr inertial dynmc fct.............6-28
i)
6-241
U- 20
...................
.... ..
...
. . . . . . ......
;- 25
(2,
'
1 (w.
'-f t,,l
ii ,
i-I
d-.uarnic facility
.~..
..
..
....
.'
''
..
..
FAied, Florida................................6-32
spin-c syst enis test facility....
.....................
6-33
......
pal(
V-1~
U
Ao
'Iv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Page
World-wick zJassificat~on of clnimates..................................6-43
U-1~3
point of manufacture
.)
(j 4nviOIL-,-ntsenruniredfi'oin
tc Point Of use
. .
6-44
6h
LIST OF TABLES
~~Pagc
x~
edicted future temnperatures
1-7
2-2
1-3
Outooor exposo~resites .
1-1
2-6
h
....................................
2-8
2_'."r.0oI,o
2-4
2-5
2-
2-'
dual enr
2-13
;-l-*asi
-.
pomplutio
invaitkns
es
speed
of honeatalsrbiongcpit
dt of lrir.
l td...................................32
.~
...
..
a~rena
,f rarr-eri
.................
P* duriatio
.
.
1-3
tt...............................................
3-2
-ur
2-9
2-11
. ...
2-9
22
3-1
....
2-'2
.... ..
*
*2-7
*~
....
2-15
.2-26V
2-33
3-1
3-2
*~
A"~
..
..
3 -4 C
....
with
+r
..
5.
.3-
'
Properties of metals
C-I
"4
3-0Il
..........
..
.....
..
3 331
~~
affected by r;.iaton...............................3-32
3-18
3 3-33
-1-20
~3-21
3-22
3-33
3-34
.......
..
..........
3-34
..........
3-386
3-3
3-2-7
3-27
4-;
4-2
n
t
..
I.....................5-3
Coniniurclallv available- hivh-temoerature materials.
Sonic bcttrie temperature-resistant metals...............................5-4
5-2
5-4
So~nc
of tenI mctals,
..
..
4-8
....
5-2
5-1
..
..
solds..............................................5ta.irtr
-Sp,
Lc~f~ic'
jitsof linar expansion in descending order..........
characteristics of conductor
Iturc
,
inr hiiJ-t( n
-7
Pt l:iu'thi-1 i mal
ii
ci
o ly
1'
3-Mi~ ;41)'~
..
3-24
0_6
'
3-19
..
. ...
..
stability of clastomers.......
3-15
3-14
3-20
11-I
Page
Ta! le
1.
y-.p
....................................
5-26
N~?
.1~
Mo'Ilij
-11,
Appioxininat
a-Ili
.....
5-36
..................
5-1
5-IG
5-17
Pungus-nutrient materials............................................5-51
5..]
5- 2()
3-21
5-22
>22
5-64
3-241
5-65
523
65
ON~
52:1
2-1iie
5-28
(-
f4
..
..
..
..
..
26
......-
6-30
-Ii
................................-
31.
I
r 1.1
Iraj T
T,
................
.....
..
..
t or airc raft
..
6-34
.
.-
35
6-41
AJ.
xxAI
*i .
.i
-,
S.
....
,.8
...
LIST OF CHARTS
Page
2
Vlbration
tur1oprop ,ovironment
tr-usports at varlous locations on
35
ui
. . .
.
2Vib~ration enivironment at various locationE on let
:"5
btombe rs. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Vibration environment Pt various laoctleos on century
jr~tfig
. . . .ttir. . . .
. . . .3-63
V1b,'-:tion environment at varimia locations on
}licopi.cr . .
'
-5
.
...
:i
3-69
.
- .
..
3-74
VA
K i.
;It
'-S
}.
S....
'I-
:icncy in the design and development of equipIlt ' IXP)ud tj coi'Iweailier. Ini the same year,
acompriehecnsive pt-cgranl was initiated to dot, ,rminr' world wide recorded maximum, mini1wumn and mecan 2aibient and encloiw-d compartinent 'cmeinpatures. The resulin showed a raige
Cvvin -65) F
Q.54C
to 160 F (71.1 C).
ony
ecus
gof
hatoupu
bais ariA
required considerable
Aprovcnicflt
*ja.cks,
1Q43,i~ithe Cola
duner
In rainalii't'swere,
.1,
a~aln reorgan'I itc Cuid Weather I vstiniz D!etachment wa&.
-e-2
then becami, a
cycle of airprovide satisC1 as daterin b4l.
'.
,~
*
-
-~
.-
'
'
1jjpical Testb
-Mission,
Brazil
Indies
altha,'
mnlafi,,,,
antri
(,,n,.g,
P
7
i-, n
'*
..ca.
War 11, such sites were used for exposing equipment that would havc to undergo long periods of
storage. These sites were ilso used in aittempts
-rav
both.
~,'
Leeorw
__isi-!ec-sdb
AD
'
Generally, it was found that storage condilions were Inadequate and the majority of material stor- I out-of-Aoors was unservice~abl.
Elect~ronic quipment vras deteriorated beyond
fgroups were Pct furnished with adequate ir-lormoat ion or properly packed material. In regard
to power p!7-i equipment, there were no prob1cmn areas that could be attributed to the tropi-.
(Il Lcimate. The recluiremnent for rust preven-
West..
vr2'cs.to
1~k~q 5ite
Operating
agency
~Date
foundcd or
establ~shed
C nmate and
stmnosphorin
cond.1fiona
Present
HUatS
i r i'rc e ( r i, ac
~~uc
~
-_________
,~.'
Rem. irks
Urive~sity of Alaska,
Geophysica'l I~ nntitute,
Cootv A~a11,R
ka under
Air1' it.
i cc! contlract
1947
Active
i
A~rctic.
Subarctic,
Rural
4.11
~t~
0Date
Operating
agency
1T36, Site
Joint
'.icility, Naval
Air Stationl,
founded or
establiebed
110t~
tertd Staten Air
Force an'l bureau of
Aeronautics
Fl pnro
1948
19H7
Prbeent
'
cechtkionia
statut
(ArIM,
Rural.
of Agricultuiral vnd
Mte-.ja~iic Arta,
School of Engineering,.
jitatoi College, New
Meio; uonder Al
en'res, Ne~w
Mexico
Desert
(Arid),
Active
.
flnarka
Naval Parachute
Facility until !951.
At that time beear a jota Bu
Aer-USAF
operation.
Deosert
Active
California
New Mexico
Actinic, Las
UtMoapheric
p*.j
Morexco nderAir
United Stales Air
Force
sou'h Florida
Exposure Site,
Emrbry Nlidle
Air 13asc, ('cral
Cabler, Fic.i!d5.%J
1.93A
DeaeUl7ated
15415
&zbtroploal,
..
Rural.
9lesc~aat
Navy or
'I
,.
Navy Contracr
United Staten Navy.
Bureax= of Yarde and
lDocka
94
Fisclicrs Island,
1946
Miami, Fiori-Ja
Bureau of Aeronautics
11ami~on Roads
E-xprnaure F'e.
Bureau of Aeronauticn
I Arctic Test.
Station, P'oti;i.
Barrow
Arctlc,
Deftmtivatod
eo.a
Active
9ubtrqopll,
Rural.
1928
Temp~erate.
Urban,
Deactivated
19U
Beecoast
1957
1948
Ox,,anlo mnaterials
exposeure ait..
'Jperattotts imoved
to Wright-villl.'e
Boa~ch. Nort'i
Temperate,
Aetim
ActiveTeprt,
rtural,
Seacoast
Docks
iiuenemt*, Call-
12
fornioa
1941
19415
Active
Temperate,I
lztduatrial,
0O*
NavalNi Miteriai
Lai0oi itvry,
Nf'w York i'aval
Actve
Tem~perate,
Industrial,
6ams
1-4'
1g
Ognly
established at
Solornous, Marylaad. Moveeo to
Port Hluetinle In
Nav a] Materiel
l.:%boratory, Ma~re
4"
-u4l
e.oa
-.
n~rrig
i~cach
anrl EvaiuatQjn
Abor..,
I
Po rt
t*~
Rural.
-1"A*
i
''
T'able 1-1.
TnHt
JDate
Omraigfoune4e or
agency
estpbUbhW
~ite
1iru,'-:I Licterl .
oration lob;
Staticiii, nrIr
C~o~t', ~
1>;'18fa C8,ial
I;tre .1nto,
June, 1!944
l-oatr
Rroaf-t
UMUMo
1L953
Naval ltomearch
Laboratory
2tmospbXA71Q'
flwlotlvatWe
July, 1946
Tropioal,
Rtural.
Seacoast
1958
JtAr4,
Fort qiierrr,n
jSio) .
Climate and
--tanditions
Actlye
flen-rkb
OSRD contract
trurisferrad tto
Niays!. Research
Liaboratory
iernr1,
1945.
i~t&K'y Rev-
s wouLZt
Uou clOAT. h
Tropltol.
RUM) ,
er-oolet
Ci'ia
their cout'ractorm,
3~~le
0A-- Clooear1ing.
i'Vor hixfortua~tiv
conatact D. A.
aeash~ure and
as stes
.A.1eaxwder, Neval
r*tcry, Washing-
Txf4;Ia1,
btarWdby P5an-
J3C1)8
1940
Naval Roasarch
Aotlve
4RcA CEII&I
aortryU)V,
In
Movltin
;R~~ng
em:.
1019
Active
Activir
19)
Fnim~jrngCorpa
Wvgner1~Jmir
I ttf'VAh'Ilvarht
ri
I .t
Corps
Axnador and
Novoxnbor 16,
Taemy3rako.
Rural
M%oot ikip*Rlirrt
TeAt!r gdoui vince
WnrldIr War 11.
Arct(c, t3r4b
,-
ural.
i rM
T
entr,
gliei 1e,~rch
I~
'
UnagRilaled
EPJJ
Aot~ve
oMI.-~
1948yite
RLo
rorL
Tomersturst
Aotive
DLwaI.h
arctic,
Aremtlro.
ilaeue19rvr7
Pribr
(FlUDI
A ha wite
i-
fhiAooaat
'4,
'
'
'IV
OWl
*2
*1
"
~no-~i.nr,
C*~2m~
1~l
C-',
'N
~:~.~A
NCC
'$ kPfAtlron
9
0
111it
o4)r
I.ur.:itiat
for % AplphtJ Ve.W
:Ji
f 'r , n.t
*reto
Y-4
': 1
frtLrsLdg
?A
Unilted States-
VI rg i el
Vurna 'TealSAtaign,
dSteI
epartmrn
0Ti(e
ter
Y!tliei
gin
i'r
-rn
i~ xinhe
it
flifilh
,
4T4611{304?P4CIAtU
RI
$,.tdp
Mr
00
I fn
linrtu
d Ste
r' , c l-i
I'.I!Ifl
I'.*
if
Standardas
ic~n
Inn 25.1J
OI l e ol
'
*.t.
delitmsn,
a lHon -Awan
(-isti9
(A new
applied
71011,l
,,.i
A f:'t
17.t'w1 ;,.It
Intiatied L0.9
w"'.uipmerittitr
or-l;
L'
oilK
"0
wt'.,n{111t~
-).': 1
''..2
'
'et'ata.
1hr"''
vo
rjv~
mid o-oljl$14
C;rV'W0'"I,
.. WA
'r
r"A..>
o%
yr
V2
;.:'
~':'ry~
iidiE: rc 4.'tI1Itu
.~
*..
..
..
..
..
..
5-15
....
th: e ring Dl
t Ie th E gi
1(111I
in w a s I rri I.
F-Pei'tw-i Iiian Air I
1''tolpiveiit CIV(IIiimn:iiii d(N'11r3C1
Plr'' ellii US4Grv!r-nrkev. the App:'
lini
jiIe'ro$
:r
11't~i
vam
Iiei'~mtt(I
I f' [fir quliification13
,'1iii-i
V lC11 'ill toriindutitry
Onivirr
andi
1V
deve
*
.
a.j...-
:t e*
0rqif
rd
'w' 1
U.2fin
ihI
"'ip
14'T C
Tsi'u2,rr.-..ire
7
.. C.4IM
id
t9i"i
0~i,iAh I
I?
Ux
11"
tk
*.~
PA_
ltz "st
- requiremnents, such as temperature
were undcr review 2t intervals fromu 1944
Design;-
dated
UUc I~j-utiplbLUIlty ol
ipuutl
Atli
-quirement
enough to eliminate
and wers,
Runnyr-
~
1
'
,4
Ferature-vibr~ion and
Wrlwghf AirA LVAD~aivopmra
InitiWated
n. ic
to Investigate the feasibility of coinbined envirantnental testing for qualll icati~on and
equipment ev,?Iuation purpoR3B. It was Intended
to investigate more complex co mbinations of envlwonmontit; than simple coinbir~ations of two, and
to use the minolon profile approach. It was ex-
of bflu nsitu;'al
'2
'~'
%
Inv.
profile appiroach, and the 1rofupvctp of nimulatmng ouch combinations werL analyzed. N4o effort
mnade to determine the conlidonyme of such
environmental tests.
ig19o0
to ratm air, or
284 (140)
600 (260)
690 (j-M .-
OF7 (122)
350 (177)
G0o (260)
160 (71)
225 (108)
300) (141))
230 (110)
300 (149)
3751 (J91)
yp
_______
At
i
rxterniil ;t
Is
L
1)
pillaneiriIr
of eqil'"tOent
orpvn
irectly expotied
1905
eue.
Hu truric eq'ilj'rent
_________-1-7
-j
____
I It
.'
r-
In M.ay of 195'?,
the! Development
Dersign
being
ments.
-,Iod.~.
v'ir.mmrent of
p'c,r1. an'~ yaw, whtic photo.graphing a simuiate~a
moIng target. This now concept of testing prakc-
fteEiiomnp
iiin
JF__
ee.
I-cla
environmeutz .-.. c..
1--orutat
with the initiation of the nuclear bomber In
A
(us19.'4. 'The environments provided by
the reactor spectrum, consisting primarily of
neutron arid gamma radiation, could affect man
an well as maiterials and equipment. Nuclear
riadiatiola was recognized as an envtronrment
spr~oe
pnteohrecr.
1ntwt'
posdible Interacting, reinlorcini1 anu- "Aabiting
effects. At that time, work was already ging
ont*ul.ratr
n htclstosycte
efcso
ula
aito.svrlidsre
have been enmaed in the nuclear propulsion
atebe
~ beig
rC~i
r~
o build reactors. Hfowever, the one
Air Development
Division
n biltat
ftefrs Wright
oeonzte
edfrsm
ulone
Is
of othefrs eti)reognmyenthe necor binaion
enirnmns
iadtodermbineto
wlaith raiton. Ahstd
wan
mdeinibitringet
wthe Itradition., reinfocn
encountered inhbtnfutur
theosinter
tacting,
rein
may
inftresut
io nucea dial veiceMnycofnthred
ayo h eut
red eils
nulerp
of theCells
study
weeincorporated4 into the reactor
test.
being
b~ilit at WritLt Air L)Svelopnlent
environmental
tests in relation to
and their combinationsmust be anailyzed an~d reviewed, and from this point we must evolve test
procedures to cover both materitals and variroua
categories of equipment.
etna
u~'
suffers I~room&-theZpi'obbiezn of inadequate correlation be-tweon the effects of test env1i'inmac= ;'.-d
the effects of actual service environments. To
keep testhLg time within practical 1'.miis, a laboratory test very often require3 iticreariod severity of an environment over that which would
be encountered In actual service. This results
In accelerated deterioration eff ects. Ile cwai:L
den1LO Of such at test. depends upon adequate correlation of the time duration and severity of the
tent environment 'with the expected time duration arid Reverity cd the actual service environineni. To Improve correlation, work is currcntly being conduicted in the dovolopituritt of
standard environmental test spcmn.Those
ar
eie
htratirreversibly in aLknopn
and prcuictable mannorwher. subjected to a specific environment. It is expected that in the luture these standard te3t specimnn~s will permit
the deterioration effects of onvironrenitilt exposuire to bo more exactly evaluated in tci-nie of
play P .'c
retiahiliiy tesiting.
llypt~r FEavl ron merits
4
fo
11i- I-,,-Tluly I
~.du.,ut~iox
,.P
Vf
%
ohntrladidcdevrnet
fcso
terilas, components, equipments, wid, subsyatcnis- an-d combined environment tefstin will
Future Trends
e.
.r
tingle environmental tests for various cate1gories ni c-iipment. Itis anticipated that more
5~.
combined
,.'
NuclearEnvrnet
T~oa~-
''""
,r
aziJ intensity.
J
-W..
t: e lijan
auirtlon wj)d
I~
:r'Lced-jrc.- 'will be founded prizniriiy cia sceletii..* w' Mclipiis. For this reason, environmental
(n1 :nhtr..., liar bconne a sep~rate field of
nc avn
1!isi.resting to ntift
SIn(tiifiC
U.tu a programn that began with sach elementary
rf':uirpmrents as cold weather operation, in
wh'ich practically aniyt>ody could eitlher watit for,
Ow
acc to, or reproduce the envirotoment by the
eof a woodcn lx~x and some dry lic", has
rew'hc'd a pioi~nt of complexity that Involves a
wucle!ar reactor with environmental chambers,
is wiili as adv-A.:c,0 hiyer environnmental comnhined f ic:UiL-s. Figvr-e 1-1 gives an indication
'Weviomental
ffi
program of the Air Force.
1lt-r-:,t is in both the conventional and hyper
uv -' onn'-io
ents, single and combined, and in eatainil1ing requirements, test procedures and
neow fa( liliies ii. all technical a-reas. Consider--1:
abit. work has been done with the single conventionl;d enivitronments, Iyut there has been little
v. )x- done in conventional combined environin,;-its, primarily iio the equipment area. In the
iiypivr eniviruninent area, only a small amount of
pruvccis. Single hyper environmerits willfhave
ic understotn' but combhinations can also be
StUdj ed. IleraCC, ItIL'ansition to combined hyper
did in tue convvntil..a] environmental area.
Fif)
Combined
Single
Comhinad
A
-',
Applicatlion
Test
Requirements
and
Procedures
Design
lRequirements
I
Faciiitics
Technical Areas
-.
'I
I~imtFih
Materialsie
S ructufeel Vehicles
Components
Pronultion
Then, I.i:,lities
il ~nat
fl(d of oure, s a atuty
lc~tljrC.uru
unA
0;d some cnvursieIsa fcilit
an stpoeu
i-;;sm
nirnetlcm
ji J .
v'ant-sinan it' the various areas of environmini' 1lei.gtinit i ng, as well as the time at which
'*~c
d'l,,rn
I.
-GENERAL PHILOSOPHY
*1 iC
III
Single
Hypar
Environments
I.h
Conventional
Environmyents
PJ
MnV
~
-
100
...
'-~
-.
sr*wl.
~.-
~~~vr-,-q*:..~.
baN-*W
R'
B0O
. DefT
A0-
io
Aiuat
C.
uler1doci
/HighiI
30 Terprlr
Vibral'on
Low Prbssure
Koisture
20
Shuck
AccustiCs
Greater Extremos o? lniduCed EftvtrofnmW%
Meteoroids
Ionized Gases
Corbi~ned Enwl,osments
Dis~ociation
Chorcied Pairli4cat
Accelerat~i"
Solt pa
d'LL :wperfrachadtioa
be tablatye.-It
spaecifi
--
plctos
engineering is actually a
I-i-a it's )Ii re-1 ruetfl~is thpt are applied in al
from the Initial
-u-s f tslrnde'velopnment,
systent
JIrm e u! nuiatuiills, to theo ultiniate
lf'irnn~ena~
1111ej'r~tLinn.l
MIj.cirl
Fv-duati.itf
..
Ljvt
1rietmprtrs
testin~g.
In the development of equipment, many en~ineerlng tests are run under envtironmental conitforis that are necessary to 1.10pcdclpmriiet of the Item. This iet geiieraUy Conmplet cd
withtilte qualification test when? ant. if itac Iteml
is to go into production. This lsater test to also
predominantly environmenta! In naturf , prlinaril because of the operatiorai characteris-
pi~ase,
an item to;
4xquipatiheloti
*.The
~~5~CLl
th
=C9gory
..
ISe
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I.
~n.lr'iAter of
-ii WeatherTbri
AM(
1946,
AAF Technical
Report
5503 AM1C
bLytuin,
9.- Prlmnr
--
yI~37AF1Acho~iiii
porT
C',_nter, Wripht-Platterson Air 'orre
Lvzzt, Ilaytvii, Ohi0, 9 SepiLember 1943.
7.f Cro~ine-EniromentTesle~uihiitV
ins WAri' ~ ~rR 1j~~13.
A.,I), Wligiit-Patterson Air Force Basee,
Svpernbr
01dr)196.
'o,
OioSepembr
156.Air
-1
ivi-i'.1
ll.~
net~aino
ye
ni
"i~nvironi
TR 57-456, "art 1--Survyo5
mental Fil, July l957, V)arL l--Simulation Methd,
Nveniber 195? "Part IlI-Fac ilty"
R-SAir Force,Al)Wrgt
Pattrl
Air Fre
Base, Ohio, January
1958.
*r
rpclDjroation
'j!
re-rlal airEupent,
AA
*.6_F0_ii2r
rhrfA
ou
TSC-MWiglit-Patterson
1 October
15 March 1945.
qk
:7
Pi-
NcturciI
Veus-,
Veu
(Plonets-t nearest
approach)
I
:0I
----.-- r
0.
"
LUD
;:b
Lj~~~~~H--s
Sunli
-Mo-------------------------G
;Q5
Loe
Radiatio
_
of Intense
_
Limit_
Dus
Mirmeeort
~ie
=:1
-
'iaLower
RadiationM
Limitor 0nes
MconeerteD
I~er
Noheo
fiijcgnt
Cloud~
- LonlrA uroti,,eo
~ruTo
Iax eom iR
ad
-.-
OinH
Ia
Snow
2900 t
Hond
Lighting
in,
%s
Lushn
i
Hum'dily
'
LoTemTp.gt
1.
High Te-mp
*
*
1\
FSnd
Fngi
910
Fok)
14190
B Oust
15
90
Salt Spray
1965
1970
ti
Nil
:'
W-W TIP'1
I4
190
t7it
C~snduced
\irto
2-20C0
---
Q1.1
25-
-:
ion
5/
IIoF'
900
a
.-
jl
S 0-33
4c
C~~C
F-'
4'0
-.
II
-w--
-V
~
vibrtjpfs-=0-200
>
>
4
,~
U--
Bo Ing
Jr
-Z
-I
rccl 1cceroAir
-.
I1
'4'1-
9001
I)
ln
-1-
U7
10
/T,7
Range_
135
5-'~rcce
.72
///4U
1,
0
5004sio
ja
H
5o
Muf
4
400 j1ii,
Lo
Heate
Hele
3.
1-~n
in na u a
i d c d e vi o
A rtifiia
L~9S/'
Pressuri-u
195
195
19
n s
m /u
19
oln45.
1.970
CHAPTER 2
.3
y we~Yn
C A IAX T~
/S
There is aome Indirect evidence for the existence of other planetary systems. However,
with our present state of knowledge, communication with such planetary systems is a matter
of speculation only.
.r
be encountored
ystcnis.The
I "'i ceter
te iaactc
:iuyoiil our gtlz'xy are couutesohrgl
\.' L and cl isturs of galaxies. Tihf. galaxies are
il;i-~e mainlf types: spiral, elipt'cal and irreg11a;. I'[hfe Nliky Way in; one of se'veral galaxies
in a !,'iauli cluster known as th6 Local Group.
'
toa
9pren.fW1matrI
Syteam
mre
SoaSytm
'--
The and
fourMaIrs,
Inneraxeplanets,
Mdercury 1 Venue,
narth
relaLiviay isLadJA,
A*ti.5f
They are known as thc "terrestrial"
aet.TentforpnesidstivIiui
the Sun are Jupitel-, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune~. They a.-e known as the major, or giant,
iaes
l or ~teeaerltvl
ag
odies, believed to be composed principally of
solid Ice and rock cores. Ve-ry little Is known
.of the planet Pluto, which Io farthest from the
Besides the Suan, the planets, and tlheir
Sun
moons, the Solar System also containr aster.-oids, comets, meteors and Interzalanitary dust.
I
.
Asteroids
Tihe asterold3 are a group of bodiles or planetoids that orbit between Mars and Jupiter. It is
-vatimated that therd are hundreda of thotisands
2-1
I..
~~~~~~~~W
*A4
'rW
}:
-3
2,
''~
10
p---cornets
0",lufmicrornetEoors
----
* C($Neptuai
,---
1 r-y
,F y
U
K'-Sun
uoJupiter
N.
the Sun.
SotrnMeteorites
Sounorbitz
-~
*j7material
a~~-
-.
0
The Asero'ds
Marshigh
Th A~rEasm
rth
venu
Mercury
Fig. 2-1.
1!aia1b6c_+1
Asf~oatc
an
of these asteroids. They are believed to be evid-niice of a PI anet that never quite coagulated or
one that rtis~nttegrted.
'iitii
Ili.d
?.L~
1
Earth
Meteor Stream
of 1V912 tons.
an
llo
surl
Mtu oita
i'v reuitillfn
Ironh
.
I
1000
1k
Y 600-
1,Str
400-nu
W2W
CL0
E10
Uau
Venus
Er
Er
With Lhe exception of atomic and thermouinulcar ei..-rry, tlhe Suin is the ultimate source
01f a.l,
".111
'i
) m4 ii
energy on jihe surface oi
Vih: E~arill ir.d -udier planets of the Solar System.
More than 9S piercenit of the Solar System niass
in the Sun. Its diameter Is
s concentr.'zd
iu-1,000
mniles; approximately 13 mti-uion times
laigr
Erthtan Th
he Su's dnsiy aer-W('rSO
onlr,ourtl,lhatofthe1Earth, but at the Sudls
Curliter tlie density is several times that of the
F~aro.!23/
A pres,,.,-re ol a billk;n tons per square Inch
anid a it.emperature of jibout -360 million F (200
infl~ion Q) probalbly exist at the Sun's center.
hi this atomnic furnace, nuclei collide with ire.. ,.ro,.1locities, and enormous energies are
rclcaSed. This eonpir'v mieRius
i Lhe S19un's. saurface,
v;hi~rc it IF radiated into0 space.
Some uf C,e known -,h
S'un are Iat.d ijlw./,/heat
~sical
iendiamuter
MUS2.1
WlA4,000 inies
x 102 ton 9
properties of ;ic
1.4
27 days;/24
70 10'
Temiperature
1-'I'll'uns Sur face, the Ph~otosphiere is a gasau, -m-lope :rlvrut 203 ralles thick. its density
- lv:
It;o
'logj ;il*)ut a millionth, the density
:uir uo Eird
ii.
Thu press'ure iii the photoIo i., (,;11y aboit ouci-fifth to uric-tent-h of the
'l' tI -.-cvl prcsstire.
130th the density
Iin-
Jupite
Netu
-L- U----L-AU0.1 0.2 0.4
1 2 4 6 K) 20
D~~~ rmSn ~rnrio
~lOf~
uAtooia
Fig. 2-3. Temperature of a spinnirs
as function of its solar distance and
radiation characteristics./6/
20
40
iiE
lo0o
~i
Apbcrs3
'orfice
,,
Solar Radiation
Energy leaving the Sun consistrs of CleIL-f
magnetic radiation, and high speed )roton!-- qnO
other particles. 'Me energy output tif light and
is extremely constant, varying no more
than about 0.5 percent from it@ average value.
The output intensity of ultravioiLet radiation,
radio waves and charged particles, however,
varies considerably due to solar flares, which!appear to be associated with sun spot aictivity.
The solar flares discharge Immense energies
in a few minutes. It is believed that this reof energy in dun to a sudden instability in
-lease
the .'un's cliromosphere./2/
Magnetic Field
The Sunl'a magretic field Is only slightly
stronger thtan that of the Eartli, except durini:
sunspot activity, at which time local north andi
.!*k;
S...
.
L
Mass
Escape velocity
6.86 mues/second
0.29
94.6 x
18.517 miler/i
tangental velocity)
second
Orbit Eccentricity
(departure of orbit
from the circular:
circle occentricity
0.017
?
0
/Sun
11 0.
1
(January)
005
/
0
2400
2000
cubic
25R.9xI0
05
S0
-.-.-.-..-.--
Volume
--
_-
I
2800
Wavelength, A
1
3200
x Ies
',
=
0)
23" 17'
(mean)
32.1724 feet/sec
s3ouUi 'agnetict
poles in the sunspot cause magni-tic moments to reach values 109 tiWpes those
of tne Earth. At such times, the Sun's magnetic
;nv. - 10h15000gauss arndwouldbe expected
field
to extend well beyond Mercury and almost to
Venub.
lowever, the bolar corona, whic-h-is ,w
kAcetllL!t electrical conductor
nulli!ies the sunspot fields in outer space./5,hB,/
*
I
Tlhe
I-.
i"
'iIe
t,'s
~uI0t
I xvi - ,:,tA tMon.
feet and
Mountahos rise to 29,000
physical
(.f :!ji tF,)ths reacth 35 000 feet. Other
p.
!itrn
L of the Earth arelistedbelow./1,4,10/_
I''''L
#Wt"
i,
,tal
i'
atdiaieter
Z Oml
Ilit04
,oo
1o-
500o
%-
4T0h
300o
zoo
5oo400
0-
'
.,"
r,O~r
sph...
"
oo-/
too-
rU
0oo-
oon350 '
30
20o
'
f0
c" ono
.:._
,g
Ao.0
',o;,o ,o'It,
2lli,_,.yc
t:-
10
5-
IU
'"
.0
o,* .__..
'"
7120 miles
"
.
...
1-1 ir
T;1
~ii,
11 15
iiir
H, is ((,)f irnd btl he troposphere,
111w domainn of litili winds; and cirrus
(tr.Teteprtr
ecrea.-;es intie00p
o0'00, IT a0 a function o; altitude, and is con-.
~i( :.(.( (oOn!taflt at (3.5 C per kilcmeter.
It *is thtckest evei the polen Pnd
r maty uvcn be contsidered ahsent,
quOtor. Stratospheric temperatures
h c-Li
ar-2 on the ordei(r of arctic winter temperatures.
'Iii(. iou r roCri')rsof thestratoppiiele contain the
n,. ~rindring jet stireams and are turbulent./I 1/
rArgon
n omin
f'f:
E
E300h
-Oxygen'
xgnAc~c
\'\
100o-
m~ridisappear./1,12/
0
OD06Lo02
till)
cit
I;
tir)'iot
rulo
'.are
Comr~poei'ionsure,
2.Ngthig~i
%region.
aron0.93
0.03
I,
iO
%should
ca
(onstituents aitiount to less
verF.-ai distribution of ijic
conz~titucits ILb shown LIn
rviainiriim
11-4
.0..OO~';.
1 iv
*mtmoop~jc.irc
l I
Qx
~is
imteInhit//I
rm
***
.-
__________
**~~~~~~*L
:4
o~cyeri20A49~In
Carb-il diunide
n~r~:ttion
oxygill
001
i,iz.
i)rn'lt
001
e Deniy
lnieDnstcy
wli4iazib aoi~
irgnltmc
\..........Nitrogen
20
'lIhe Uicirmosphere is
6-rr
500
_2.5
F.
IN
50k
401.-
-20
-7800
:5
02
4 G 8
Fig. 2-7.
LotitudJ
47*0Olitiude
3 "12'Lotitude
-- 8031 1'Latitude
2 '6 689 0 0
O)zone Concentrol ion, cm it 10-3 0/k m
2 4
6-8.-10 12
I
Tahie 2-1. Maximum Ozone Concentration
Atitde
Altitude
(fo)
L.
---
0.05
30,000
0.010
0.376
0.3
50,0flC
0.030
0.153
2.0
710,000
0.000
0.01189
greater
hwever,
place,WHo
the- muparkliiv
rctra
October 1958, ccurt fly o
ne
11
0.0242.
9,0
ii
11i1lion
1.000
reluoY
titii .
0on
(jprtrim pm.r
0.005
........~
ligittaf!, Arlzorlja./4/Std'aparl"I
Reolative
den Ity
of air
Sea lavel
2 t
Ozone
concentration
(rimn/ki)
ulctul
___
fC~iovcma
r5
op
iu'ii(lIouidtiLiouni.4
t ii i~t~$
ti;&I
t~tizrj~di(
ari:(.LIta'w
of high eniergy. -'11le tiecornd form lai the cmintiuuouB, low-cUrrcnt, lorng -time type, which re'lease3 larga arnowits of hefn# durtng a lon g purhlid of curi mit Llojw./1 4/ A fitudy of lig,)Aunil,,
atriketij by lirHlel Eurupjem/aAirwaym tjiiuwf.( Uoj
Inllowhnr distribution of atrlkon !ti the iarloui*
Cloud foukzin:
CulitiiUU
Cumiulu sMnd curritul-nmuinan
28.5%2
l3.51,
Cullvj'Jo-1JZIUIJIUW
-c;
"Tll.
.l.
_______________L~F
V
3
?I.
,,
at 11iHplieric potential
j hti- dally -aarmof
gP With lor;;tion aid all ittde, am
I
i~jlixWa iti Ylii. 2-9. 'I'lie vertical potential ~rad-
yr ;tidiii
lejii
it,'b
tile Ewer
601
iiyer of Uie, tr.-pusphiere. Atxove the tropoIii I etis rapid arid Vradually
IfV(1', h deurea~.
The
djiiui lulben to a relat vely tnalal value.
hetwven the atinosphere arid
p'iautcrtai Ii .1c. ai
Wsj~yCittiIbuti')t
above
150
kiloumeters
~~.
2
AlphJli 1
La.
2 1.1
2.2( 1n
2,1:
30
'Ji,iii
!E 2 (
__10
4.5 x 1
132.gill/Cal.
3
'.7 x JU-1 1Ilal/nn1
101. Irr/ct. 3
2. xhF
*-
U
-
:.
ira' dill
almout t7.e dea'!;iUtlnEli,'--A1 1 ?.% I an'! irl ta, di,, u the duaji-itiyn
(ti~icof
thfi ftIe attld
'l
*d it iflij;
IOU
200
400C
300
h;1ov'j1?S
betweeni
2-7
.'
'
,'~~~~.-'.';
t,,.ai
2nd
are not certain; but they do exist wid must alwr.ys be taken Into account./20/
v;ry);nitrdifly.
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure can be defined as tLe
force per unit area exerted by the weight of the
Pressure Is us;uly given In rillibara (nabs), inches of mercury (fg) pound.i
per square inch or pounds per square loot. To
miLltbars into pounds per nquare foot,
multiply the millibars bj 2.089, and conversely,
to convert pounds per aquare foot into mllibars
0.47h8.multiply the pounds per square foot by
cO
..Z'atmosphere.
yy'
,9'convert
4-)
10
S?200
00)
o.-6
-8
-I)
-_2
-1,
L
i:.
k-;I.
k)..ji't
-2
-4
3g/m'
1xnisty as function of
.. 1 8/
"qalle 2-2.
1-
.0
41
0.211
17.314
0.348
17,G5
0.514
)7.96
0,758
18.18
14
18.37
iA!.
0.174
0.174
12X(2
0.270
12.50
9.17
0.4G0
12.68
0.o59
12.(16
0.099
12.62
0.503
12.(;H
,,, (;Xl,
o.117
C1.01
0.214
5.61 {0.252
G.50
0.270
5.28
0.270
5.1
0.233
.j
.O:1
3.)
1
("'.U
3.61
O.131
3.42
0.115
3.29
0.13'7
3.17
0.115
3.03
0.115
b.92
0.270
0.389
9.81
0.4G6
6.45
0.465
8.30
0.407
1 1A
8.24
0.604
0.370
0.059
2.').f,,U
2.:,
V.41 0.078
2.25
9.078
2.11
0.078
2.06
0.096
2.00
0.076
1.88
0.059
1'',
.1.2
o.019
1.-12
f0.059
1.31;
0.059
1.32
0.05 9
2.28
0j.059
1.22
0.059
1.14
0.03'?V
0.';.'',
u.0; 0.'
W.)5 0.037
0.8s:
0.059
0.814 0.011
0.777 0.037
0.777 0.C37
0.659 0.037
-o .'2.'
0.,
0.Y,3 0.034
0.522 0.034
0.522 0.031
0.504 0.034
0.448 0.021
0.42G 0.0256
(.T" U 0.019
0.32V 0.022
0.329 0.019
0.311 u.019
0.292 0.016
0.233 0.012
'
1 or-r
I .r.'7
6,kt,
%
'
70
o-or-
-or-
'-
do
4 o10
.,or-
"
""'""0'"
*.
--
.:11,'0)4,
J.
"Jbillc 2-3.
--Go
.r-
~60
_.
o--
80
70
4 or-
+or-
!+or -
+or -
+ or -
- or -
or -
(ftct)
+.....
16.97
0.115
17.06
0.155
17.03
0.233
17.25
0.329
17.37
0.370
17.53
0.407
17.53
0.3F9
'20.o0 12.43
o0.115
12.43
0.137
12.53
0.214
12.71
0.311
12.53
0.348
12.53
0.370
12.53
0.343
"V)noO
0.09G
8.89
8.86
0.252
8.80
0.270
8.76
0.292
8.73
0.252
_;,
G..h
6s.25, 0.13 1
6.00
0.174
jl),()oo
8.SG
0.174
-4.0
10.059
4.07
0.078
3.95
0.078
3.73
0.078
3.61
0.078
3.51
0.059
3.5V
.. 5,
I."..,..0
2.48
0.037
2.46
0.037
2.41
0.037
2.31
0.037
2.25
0,059
2.23
0.059
2.25
0.037
70.,'0'
1..I
0.037
1.45
0.037
1.44
0.037
1.40
0.037
1.42
0.037
1.40
0.037
1.42
0.037
6. 6
(0.019
0.581 0.022
0.640 0.022
0.640 0.022
0.0590.022
0.755 0.022
0.833 0.019
0.389 0.01
0.270 0.009
0.407G0.016
0.252 0.009
0.426
0.292 0,009
0.485 0.016
0.310 0.009
0.544 0.012
,'.(l0G
.0 .012
0.233 0.000
f"--0
0.214
il;"/",(i'J
"7
alA,'
2-4. lDorsity-fleight Data for Cold,
0.348 0.006
500f
110t
450
vrislty (,,.X',A
Allitu Ic
c~~f
50
Hot
Polar
Tropical
10
1:..5
16.5
18.39
16.90
20
32.8
12.1
12.78
12.45
,8T 8.6
8.56
ha95
30
,
Io 5.9
5.7
5.33
6.49
4.4
3.5
3.31
4.22
200
.,o
2.;
2.2
2.05
2.53
1 ,1
.
] ..
1.27
1.43
,Z.3
0.5
0.47
0.52
0.1
0.3
0.29
0.32
,I
o,W
arc
a n d,
,l p o~
l a r 2-G.
1, hin
t t Toi~o
b') r shi'wn
C
'1)1(wn
s:.J~f
'I lii.!,
t )I :tv'i-u
,,'.i
.. ; Ur ef b'aorc
firctIi,
Tot,olar
2-n.
'. I
h'r
. .. iv
it, Table 2-7.terretArii
~ ~ivr
Trilc
i" 1,..
,II-.
-10 -8
-6 -4 -2
Log01 -s,
Pressure, mb
o
1 ,r
2ach1
'tii'
"Ii,,y
-12
.Pres
.'
.*.
50
"'
*tli'
150
-14
L
'
300
1''~.'urta-E
fcd
400
ftL A 10- )
slrs
iJl'
Climatic atmospheres
(t
.1
v'itl'n
iJirly
'
L rib's
,
air tern
2-9
T
Wwr-3MORM
, .
Tabl, 2-5.
705
694
680
11
669
13
662
12
662
20,n00
483
477
463
447
12
4.5
14
425
12
425
10
30,(lo
314
308
307
262
10
273
10
265
2621
4vC"O
199
195
186
!77
171
165
1601
5 0,000
122
119
114
110
106
102
97
60,0o0
73
72
71
08
66
03
59
44
27
2
1
43
27
2
P
42
26
2
1
41
25
2
1
38
24
1
1
35
20
1
1
1-8
1.0
37
1.0
17
1.0
16-
0.9
14
0.7
13
0.
0.6
o1
11
0.7
0.6
10
0.6 1
1,
__
8000 27 11
90.0(J,
17
0.7
11100
0.1
.-
Tablc 2-'C.
f or-.
4 ort-
10,000
,nt
70.6
0f'0
.- +or-
4. or-
or -
,.4 or[ -
4 or.-
80
70
410
so
40
30
z0
0.5
,-
I'I
0.4
.T
30
or-
40
*or-
10000
711
2.
715
2().()(
4IF7
A-.i
2
2Q
50
+ or-
708
|
AO
701
70
+or694
+or-
466 1
691
41 i
80
7
"
4or68
458
'
t
....
319
3)9
307
299
295
293
204
1316
1 202
2(3
196
191
188
188
50,010
125
126
125
122
120
119
120
76
76
76
76
76
77
'15
7r.
0.6
46
0.7
46
0.8
47
0.8
48
0.8
48
0.7
49
0.6"
-0/,,,0
15
0.6
19
0.6
71
0.7
22
0.7
23
0.7
26
0.6
29
0.61
".""om)
12
0.4
i2
0.4
33
0.5
14
0.5
15
015
17
0.4
19
0.4
'Iif'((0
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
10
0.3
11
0.3
12
0.3
70,),wi
The E;alih's al:,edo varies with angle of in,idt( u of the radiation, the type of surface and
tht a,: uin'
ol cloudiness. It is usually thought
(if a- the ratio of reflected-to-incoming radiatl-i,.
It:- avcr-"
r
'-'due is about 29 percent./22/
It :avct mr
annt loll
v;,rial' i'm
r1
)1i.i
.(d
40,f00
19,010
2-
60
+or-
4
I47'
'
In tropical regions, the daily and annual tnmthe effects of air mnasa
changes, wind direction shifts and fruntaW pansages. The Intensity of these weathuer dlsturbances generally decreases towards the equator.
perature is controlled by
"l ,'
It
j;
Climtic
t~nilphaCold
throie
(h
~~
pncladr todprovieapnicatmosphore
aote
extimumea minimumn sandomaimhangem-
Clivesi
eminmperandr
thiopee
2I-1
1,oieete
lr
e
ro
fhih
11. -8
953
03
20
0dgtso
p!Inaefret-
teet~
oI
od
aqf~
2-.lr-,u,-lih
'V-d
peraturewitht daigta
14147
10
5.2.
14362
915.1
106.5
20
888
1018
70
853
C.C
40
375
50
90~~I
oo 15158
Z6
27
700
It wicasume
thor thabl
1407
8275.
94.3
403
5o62
5842
21 28
21.7
65
135.1
182.7
3.
56.eneg
23.3
tat I
(L-moecle
vnraevaiado
te
Finur
ameagiveso theatempge ratre ~asoalfuncticn
Tepteratoenerghtofthem searleve tha500ken
dife0n cmonreqfurlycer tahin.
data uptoasu
tuhre
abovtues1( kin, htowever, the incrleelse of ther
mchonsist of
hoeighttmayphbe
peatmophre.wThe
aoninum
iayFig conidre5
thanule
tat-nd
fre
peathur e
At Bhigld baltotued, that altoug
tkieti
a03.8
ofntreasesand traslocationa
moeaules
athe
thaeti maenegup thesat
Anf
athoug
it
bjectthelawer leel of thego
paltitudes ishigan
3ro.ca
reg.ns
s ratcal
At,th
mean Are
discito
annugy
To~~~lae
asaimunctirn-
o50k.Tmea
ee
T.
Andstat
altoug thel kinti
sbregionl, thetfarItroppical
varibations
vanpriatio
o tehrncareipacticallyrtc eios
y'urivtn frecntJ 1,ia tox
dlymandosldomia stxceeds
paOth of, tE
takesur
these1
oepea
Itv,
d-iit
S1Lus
SonitliaC)
tuqrauf
Xl.,i~2:lp~ A
.Itf-:11hI-1raiurr..
'tnluid's lo)wust
Antarctica
136 F (57 C),
Libyajl
-30 F (-34.4 C),
Antarctica
-761' (-40 C)
-l
-57 F (-66 C)
Montana
U.
.134 1 (5 7 C),
Caldulrnia
.Icttiijrur
''
to
x,
'Cl
;t%-L
for
the
:I~ty
',id July ibr vaiiou.s Olt2-8
I')I' J() 0f1et al, sh ..A irii'abiet
y
l'i' tempeatgu res situwn
I .;I
J
ii.t~i. f
j'
it
-t
~.temperature .1/
2-l1
W5.
-W4
.-.
I'
Tablo 2-8.
(Dit)
or-
j0.nnf
20,_o__
20 0
--
+ or-
ei--
2
-17
4
4
-7
-n4
-17
-3!
1
7
-24
-41
-4)
-47
-52
-54
-55
-55
-55
-55
-54
-56
-57
-,,'Orj
-69
-65
-60
r,0.ncO
-71
"/0,r)r~o
-4
3
8
-51
'00 )(00
or-
4 or -
2
2
46,0
,o0
+ or-
-6
no
70
CI0
50
40
30
20
"___
___
4 or-
-29
-- 4
5
4
-30
-47
5
4
. -57
-58
-56
58
-56
-57
6
5
-(,6
-62
-40
6
4
-57
-58
-60
-58
-56
-57
3
3
-bi
-62
-65
-57
-55
-55
-58
-64
-67
_r3
-52
-54
-58
-65
-89
44
30
20
4 or -
(f, t)
lr,()1)
10
-8
20,(,(.
L
300b
2 _9
40
4 or -
+or-
oCC-
_._-_
60
50
80
70
1or-
+nr -or-
10
-11
-20
3
-5,3
-3
-54
23
-9
-52
44
-43
-49
-6
-8.
-24
-2C
63
-45
-46
3
4
__46
-4,5
11-2
4.0."'1
-54
-"f0d0,
4--7
-4C1
-60
-52
-47
-44
-43
,,(i,,ri
.60
-65
-CO
-50
-45
-42
-41
-. ?
-58
-56
-47
-43
-41
-40
0 .,o'
..l,,(1
-53
-47
2
2
-r3
'-43
-40
-40
-407
-4.
-52
-48
-40
-38
-39
-39
a7,aa
vauli ( ,tne to a rather low temperature deteruh,iw.d l:rl:cly by radiation, slncc Ute air is so
tIIi, that t,,iduction hau a very ania.LU effect on
., h,.it b:d;ulce.
'il .,:
(',htI,,i~n,
'".6
Tarhle 2-9. Average Tempner.turo and Stindard Deviation for Month of July /4/
culatlon comes mostly from the Sun. The tropical and subtropical regions of the Ea.xLh P-bsorb more solar radiation Uiiui Uity re-radiate,
whilo tieth oot of th Eartlh radiates more than
it receivucs. As a rebuit, the air warmed in tUi u
This funcdttropics ni)ves toward the poles.
.mental movement seLs up a global circulation
syntem that islargely roeponeiblefor the weather conditions, such an temperature, humidity
and rainfall, of Uto entire Earthh.
-.
2-12
;-
I'
"1.0,11
WindWinld direction in usually dependent ont latitude, season and altitude, bunt local condittions
may cause extreme variah~ons. Normally, wind
direction shifts withi height. These shifts In di rection arc due to Earth aur-ace cf(-_ctsi and
Tempeinture (C)
AlUtif ,I
(Iov
(01o
-11-,qd
tatic atmnospheree
, . , , | . t , , , t l a !
Cold
Htot
Pola r
Trplcal
_ _
fc)
Jo
20
30
40
50
1.'11
2-0
6n
71)
di
U10
11.7
total sh~tln.in
degrees./4/'':
--47.7
-1.7
41.2
-8.7
?r0
-22.2
-55.3
-29.0
-G5.0
-42.8
-56.7 S, -49.4
-h11.8
-40.1
Tuncn[rI:.
-58.2
at
-87.2
-39.1
-59.6
-73.3
-71.11
-37.5
i-61.1
-60.0
.-72.1
-33.7
i -6;2 .5
-52.7
-29.9
-2(;.1
-G3.0
--45.4
-63.0
-38.0
ho
.1.
""
, .
.,
.7-:
'
! .
.,
,,
,,.
4.
:
:,h
IIA
. ..
,
,
oarpcl
.9
,.;
:,
'r-
,'
L tIs
.
altitudeo range is 20 to 40
fe et./ 25/
-"
Temperolure(C)-
I
.
-69.6
o
ol.W
-24.4
Cold
S500
b-_.m I
18.9
-76.7
-26.1
74.4
]r1m
--
nqchaziges
,
--
I"~erymrighur.~'~
hoFg
recrncronr
-5
ar8 dlttue tor
emeatrte asfurnctio
',
,% ,
.,
."
.. '
" '
,
vrg
of hgt. n
7.Q.
_
.2
*-8.7l.
Si i
'~P
i,,
.1r
-,72
-39.1raur
v-",lttue
-33.7rq!
-62ln/~.r
h- t
r!ti
4~00 -
- 6 .. .8..
. . ..
"...pater
A
I-
in umiddl
"
d
d
onat
laitde.i/raO/
,r
caue-...o
the a
sherle;
.. : . cold
. . .c ir wak
.a. e r. saes.
- wr_i~ aL . .
exst in bot summ
a
.r
" "w--ter./"4,,5/
0
o 20
..
W 00
The winsp evel
-5.721
a'monphores.....
:
,:
Fig~.te2-y5,
d ................
"",lan
.. .. .-..7.2..
Q_-0-20
,' , -r . .
10
4..
"2,
2-13
20I-477
-;n
-1.7
4 .20-8.
miOdle latitude0O(20
t60
120rea
the
"wrn
-I
Wes
--
--
---
10m h).
InCreasing
/it
2c
--
SSpepilds
I--'r,
Tubnri
-f
100,000 ----
IL
.-
30,000
----
t'~
East (50-i50ryiph1
Ireasing
-'
ID
'
'ti,
Ied
WEst (40-3mph)
*'---
::1g. 2-16. Wind dir.uction as function of altItude during winter and sumnier./25/
the density of air at these altitudes creates
little force.
200,000--
7
100,000
cQo
.-
--
Wid
it~r:' ~~~r-cope
30bGC
050PDO150
0usually
Speed, mph
________
*vrgeWn
h)I
p:
130
20%/ 1%.
5Q0/%
120
rond
l'r'upi~,tonexrems
1:~rc
1'., S. gratonextree
a
Peak
t0oSod
re~
hewold
1~'
1101~.
Moximuin
t-a
l~',./4/
~
rouge
nd~a ffewolreptio-
Crv
Cu
U. S.
--
884
L_61
47
1
40
20.
ruRulall
d'-ih v i'rvtdee
qWL- to1ucuI
5o
t00
Wn
150
200
pef/e
-3e.
300
Iui
3G-
250
lahlje 2-11. Percentnge of Timee During Avrirage Year In Whi-ch Clock-houar and Instrintaneous Rates
of "recipitntion Lqqal or LxLc.:ed 0.00, 0.12 and 0.18 in./br at Solestod Statfoelb /4/
*4nnual
-precip.
Averge
A~rse anual
nc. days %vith
measurable
1.
Allv~
I
37'30'N, 2:1'4311.
1
111T
J5.70
.....
I:c"i~,iIe
I..If
Insantancoluo ae
(in./hi .)
OU1
-
-1.
0.12
8i
0.9-i
0.24
0.08
0.85
0.23
U.08
52 '2t0N, 13'25'fj;
22.t't
109
0."4
0.16
0.03
0.70
0.18
0.03
-3"20'N, 6'I5-W
27.37
218-
07b
0.'.3
0.01
0.70
0.12
0.01
G7
144
n.89
0.z0
0.06
0.80
0.19
0.00
0.2D
0.13
''n012,No20ol:
1,ITr'
N'n- '.37i
24.13
132
1.05
0.30
0.13
0.95
44'5~2N, 2'20-1
22.6,2
160
0.84
0.16
0.03
07
Zr.70
105
1.45
0.59
0.33
1.31
0.5"1
0.03
14
149
2.22
1.13
0.72
2.00
1.00
0.72
22.21
1G4
0.84
0.10
0.03
0.76
0.15
0.03
4?;'U14
2.11
0.90
0.00
1,90
0.85
0.00
I'
('I-:',,2zOV" 1.
.0
00
2-15
Zp
Wv'"7f
I-
'4
~perd
vapo
weghtof
s te
Jull
Xb70
our
(X 60
Seciic
3.umidty
-.-
cl
fu_,iv1cing meanings:.
A.
-..--.----.-.-.
4030 20 10 0 i0 20 30 40 6090
Nr~ LoMlude, degreesN SoutnI
~ 9060
l.20
-re.Ltive
ate
weight of ar wasters
uniityite
peruni f most ir. t ~
vapoweiht
gams er ilogam.
usualy nepresed
ala
atudn
humidity,/27/
~itoso
itruioof--
topircw'trvpr
content clohely I o! low the varlationa &; roillerature. Uip to about 140,1000 feet, absoltkte humlidity decreases with altitude. It is 1~ifnted by tlhe
cooler temperatures which cannot support larg~e
amounts of vapor. tor the very warml levels of
the atmosphere, at altitudes between 140,000
and 200,06)0 feet and above 400,000 feet, li,
pressure is too low to permit liquid water,
'.
'
January
July
,,7
Meanthan
~Bail
OK
9'-0Q 40302Q0 10 0
(11I'( "I h)(South)
10 20 3040 6090
L~t~tuda
er
I w.
2-19.
Latitudinal distribution of
1j ific limmif)i~'.
27,'
is formed only in well developed thunderstorms, and may be encountered In, undecr
and near Such stormis. Hail reaching the ground
occurs most often over mid-latitude mountainous%
areab, suc has In Colorado and Wyoni iig. Secasoually, hailstornis are most numerous in summer,
while diurnally they occur most frequently in the
hours betwse mid-afternoon andearly evening.
.4
Magnetic FIeld
fro goun
th
~
huti may beCencounteredfoc
tegondup
tt altitudeq of about 50,000 feet. Howc-ver, the
pr'i~ahilitl of encounter increases with altitude
u; ') iF~~roiI~oly15,00
o 1,00 fet, rid
otoo :;zl luidr~toJrns -it higherly
t
5
tos
10nui;kwI ihnufdi.uutormsh. area
,enwherall
i5 en-1
intiiutr,
tlo 3arees
nwinh daiameter
cowitiered aeusually I o3n~e ndaee.
he gound
reacing
TF;C, size of h.ilstoncs rahntegoud
varies considerably. Frequency distribution by
ssize is difficult to estaibl~sh due to lack of data.
1!ie larg(est hallstone oit ieuord in the United
S~tates znea~ urau 5.4 inches tin diameter and
uciLgiied I.-) pounds. Tline most common size in
the( Ujnitred States is about 0.25 to 0.75 Inch in
diarneter./4,28,29,30/
;Sandan D
fo
-1 to 50O
".~-'.-.'-' -2~ IL~~
s
e '
~r~c&.-cect-a-enr
F-.
As a first approximation, the Earth's maii.netic field resemble& the field of a single, large
magnetic dipole situated in th.3 Earth's core, but
no, exactly at the center. The field Is strongest
ecassn
agtcplsad
nerte
The.e
poewddeqases.
the
ad magnetic
netrent
south magnetic pole is stronger than the north
on, Indicating that the effective center of the
is
The direction of the Earthi's magnietiz_h
expressed in term& of declination, which. is the
deflection of the field from north-south, and dip,
_-~which !s the deflection of the fieidfrom the horizontal. The Earth's field is not fixed but gradually changes with time. In the United States,
-the Coast &Wd Geodetic Siurvey And the Navy
.
j
W%
Radiation
Types of radiation stre cii~nflfte acro'rd i n
to wavelength. The shortest known radiation
type is cosmic rays, followed by gamma rays
x-rays, ultravioletL rays visible light, tinfrareAd
orhetzian rays. Fgr2-21
rays and radi
shows the radiation spectrum on a logarithmic
scale.
Radiation wavelengths are generally
measured In termsB of:
1
Angstom units (A) -- equal to 1 x 10F
millimeter.
etr orX1 0-7
Millimicron (mMA)
or 10 A.
--
equal to I x 10-
MF
to 1 x 10-3 nmillllroeter
'0~A
-0WC
C
hU 11ro V1ol etJ
-fieklL/31/
00
The
s),ut
'
If roridd
Visible
Hitg h en'?rgy
jf-i-!dAg./WFiur
-,,/:r
.,
2-22,e
"Zilici-ons,
N~,
!ian allitude :41 1U to 25 Tifles, where it interancutrons in the air to proa-t.- wit'. I1ll)TISi;z~
Theaiisons
inturn trvel
* ~cxi~'.a.
-tween
,~
I.
S
'-%
-L
JIr
omc asdnertn
Fi.a23
/
Fig.' 2-2.eosmaeic rays peetatn
at'gomneifed.6
throu h the atmosphere wihere they undergo energ; Tlose. When the mesons decay they emit
electrons and uncharged particles.
6 atmo8phere thus contains a mixture of primary and
secondary radiations In proportions~ dependent
on altitude. Many of the secondary cosmic rays
interact to produce Iurthbr secondiary rays,
thus producing a shorwer effect./4,14/
'he
304
&'
.j
Or6 08 10
Jfrom
,I
.I
inii
Low energ~y
-Z
15 20
W-v~rirn-rons
I..
'-2..Jutvwn
I-:.S-lar !,pf: trum,./G/
30
i"I
is
hinsointjlense
The ra-
Escape velocity
itoilr~snties
MUON
MONEarth
To ie Moon is about 240,000 ni6ites from
Thew most prominent feature of
E ArIth.
Mor~r's surface is the dark plains, w~hich
kno wn asq ma reg. These plains are usually
cuijr and range in dia~rt.'ter Ir')n about
the
the
arc
cir200
'I tiou~sands of rraters cover the Moon's surface. Ciavius. v.+'> Ii is ffie IairvpRt hasR a dl:,nicctr of over 1,.0 miles and is 0,000 feet
det p. Mlountain ra.vcs on the Moon are similar
to thos.e Onl E'arth, ranging in sjize from 5000
fteet to over 25, CGO Ject. It is believed that the
ld,'n'S
6ur-FaCe
awfl dust- howvever, at present, no definite stateVIntI can be niare a-:nut Lhe mineral composi.tkinr or thic'kness of this kipper layer. Probably,
it is only several centimeters thick. Due to the
contuinuous LWrnliar 'ment of!nicteors the Moon's
suifacte ib very rough. Nothing is known about
the nu'
a thotwan
is
ditngused
ver
tre sevealls
th siai
dejsthat can hoeer
d
stincused the sevralls
liui,.td*cd feet in diameter.
s'Jnlie of the Mloon's phiysical features are
llstcci bulow: /'10,311V
L.:alictr
I':.iiicir
Vine510.8
V .ii,'(itzo
21.0 mlesalan
?(~O
ilesMeteoritez,
x 0 7 cubic mlles
tnF-irtfi) 0.1 Z
*i'"2v
0.0124
1.50 n-lties/
second
Albodo
0.07
~Sun
~
t
1"
t'.
Sli
0.16
Earth)
252,948 rtilea
238,840 miic's
221,593 miles
Orbital speed
0,6 mile/second
~iw
-Orbit eccentricity
(eccentricity of
circle
0.05S
= 0)
Orbit Inclination
-Inclination Of aXIS
ayrounri Earthi
27.3217 Earthi
days
Earth
fdy21.27
Atmosphere
50 8
-603,
'
dy
The moon has little if any observable atmospEarth Itmspheresityrbesng which imorel r10-1
Eatamshere; t
esit breing apric
matey 1010
fled than the F2 region ;f the Earth's atmoBIn tmeuinvhe,'!
phere, Argon in the~ moat prrnlconstituent. although xenon, krypto~n, carbon
dioxide, suliur dioxide and water vapor may
be present.
206.73 pounds!
(Ut~C foot
y i.o!i:
'
Ju-
vau-f00,cmae
;dd
ihta
flieEar.,
pvw t,-n!)vau
t of
itnefo
Maiu
.29.The
wichhaB
3.
ie
nLaU
abedoof
156.0 x
1 0P, miles
Earth
Iritcn:;C ligi. ',Ad ultraviO))ct radiation from
the. Sun hit the Moon's surface. Due to its long
Obtlsed2.6mls
-
prlctInclination
it is difficult to observe
distinct
surface rmarkir.ys.
However, dark patches,
uitnilar to the MAoon'n plain6, can be seen tele.soupicadly. Mercury s sur./ace probably conii'lts of mnouunta~tious and rocky tcrraIn./I,10,36/
-4same
3107 miles
155.9 x 108 cubic
niles
mile
0.00C
Mass
26.345 x 101-
0.04
K,tons~
SHowever,
_23!RA
Decrc~ity (ZAtl
I.I
to Ear ti)
~ae)
L)4II'ity
(r;at ii to
'u,I fa
I~ravity Iratto
S( ;it)(- .;iloiity
*9.0
3.8
.0
7"0'1
of axis
Lengthj of time to cornpletfi one revolution
around Sun
Unknorwni
87.9 Earth A'ivm
Length of day
88 Earth days
Number of moons
C'
1
it
.
cprtr
flecaine of Its relative nearnebs to thre Suit,
Mercury receives on the average about
seven
timrefs an much beat per unit area as the Barth.
the amuto heat receiv.ed varies
-
cubilc foot
Obtecnrct
inclination
Becanse of Mercmry's smalfl rimsa, high tem.ppratures and small escapevelocity, it is almost
certJn that It possesses only ait Insignificant:
atmosphere. NoneofteIgeranspri
conntituents such as nitrogen oxygenorwae
1-nrc
4 1-~g h~
for fgj- ,
lwatier,
Mercury may containi a slight atirxspiiere of
out heavy gaaes such as carbon dioxide.
Rlecent obner-vations indicate that Mercury's atmoophere may have a thicknesn about 0.0003
that of the Earth, and exert a pressure of one
Tmilibar per square centimeter, compared to
theEstrlt'smea.level pretisure of 1013.2 mil,barx./3,10,36/
~~/thinned
Volume
iDiaroutur
second
Atmosphere
(eae)
thog
-inim/lin
bit. Also, since Mercury has i~ardy any atmosphere, the temperature difference betwiten
thde dark and sunlit sides is very Larg~e. O.1 thu
dark side, the temnperature ia near absioluto
zero, and on the sunlit s ide, the temperature is
about 78
42Q
nytpgi
ra
a
have meaetmeaue.1,6
0.1.
2.237 mnies/
second
VENUS
Oall M~e planets lin cur solar system, Venus
mniont closely reserables the Earuh In nmals, size
mandensity. An a result, Vetaus Is often re-
space.
--
of Venus
are... listed
below.
I)Ufl ity
300.54 pounds/
cubic foot
()8
-Temperature.
.1.86
(Li.L(
.*l7icn3
I 01,36,C),4 I
milers
23. 0 9 ui
V- 1) n11,239. x 0 cbic
miles
0.92
Voue(atio to Earth)
V~l~nl"(,Tihe
5.3472~ 121
jijan~loF7705
tojns
to Earth
0.82
M~wu
ratiomolecules,
7.683 fet/ec2
buzfc(:gravty
Surfce ~avly 2.663 fet/aec2
rrvt
Surar(ato
grviy (ai016according
080much
40 Lj Earth)
I1ficapc' VVIX-Ity
6.3-18 miles!
Alb#:oi~
0,59
10 mies
Mlaxionorr t.i~ntan.:c
IXIJnh
t7.8 x 10mls
Still
67.3 x 106
IMa.izuznl
I.; rth
tif'rd
.ronr
ilnes
it lso anexelen absorber of the heat radiatedl from the ulanet's murfave, Aft a rARUit.
f carbon dioxide In aB abundant in the srtuosphero as spectroscopic Investigations indicate,
the temperature on Venus' surface may bA very"
high. The temperaturen derived from various
obseL-vrAiona of Venusn fall within the following
ags/6
Top,of atmosphere
T
~ic j
26 A~ 10j
~-i*2!....5
S ndture
Ui hit eu euitricity
0.007
hit
Vi
30
ho
~~ui1n~atL;T7
~
L- Frthofl
to rnjrnl-
tfiK2i
p,( a)day.nou~
vrr~
if0
25.4tdasfieold
2!
iii'iSumThe
.0
iilt
f
4itauiation
~i~n~tii)magnetic
(*';t'
Ujto 46 La~rthdy
d.1)
MnIe
(4t 1f
n'Juni,1
HIPi , :111
'
"
Surface of Venus
I trh..
'I tI,
C)
().ii~i
12F(0C
54 F (12 C) to
603 F (317
tilt.
C) to
Middle of atmosphere
bar' 1
(39
.-
117 F (47CQ~r
%.tj
-38 F
~.
irijnc
near
te cloud
)'
Mu,' crcomplete Information is available concerning Mars than anyofier plane'.,with the excpt(Ir)t of tle EarUt.
However details as to the
v%:,tt ,tirf.ice conditioni on 'Mars still are uncert;tan.
Mars' surface Is very flat, with no
.o)r,-i: t (h:anges In olevation and no promhient
tini),utailno.
Ytrg
areas, covering more than
half t.turfave, are bllevWd to be dust-covered
d,.s,'rt areas. In the bright area.s, dark, narrow
streeti s, k.nown aa canals, have been observed.
The dark areas show seasonal changes and may
bie areas of vegetation. The wlite polar caps
are heuheved to be caused bya thin deposit of ice
crystals. The "climate" on Mars is
mlmUar to
that of a hVpothetical detort on Earth about 11
nil,:,z hi;,, VWn.ds range up to 20 miph and dust
Storms are fairly frequert./1,36,42/ The major
phys(ic. cbaracter isLics of tha planet Mars are
iihtcd
V ouI
4215 miles
cubic miles
-.
0.15
Mass
72.44864 x 1019
tons
Mas.s (ratl
to Earth)
I)sltILy
Inclination of axis
2512,
0.I
241.1 pounds/
cubic foot
aa
1.026 Eart
[.
days
farther
into spiace than does the Earth's./36,42,"
43
Ie weather in the lower regions of the Martian atmosphere Is similar to that on Earth.
Surface gravity
Surface gravity (ratio
to Earth)
11.9 feet/sec 2
0.37
Escap- vcloci'y
3.107 miles/
Is much smaUler.
Bettween 16 miles and 05
miles the temperature Is probably 180 K 50 K.
/36,41,43/
The variations
daily, seasonal and geographic tem pcrature
on Mars are not completely
Miinurn dista'nce
froml
Sun
128.5 x 1o0
known;
they are
currently being
tnvree;tigated. however
The following
temperature
Information
MNiin,uri
.&i tiI
distance from
Mirtut
distance froi
tion
of temperature
the equator
approxi2.
mately
30 C (86 F) near
at noon
to -60 Is
(-7OF)
or
-80 C
C (-l'8
) at night. In the polar region, the
miles
r'
4.0
hit.l spe(cd
k-
Density (relative to
Wate.r)
Gi
Lirth,
1'
389.85 x 108
eI
1051'
Number of Moons
Atmosphere
hlow./1,l(,36,42/
Dianmeter (averatge)
Orbit Inclination
Temperature
14.975 milcs/
0.093
ofrthe
thin of
atmosphere
anl the absence
of any relatively
large amount
water vapor./l,3130,43/
Thie
large variations of temperature occur because
i.
"
!
'
* .,
""
..
-,
..
a
W.'J .1
.7;_
V-
2.
...
w
-",
ao.
,.
l,
'
n.
-.
r.
"
S--S
,ijtionMaximum
"ihe
distance from
Earth
average solar radiation incident on Mars
Orbital speed
6
367 x 106 miles
6'.
8.45 miles/
second
Orbit eccentricity
0.048
Orbit Inclination
1018,
Inclintion of axis
307'
At!) PLUTO
Length
of time to cornp~ete one revolution.
atoued Sun
around.Sun
Length of day
9 hours 55 miutes
Number of moons
WI
12
Saturn
Saturn is circled by three rings which conllstAIItites. hn addition,Saturn has nine moons. Titan, the largest and
Flint of mjllionR of Rm.I
86,840 miles
342.55 x 1012
cubic miles
1318
M1a.q3
20.1 x
egravity (ratio to
(2
37.28 miles/
suwund
l i,o ,0.44
, twIm,
Density
44.78 pounds/
cubic foot
d*:1tan( e from
di
su't
a;t,(e fr' ri
0.13
Density (.zelativc. to
water)
0,715
Surface gravity
37.64 feet/aoc 2
--
d:: .:rt,,1
"'.f,:v:
""ti''t
95.3
2.G4
-
1.uttv ".,'l'ity
0.24
84.93 feet/sec
I Wit)
71,520 miles
211.29 x 1012
cubic miles
736
23 tons
303Mass
u'rf(
Diameter (mean)
Volume
82.66 pounds/
cubic foot
10
'
22.37
miles/
ec and
"e .nd
1.17
460.7 x I
'
Albedo
0.42
MaxiImum distance
r
Mean distance from Sun
887.1 x
fromi Stil
...
10 6
miles
2-23
will';-
vN,Ye N
"n
Nu
-t
Maximum
distance from
Earth
1950 x 10
Orbital speed
5.965 miles/
second
Orbit eccentricity
4.225 relies/
second
0.047
Orbit eccentricity
0.056
O b
Orbit Inclination
229,
of axis
Inclination
it
n evltoi-.
In(rIination of axis
26045,
Sun"
Orbit inclin,,tl.!
arounidSan
S....
to corn-
Number of moons
"'
38 min-
10 hours, 42 min-
__;,
Number of moons
utes
'-
x 1011
101.36
Scubic m~les
Diameter (average)
31,690 miles
Volume
Volume
226.34 x 1011
cubic lailes
cubi.miles
39
64
Mass
Masr,
17,3
14.7
Density
Densitr7
79.22 pounds/
/Density
cubic loot
99.89 pounda/
cubic oult
..
0.49
.
0.23
Densitytrelativetowater)
ravty
uda:e
0.92
9.6ft/ec2Surface
29.6 ft/sec
0.92
(ratio tu Eart)
Density (relative to
water)
gravity
2-21
'
..
46.33 feot/secO
1.44
escape velocity
14.29 miles/
Albedo
Maximum dintanco from
second
0.52
2820.75 x 106
TImiles
rmiles
1700.9xlO6 mUes
2772.65 x 106
miles
1784.8mx0
:*
13.05 mfles/sec
0.45
1868.7 x 106 miles
.'i
"4::"
2.22
Surface
to Earth)gravity (ratio
Su
Meati dtvlanxc from Sun
I lPnPni-uimi distan, from
"
9Netn
"
--
10 hours,
-utes
980
.ro~aund Sun _.
Length of day
Length of day
miles
0= 46'
004,
SLength of thee
F[
PI
2700 x 1
Orbital speed
2.98 mUes/sec
Orbit eccentricity
0.249
biti
3.355 mitles,1
.d
n0iles
second
Orbit inclination
17o19'
Orbit eccucntricity
0.0081
Orbit inclination
Io 47'
Inclination oI axis
Length of time to corn-
Unknown
247.7 yeawr a
29"
L,.igt h of day
15 hours, 48 minutes
.
24.43
x 10
miles
0.094 (?)tronments,
Mass,
Unkinjn
Unknown
),,n:;uty
Unknown
Unklrwn
Unlkown
.,'
a'rloty
"Although
Unknown
rnil,~
~ 106changing
4590.45 x to
miles
3
5
.3
.3;75.3x 10 milee
2760.15 x 10
N.1.Jitlri
I ,
4650 x 10o
nilles
d,:lta ue from
.,
A.
.
',,
. .
.
"
"
erady encounters
thought of individually, a flight vc~ico.
nevei
them aingly, il.t Ir combinations. The peaks, or extremes, of the criviron-.
nments may be encountered Individually, but
nevertheless other, le.ts severe environments
are present at the same time
z
uKi must be considered. In addition, during cts mission a ve-
0.04
d;'t,tnL fronm
i;
Unknown
Al.'',io
L~womi
Unknown
-
I'
Unknown
ufrfaue g'ravity
ND,
cubic
to water)
'
":"
(.hkuIkicteris1tice '
V,
Unknown
L
Number of moons
Plut,"
i.t
Length of day
miles
.
r
Ii
2-25
"'-
-.y ..
-" , "5,;''
.,
"
. ..
.......
e"
*RJ,
c;i
ca
4.'E
4C
U'C>.
C,3
Pr)
c01
Do
M-U
00
c
V
0C
cm'k
-.
C)~
a)jq
0
a;)
C'lL'
.4
In
c44
;D
C"
co
Go
to4
*4l
C;
C4
64
W)I
C4 to-0
14
C;
an
C*4C)1
'
.4
04
C~4
a..,c
ci
")
m~
:;p
ta...
.4
c-r
.400
m4
fm
cl Q4
C4
00
I
wQ
w
4,
0.11.
I
Il
. .
C
4LE
00 c
C4,).P4
I
I
C4
\t~jJr.~i
3.
u'r14teh
9 1
Til
diWi
6Iir
Iw
'ttCl
ai
31
. , '1k
en'r
!ai$c~r
~ t
~~~~~~t
Li,~
p~eaQaiC
coo -c AIhIL1~~1LWif
'Aetcty'
4rtt~z4i
be divided
CH
i4w4t*t
---'ml-ii ',iwR'w
i n rt v
.~ctrr
~ i.?U1Ii-t
'
~1117 If~nr
eL
,1
TillI,
1. w
t4P6Is
j4
4jLY-5 1
---
'
'or
CCII
-tcu~~fitn
atN ovtitit
iIra
IO
uo.ay~f~n
n9ft0p~"-'
t~
et1z
jIt
-~
vaur
w..
I'Ms
'iIii' CL!
a t*L !r-ifr4eL'kw'l
11711~~~~
_._f2 Li
M A
t 08
~ ~t 01Jo"''AnV
1'
IcItf
Irp' I'6
3iI.-..2-
ftk
'iflt-
tyu"
4
iins;cani
tic
t.
re
ljl
lthwtr
~r4
.i
at~li
~nt
.f..J
ii'w
"
f,"A II1FtiAp.&
4
.. ''i.
W~t4o
In
pr fri t
44qri
-11
bA
TS,tCO 4 M
61
fi
1r'ifj&Ndd d~4t4
~A,%aq
j~pitrn
'-''
b a I.-v
~ ~ ~
Ot
-'if
Ll 30016
-'LO
SUIT
MA~~~A
(I-nj,~4
If~~~~-.
Mj'
.4
aP(
IdLU
MOD
-i
'"
--
"'
.........
4'A
N,'"~
''
/~d
!A' C.
''
,/
U-
-'
IT
1'
It-.
-14.6i
5A~
MP~iI
1111'
a&
~~"
Vibrations
durin
boat
7,
itt Al, o different for various aircrafrt. Inp iston.enj1nno aircraft, the vertical up-and-down motion
of U) pirtons sets up low -IreQuency vibrationsr
tht ird ,rare severe ciui'tr~landing than during
flight. in contrast, the turbines of jet aircraft
Cauls
~cmteard'airogfld
rather than
flight
tical purposes,
In the
ae ra
*tarn
i'
Ic
C-1
e-
of an aircraft surface,
alffio~ igh always present to some degree during
flir'hl I~ecomvis a consideration only under caroriditions of speed and altitude. Flight in
uum.
problem of aerodynamic
5 0 0ht ide 've~klbe'idto the
This resiulte
bet'ween the RsWa temperai"
side of the vehicle and ont
".i
*tc
gener~kl,
AI
Iti ck.'t-powercd super-aPorodynarnic glide yehicl~ls uri', the rpntrifugal force created by
noar orl~il I speeds and .a ininimunn of aerodyflameic lilt. io providt- ani equilibrium flight path
-AhiikA ircuuninaiviating Lhi Earth Iinan approxi-
considdrs
obtain the rates o'
brief periods dduring certa.0 fail equat to or cx-X
Inchiper hour.-nust bie
The trajectory of a pro ltj rind ht9.t
shown in Fig. 2-25. togetJ41
natural environments exi 0;fe. ..- Iii r
i~
hicle's altitude range. Ir
will experience a severe noise onviruly~rsint. Thie p~rincipal noise source during
(Ii phast! is the rocket AOngin.e which generates
a 1)(wer Jevi~l at tie exiaust of' nearly 200 db at
Illt. lo1w raki:,e oft
-feuncy
band. As the
v 1) ( le risces, the sound pressure level may
Suqsr
c______
I~h~v-iiete
'Jf"n
g0
vehicle's orbital pi
2-2 3
-?
'-*.
0 P7N l
II
~tv
uli
1
300
oo
2*Slo~e 240
-
SI
69e20
5 1'
,2
IS.
Ir
I.
-.-
1I60
"140120
I60
800
\'4"
-00
5*
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
3000
7800
11,,00
.\
-
p.-
-.
C.4
- _ _ -- _
'1
.I
I
71
IlkI
320
~Y5.917.10-1
31.39
260-1.97,10-5
31.45 240--a31.51
220---
1.02 A10-
Full
Solair
'
3A6xtO0A--
5,200t0---L t.0x10
I.2!x!O04
~---
2~i0
-4,
S3163
1802~-
5-06xilO
I.45xI0l
-'i 31.63
160
"0 ,1
3.0 x107-2
31.81'20
Il-
3i.93 0
3.49l0
O''3 214.,~
3205 11--
2.471lO-J
7000
210
.3.lljO
jv
31.87
32.11
2.
140--
31.75~~~~~
.XO2,'o
U.31b
5.5'6'-"'
3
5,3 xio-i-
1.00
29.92
8000
__________
-60
0
\U,
__________
-40
-20
9
+20 440 460
Ambient Temperature, F1200
2
4
6
8
10
12
14Sor
Relative Ozone Concentration, parts /miflion
-80
-(10
2000
2900
14
er.
V,
AA.
>
.6
u FRn
ll d orvj Radioli
.22
()
C.,
(I
6CPO
00.
Mual
Cosmi
Qf
RoRho
r'~TDu,
4i 410.
60
2co
lz
11A
1"n 29"77
Soo
bu
2,
9000
35t
I,)(:-7'.So
1riirIJllrlsunout41dI
2 O0 1 0 3
E00
~lo
Wvtts
0 s
Roito
Cosmic
M0a0
itniy
er sew4
nts
ni1,Id
eicl ei e/
"supe
-arcn
"Awo'jgj
12-29
oF)
Du~oOO toHazeV7
wv
14
IIK
ve4
'All.
420 400'
380 -V
360
340-
~Meon
32
280260240-
160-
~140
120-
6
-
40
-0%AbSorption
~er------------------n2
--
X-flo
-,
For Ultrvviotet
#54;--
420~i~
G-L yer
380~
30
340
320 6"'
%280E
~26011
240
~220)
--
Lvr
200
F-Loym
('
\0
R.
40:
Rdf
(DoA~opin
-bopi
1.
I%
bgX10 ,
'10
80 100IWO200
OD 6V320
- or Ullroilolel......
Near Ultraviolet
20D0
-.
,npdu
00400o 7-1000
Meteorite Vekiociy, 103 ft /let
4000 A
..
TIMr
Dn.?etc~
-2100Mo00
D200202401':
20cr~
26 M - - 1.39 x10t-'O.
27.02
3W
!4Z
00
7.79 L5I-p5.75Ki-4
,/
.- ..
"l
2900
-3
p-
.94 10---
,0 275
.4I'
F-L'
SI~~om
400
300/ -2.9x-10
201
2.2I3~0*.4
"
. . . .
. . .
""
"
20
,iioo "320')
i-jrayicle,
-20.
4" 0 A
0
L"10
Qoo
600
'Electron
o--250
.....
800
KXY
12Go
Aoo Tempeto
1600 1800F
Ambient
DeUity elj ri
2Wo
?2M
,
,s..
7.2372.=4
"l6x10-7
m40
10- in.
" 27.79
2400 MO
23
" 4 " " - 0x "1"
805 -8.16
203V.7
M62 110-
"'"
.90,3
2932
7-150-7200
'
Vr
I.
M
MISSILES
R~eentry Path
--
2-4-
Ua1
--
7.~
IL &
*LWU
-/44/PvTah"ev
'Tlo( prrwe(red pathi of a bal1listic missile conSISLS of a bric'f period of intense ac,eleratiotn
duirinig v.+i,,1h the rinisile gains the momentum
ntccussar y to carry it along its trajectory. This
poitv.on of t~he flight path begins with engine ig..
nit ifon at lauunching, and ends at the departure
point, wlijufm i ' the po~it at which the rocket ern[00,25 cutoif and the niiss~e enters the ba.Uistic
tiakivctory towkards its destination. For longritngr r~t: dc's, the dep;Irttnre point lies at an
;0fiLUicJU
whr between 400,000 and700,000
a?0I7
JA .-
A;
EARTH SATELLITES
Depending upon the altitude at which they
~ALcIULU3,
I
P,
41.
Satellolds
2-31
akmount, of skin heating is determined to an Increasing extent by sclar radiation, and, as a reSuit, large differenccs exist beiween the skin
temperatures on the lighted and shaded sides of
the vehicle. Other natural environments encountered by satelloids are shown in Fig.2-26.
-of
..
...
_-least
Lately.domninanit.
-~~
-
4$
-
.A.
--
'
'
,j
"'~~
~~
~
d b,
-'cubic
11h
'
.,
%.*.*.
I
'5
.*
,.
...
~.
PI
//
1
,
-lifetime,
I,
JJ
4$affect
1 'tricity,
-____
--
_____
"
..
'
.
'
2 -32
.4'
Initial
Weight
(lbs)
&-ttellite
Dtmennsica.
Shape
,.:
Perigee
(nrt)
Apogee
period
(min)
I.Afelme,
U-
(Me)
SpJtnik Ti
1.!84
>1.120
sphere
complex
dia - 22.8"
?
142
140
588
I,036
96.17
103.7
180 days
155 tdays
Explorer I
30.8
cylinder
length - 80"
dia - 6"
224
1,573
114.8
3-6 years
Vi.nfniard I
3.25.
aph4re
dia - 6.4"
409
2,453
Explorer 111
31
cyhinder
length - 80"
121
1,746
115.87
cone
length - 11.75'
bane dia -; 5.67'
135
1.176
106.
cylinder
length - 80.39"
dia - 6.25"
163
1,380
110.27
cylinder
length-85' dia-lO'
110
920
101.46
347
2.064
125.85
>2925
S;AwiLk 1I
38.4
Explorer IV
""
8750
Atlas-corc
da-6"
200-1000
years
1.z
yea
450 days
34 days
20.74
sphdre
1300
cylindrer
length - 10.2'
99
806
95.9
-'5 days
Discoverer II
161C
cylinder
length - 19.2'
142
220
90.5
"43 days
Erplorcr VI
112
spheroid, with
flattened bot-.
tom and 4
solar- vanes or
paddles
dia - 26"
depth - 29"
vanes - 18"X 18"
16
26,357
length - 27"
136
i),sovorcr V
1700
da
Discov'rCr VY
1700
V1tipord TU
100
"
.1
12.5hrs
,year
, '
"-'.1
450
94
34 days
62 days
33"
'.,'
- 27"1
dia - 3"1f
139
537
P4
sphere, with
tapered tubu-
319
2,329
30-40 yra
2 truncated
cones joined
at base
342
680
101.33
-,*2O years
length - 27"
100
-length
Ir."-,,,.
-. 10 yerrserri
IDiscoverer 1
di
p).
"
,,
Vaitguard H1
---
94 days
."'
lar extension
-xplorer VII
91.5
IL'ic:,rrc VI1
1700
dia -
ti.,covrcr
l:-
%'!11
372
spheroid, with
4 solar vanes
or paddles
launched
520
Nov. 20,
33"
length - 27"
dia - 33"
1700
length - 39"
depth - 55"
vanes - 24" x 24"
130
1,035
-. 14 days
.
launched
Nov.26,
1959
altitude
unknown
"
,
,.
a',
3..o
2-33,
LUNAR VEHICLES
SPAUE STATIONS
Space stations are inhabitable Earth satellites. They are placed in orbit in a marner
similar to instrurmenedsatellites andencounter
In conessentially the same environments.
trast to an instrumented satellite, howevero a
,,-ace station car.ot orbit at any arbitrary ltttude. Urrdcq it is heavily shielded, the station
mu ,torbit eith er aleivr' or below the high intensity regiorlS of the Van Allen radiation belt. To
F) Lc'h
N'
Hiyperboi'c
A tThe
-.-Encounter
lyp'bolic Encounter
L,:,,.r-yd'
--.-
_
..................
,'
D-ret-
Lunar Circumnovigolionf
_vehicles
_
-'
--
S--
._
....
"-
b,,r'Yr.de
..
.
Lunur Circuninovigaton
S.
Lurar capture
S-
"-
I iv. 2-28.
Vc ic ls.
2_,1
b
.
'
'0
t
.'
Hyperboitc encounter.
2t Lunar circumnavigation.te).
3. Lunar capture 'lunr satellite).
4. Lunar Impact (hard landin).
5. Lunar landing (saolt landing).
The flight. patIh fUllowed by vethIcles ha, V.-.
of these groups are shown in Fig. 2-28. It should
and
be noted that Fig. 2-28 is purely schematic
ses only. It
.
.
;"
Br.
Aire'
"
stay above the belt, it is expected that the orbital distance must be greater than about 15 Earth
radii and at the present time this is not technically practical. The higliest altitude at which
the station can orbit and remain below the blt
is about 350 nautical miles. For permanent
stations, a lower altitude limit of about 200
nautical miles is set by the atmosphere. Thus
a relatively narrow corridor between 200 andc
350 nautical miles is left for the operation of
space stations. 'Iorc detailed data on the naturat environments existing in this corridor, especially corpuscular radiation, must be obtairied
beforeapermanent manned space station can be
established.
*.
ill.
"v:+K
"
IN"TERPLANETARY VEHICLES
For the purposes co this discusslon, inter"planetary vehicle refers to a space vehicle trayelln,r between the Earth and another planet. A
flight path s~cqtence that night- be foalowed by
In Fjr~. 2-29.
-"-
(C)
Mars
IOrbi
,Mars(B)
Mars
Orbit
Earth(A)
M'
"outof
S
*
Up.,
arrivin, at a particular planet, a vehiel, will he ,ubj(,cted to many environments.
Atmo,,_,phcre, 'w'. etic field, gravitational ac(',_lcroti,,nmusurf ace characteristics vary from
plan, t to plane:t. Mars, for example, has an extr-.T'r-t;.
lin htr.rnrsnhorf, whilip that of Venus Ni
rhlattvely di|se. -Similarly, some planets are
ii','
1. havt
C3d
fairly weak magnetic fields
w-hiic it any'eaus thatVenus possesses a powerful
0,r,,, nrld c-'s"-q,'entUy a radiation belt similar
tr ~tiErth's
Vnn Allen belt, but far more int,, rse. A d, taild din;cusion of pl.aetary enS.... ' ,",.,tsim; 'ontained in previous portions of
it h;. h,-Cr.
.,YNVIRONVIE'NTS
IR.,,rytiv occurs when a vehiclC returning from
Fjilm 0 eLiters the Earth's relevant, atmosphere,
"llhe himtic ,l!ien'rgy
of the returning vehicle is
triroririu,
;uid the relatively rapid dissipation
of Utis ener!:y results in severe aerodynamic
hoatn r"taTrd druee.rrathion.
Air,,t,dyvau
,,a,,ia,,
Srictjmtb,
Ileatinl;
Around
Earth
Fig, 2-29. Possible flight sequence bIeEarth and Mars.
".
04twe
i!,
""
'
The shape of the vehicle, especially its bluntness, has an important effect on aerodynamic
heating.
Slender and sharp, or pointed, bodies
have more surface area exposed to the airflow,
and therefore build up a thicker boundary layer
(see Fig. 2-30). The shock wave at the pointed
nose, or edge is generally notaas steep and hence
weaker than that of a blunt body; and the air flow
velocity behind the shock wave, as well as the
boundary layer frictlon, is much.higher. This resuits In less energybeing dissipated Into the ai'r
by the shock wave and more Into the boundary layer and skin. Consequently, severe aerodynamic
V'
- ,
.4.
.
The shape of the vehicle also aff!/rts acr->dyn-.mic heating by influencing the reentry velocity and angle. A supor-acroaynamic glider,
for example, possesses some degree of aerodynamic lift, which enables it to maintain a small
reentry angle for a longer time than would otherwise be possible. It should be noted, however,
that for a vehicle employing lift, the reentry
time Is greatly increased. And, although peak
.,
4- r
'
IlVehicle
It can be
2-35
2I-3
Shock Wave
V~
SharpBodyshape.
SharpBodypanying
Intense HeatingJ
of Srmolt MassBunay
ae
Shock Wove
/Boundory
Sonic
UnsBody
Loyer
400
--
_____'
Reentry
An~'e
Bl1uni
A siape.300
j~ii~tO~i
V
,~
.200
seen that thc g--oad in(-reases rapidly for reentr; virles :,-rater than two degrees. T7his is
csp(.ci.LiLas(far
asohuman transthe irecnlry antv'1.i result in larg~e changes in the
Ti e d r-
-.
F
'.
--
.-
v*
is a func-
0.4-,-
n 0 . a20.
ri
tevr
HG."Ou
Treret
Geophysics R-Croatnof
4.Han c'K,ck of Gec~phvsics~,
Research Center, Air Research and Development Command, U.S. Air Force, 1957.
-
7.
8i.
9.
Pro-
ect No. 11I11, U.S. Air Force ASD, V/rightPatterson a~r Force Base, ofi~o, Juine 1955.
Di Taranto R. A. and J. J. L2amb, P reliminary Investiga~tion of Hypr Environments
z7W
r
anostrand
xfethoda of-S~imiuiin, Prt
and Induced- E~n~vronmenta Above 75.,000(
Feet, Defense Electronics P routs, ~adio
America Cia~.nden, N.J.,
AD 142002, U.S. Air Force ASD~ WiiglitPatterson Air Force Base,8hioi',Jiuy 195'.
Criteria for
16. Climatic mid Environlmenta
estne
S Meric E.H,
~uccim II W.5.~~~Pepr
F etn
R.iicw
foreni
W.SMrikE
Corn-nton17
Air-craft Des)M Prpa
and A. G. Wilson', Edited by Peter Swerling
j
& rrmteAC2
~
IRE
'Sooie Aspects of Astronautics,"
Transactions, Volumne MIL-2, Number 1,AI172,Jn
92
Whnnle, F. L T. E. Sterne and G. F.
4 Dceber198.17.
Scliffing, S0516 Preliminr yValues of Up-.
per Atmosphere DFeqsity from Observation
.H.
.Kelggad
r,
.
U.GalyC,
Vt-stine, Space Vei icle Environment, RAND
of USSR -Satellites, pca
eotN.3
Y 3,-0
TejctNci.0 No.
NFGanteot
C,rporation, Report No. P-1335, 1700 Main
S tr e e i,, &nita NTo i ic a, C alif or nia, 7 J i Ayt.)b, .
167, ASTIA No. AD 101U74, Smithsonian institutlon Astrophysical Observatory, CamN.tzarovh., 1. W., Rocket and Satellite Inbridge, ?4ass, Noverxiber 1957.
V:estizatbi-Is of Mecteors, presented at the
li~th nw~eting ef Utheornite Speciale de
18. Mb=nznet, R. A., K. S. W. Champion and 11.
1'Annce Geophysique Internationale, MosL. Pond. The ARtDC Model Atmosphere,
cfyv, Awu -st 1958.
195; AF~CR(-T R1-59-27 Ai~rForce Surveys
Vestine,,E...,1Physics of Solar-Terrestrial
InGeophysics No. 15,Geo hysics Research
,p~c;:Luniar khjgpt, RAND Corporation,
Center Air Resewr --h and Development Co
lJor
N.
-1 4,100Main Street Santa
mand, fedford, Masiachsetts, Augustl90519.
4February 195h.
Minc, Caiona
19. Greenfield, S. M 6 Availabililty of Upper
Mocie, R. C., Inrotduction to Historical
Atmospheric and ther Sel~ected Data from
Gwdlozv" M(Graw-.1lil B~ook Co., New York,
I Q Y RAND) Corporationi Rqjort1
. .the
"M&
-5.
A riI
,
&.,
*A
KfrArra
rborne
orAcafnt.
t'Tx.qeria
5
aniImttn WD
TS
17,ASTIA Document No. AlD 92498,
n Sacean
2.~~~~~~~~~~~SerI..,"rIteetnSpcan
its Technology"
g IRE Transactions~, Volume
ecebe 198.15.
MIL2,, umer
3. B~aker R.,An Introduction to AStrorwml
-ay- c.
Compay
VanK
5t~h Edition,
Princeton, N.J., 1957.
G.
F.,
Physical
and Positional
1~ot
iesofth
'
f~mtsWADC TN
AD 206671, ProiAJTToc~um~ehY_1Th'.
1
'
.'
>~
.,;
~j
:Ov
'i
'
toI I in;,
Uuct,-1r 195 B.
~95P4.
2-37
PEFERENCES (continued)
24. Weather Extremes Around the World MH83, EnvironmecntalT Protecion W 'e'arch
Div ision, Quartermaster Research and Developmecnt Command, N..tick, Mass.
ReInhold Publishing
38. Frelday 1)
_239.
4.Dl,.
28. Byers, H1.R, T'io Thunderstorm, U.S. Goveminnt hilrining
ce,
ashngto
25Corporation,
D. C., 1949.
9.he
of56
Distribrutona
29, Lemons; 14-. "'Srni-Mont-hiv
rM tlyWate
'~tXi~,Ju~i194.
30. A tliur, Cilibert F., flail as a Flight Hazard
Envimnnnunal
Citeia 3F~dlirctoateU.S.
"of Laboratories, ASD,Wrigiit-Pattersonti
IFurce 13a.e, Ohio, 22 April 1959,
had iuw July 1ntd943.
mop ofeuRAND
Report No. P-978, 17i0U Main
:**
BIB3LIOGRAPHY
H~xbrovnikoff, N.T., Na-turltl Enivironment of
13~on
hase Technical Note 847-3, Contract
No. AF 33(616)-5914, U.S. Air Force, ASD,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, June 19 5
DalUe, S. H., The Atzniap~cre of Venus, The
RANL~~tionjt~.ort~. P-97, 1700Marn
Street. Santa Monica, California, 12 October
1956.
Eggers, A. J, Jr., "The Posqib~ilry of a. safe
Landimc," Space Technol!nja, H. Seifert Edit.,
Chapter l3-,J_7linV Ie~y_&_S~ons, Inc., New York,
1959.
Ehice
A,
ystem Analysis of
Ia
nce_-;o~'i~
~ions
j
to V au&ALb
M-~~r~vai-Astronautics, Report AZM-072,
1959.Let,
Mardi
Ehlricke. K. A., Basic. As ects of 0peration
MannedL.-
4~
iit PtrapentrNo.
Lunaypace
in Cislunacaret
SaelitsAriwcrican1ckFoiyParN.
235A-5Th, November 1955.
Lhricke K. A., "Interplanetary Operations,"
'ace
cherilogy, 11. S~eifert edt., Chapter 8,
98
7-1f~'SnbrNwYnk
"On the Descent of Winged
LrdeKA.
Orbit,al VIi'hl es " Astronautica Acta, Vol. II,-A
e~
Faa' 19 I IhrtF.Manoogian,
Eliridck
K.~
"Thle Satelloid," Astronautica
, Sring 1956.
Acts~
o 2 ' ie.
a~d
11:av".1thrnf.
,..,~1
SipAprn
cu'r''-',-.'.~- _r
Di'-
ni.uti-!.
'8
~
TN-'
~ TIcmdv
-3jlLe
o(i
Al)
oruay31)i.
~Wrhiht-Pat~terson
5 7.
~525Drcoaeo
~Laboratories Ccoitract No.
Al' 33(616)-2605,
Project No. 1111, U.S. Air Force, ASD, WrightPatterson Air Force Base, Ohio, June 1955.
Kemp N. H. and F. IL. Riddell "Heat Transfer to datellite Vehicles Reenterin ihe Eari'
Atmosphere"11
-mmikWog,
27, i'4o. 2,
pages 132-IS7, aWi 147, 1957.
H!. What do Lunar Turne~rnatires Talr1
'Surace
Wr fthel
UsCnen
211Translated 'y
No Ab
ASTI Doumen
1. Gough, Jr., Translated for Geophysics Research Center, Cambridge, ?4ass., by the &xnerican Meteorological Soctety, Contract NIo. AF
19(604)-203, ]December 1955.
!Ivtnerenyj.rpjpent Simulation
'
eil
E1sLpc
Part I -. DefInitioni
Environment -- Natural and Iiiducied, Wi1M3TR
2-39
BIBLIOGRAPH (contlnuui)
ikriC. L. and H. j.Yros.zh, The F ee Ociihitionscif the Earth. ASTIA D-ocument q.,AD
k~ae1
he eizr~a
IntitteRehvot
12272,
u a ,
132732, rtil W6.eiz mn nsreete
A-,. 74 , *'AT Analytical Solution for
Flijrht Tlrn. '_1Satellites In Eccerntrlc and CirVol. !V,
m Orbits," AsrmuiiT - ca
C111i.
-Corporatfon,
)w5~
Fasc. 2,Spring
j~
te
o'
N.
.. Lifelmei
I~dcscn
icrl'
llp.i
rNand 5,rbits,6
ay 156.G.
No.5, 26
swnVol
flinchard, J. S., MPjteor Pistribution and
Cratcr~~~~~~i%' OSR TIN-57-700, AJTIA Document
;~)269,Technicald Report No. 3, Contract No. AF 18(600)-O , Physics Division,
Air 17u)ce Office of Scientific Research, AROC,
W.ishinc~ton 25, D.C., Smithsonian Institution
Astnriphvsical Observatory Cambridge, Mass.,
28 O~ctob~er 1957.
EnirnmntofIner
Shaw, J. 'A., Natural Envirnmen
_ofnter
n([I'JNotas
Techtt&r
u.3*2'ari6-5914, U.S. Air Force,
Nuarn -Cocl.
__
ii
olit-r-at
A.S!),X Wrivr't-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,
.ia~'~aievationi,
liTe1Mean Molecula We Int
E
T)~lnis~. W
208,
Ff3
(it 0C 1,pi-tr',hr
in,,i N,- AD) 73446, Geophysical ReIrur
Nkw
.hUDi LJr~ctt)r,-te, Air Force Cambridge Re-
Centi
scar
s~~~.15
nl
0.
Prp
OfT -AA,
,o,
IA
(Aa
EnvironE
Division,
u.
Re iearl Rese-arch
mental P'rotectionl
mentaI. Analysis Brancli, Head~juai '.ers' Quitit~rmaster Research and Engineering Commar~d,,
U.S, Army, Quarterma.ster Research and Englxieering Ce'iter, Natick, Maas,, January 195b.
Alitn
-USM7
trna
'.
____
14-"
N'
CHAPTEP. 3
mt'-',aue
Llii; clipter
lNi~N
i;LPROTECTION). Thus, for
ma-, inunii h4.i-! it these two chapters should be
Used in
ti.oij~inction.
_____
OeainlMcaia
Evrnet
oeainlMcaia
Albeck.
AtudX
Clouds
Cosmnic rays
D
ae
Lissociated gssX
Fog
Frost
X
X
Geomagnetiarn
td
1iI
inand
a list of natural eiivirijntmnirts
Iil
u
-is5
o~h-r in','i~ h
tef ef vet of each Is operatlonu
Lr
'jr ii.(, iia !cA1. 'Jhe Sanic inifo nmuiAtilo for ilniicej
enj~iIu., ishumewi in TabI? 3-2. A inore
de~a~V
It
ehl tuwim
%
tho p'ux-1ion uf the m7ission
l rdh~f (br itic %iii(I Uii various Cr.vironnficiits
will i-ii)st likilybo urit ounte rvd,:asA-,ll as whiethcr I-It it 4 !iNe a
;i f 9 0P(!1 atfon.-l or mo-charilcal,
is in, luiu in (iL apL-r 4 (TahIlt 4-21,
7EV P
ju ratlit4
u
lii axic'ixdi'u
Iii
liNTIii
~peraturesina
1iq,
-X
X
-Ozone
X
X
--
Pressure, ai
ifthX
jSalt spray
Ian and dust
k rghns
properly.
fro fnctionilng
bro
6;rc
Lxi:pcsn
hsar ;re n zutrn
ntna (Uie
aagdby
a fr z eri stourter motor.
X1
Me-lorolds
ti:Lvtm
fHumidity
Pollution, m.lr
JA (.
c-i
HlallX
illigh-apeed particles
opczte
-Gravity
Ionized gaises
EN~ll{)MJ:'jiEFFCT
-Lightning
Envirozirrn~ital uffect% fall into two general
cat-,rwis: 1iporaitionai and mechaniical. An
-I,
Sleet
Snow
Solar radiation
IVanuum
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
]Tcmperatur~e
Wind
Wtnd shear
X
X
X
-
..I
3-1
ilk
4
'ature.
----
F~nirunment
Acceleration
Aerodynamic
Atmospheric
ExldorL:..ia
'Z
*\
x
Molftur
Moistre
Xby
(n(
-nar mris-)
Nulersubstantial
kFigure
Thu,
~on~cix~rn10.
rit'.1
A, Stcignation Tempematurc
St~ea Level
I.- : of
6000
Adiabatic Wall TemperaI ture at Seao Le'vel9
500
C: Stagnation Temperatura
:1 or trn1ils
V bratiunT
x
xI
iru, irc it V
7nro
7000
5000
at 50.000 ft
D: Adiabatic Wall Tamp
u.oroture
at 50,000ft
LiIi luic.( surface and compartment terndu rc (-, broudilt abo~ut by one or inore of
iat Houreco:
U: f~ir r I.,11m-Ailu; mau;:j he-
E3000
air t(IlIKpvrAture.
20
u',ttur('sz.
I :
:
1
li
1.
Ambi-i
ii:f: e(lii~i;mCict.
4. It'd-r
A ui' ii 'ii
A ii Tc(iwri tu rc./l/ Onl the grounrd,
'i:::lt
aL i
tcuujnzeituit! is
iifimutimed
A-
200
-D
1000'
by manyI
-2
it
6
acnur
Cl
M d
O/
10
.4
Moreover, most maiterials, for lack of perfect heat conductivity, do not ordinarily heaLliup
or cool off uniformly throughout thtir volume
but do so by a series
h of temperature
otCRB
gradienits.
.7j
Hnnce, the several, portions of a single ploce
may expand or covitrat at diff erent times and
pr0'.are
atniu.. all chnio _'ia reactions is markedly influcniccd by lorn'pcrature, F-'r chernical reaction.,;, a far illar nile-of-thjumb is that the rate
of Inost rea.ctions doubles for evary rise in ternperature 'if I P
.Moschemnical aftivity its steppod up by iie.tirg afid slowed down by cooling.
All cltcinic:il and physical agents of deteinutuatl" interrelatcd actIonis,
riora'ion .-xbid.
ria
Poroalain
carbon
2.0
Chromium
3.4
Woodl (verp.ge)
3.5
Gias& (average,%
4.5
Cpe
7c9.4
13 runze
10.0
10.4
Slilver
1019
Ti'm
13.0
AMumrdnrn
13.3
Mrigner!um
1.
IlulAbmmr
42.8
n'tii,
-22
.f
7.4
ipII.in
06
iOf~m4.7
1Tiftrowed6.
Nickol
4tnderl'r)
utei;
'xpEso
*.
6.5*'
Ab LiJIficcts.
''
3.0
Iron
ilia
Fx106
(pe do
Ja,,kj.y
MateeogF
!ii~ia
most materials not only show Et change in p~1y5Ical froperties oron.a kind or another I%-t.'hy
_Thso oe likely to undergo chemi.tsl c'knes
Teechanges takie place within tLia zn:_,tp'~al
or by chemical reaction with other elements of
the environment. Chemical reactions proceed
--more readily at high temperatures than at law
ones.
-~
'
t-;k!I
v v
., i" :m
i't, *,m hm
kii
C j
.V'~c,
F,
3-3
Type of rubber
Silicone
500 t260)
Polyaerylio
Bun&-N
350 (177)
340 (171)
IJ~
ttrSi1(157)
...
30(19
280 (118)
Baa-S
MstncU'1mtlexiiadceae
U.fclpiorlc-inssif
uhr
tea, c.I..ea
tear
orImpct.
1ike can~vas, become so
7. Hriva'y fabri,
ilfle.i(Ml)letlIy ('uliW)t be foided or unfolded withiOUL djui-rler Qf I -akinlg 0o' tearing,
arc ;t
in
cuit~ait,
lubricants,
-i'a'
.1-4
t'iii
ild'34
...-
WAIA~l AL1645.
--posed to low temperatures for long perlods are
quickly brought up to maximum speeda./3/
V-
4r
'
I.
'Extreme
hydraulic
eprtrs
'lc
Lu a''' in ttrrii~ie stinoiwti.
at %%Ili( Il %vanriot typoes of rubber become unlus-
-S
and oxidZe.
The strength of most flight vehicle atructural materials decreases.
art
hains
'
fesistorm.
'I
tactual
(hai
al-
UIICiO~.t
Y,i~
tUSI.4l"W
Lui lLsIcs
b~te~i-s22mid-1
*
4
swiin In;
I v..If
v-itir
rrj '
nipi
tewpijreatnrie
are quiteW
nitut
(-i di~wt to, -67 1, (-55 C) and
ptinA11.
m,
t,,uu;f Ai "i co t itc
those(. typ~eF
ni41 (Itc slg; crack, or
nrntnds(Jf
Wax-iniuregniatod paper capacitors are subec oextensive cracking of the impregnAte bie4 F (20 C). This results in perma ieut
lo
changes in capacitance, Insulation rzcs1rt-nCe,
and a-c losses, especially if moisture enem.,
the capacitor's properties become
Fngnrl
impaired, with the dielectric failing ultimately.
Air capacitors (including vacuum and insert
gas types) are relatively stable with respect to
capacitance and losses as temperatures are
varied. Iii some instances, variable types may2.
require considerable, increases in torque to rotate the movable plates, probably as a result of
improper low temperature lubricants.
SIIGhLIL.
life of th' alffcted units. Variable comnposition rusistors are subject to the same torque
and discontinuity difficulties mentioned in conaditon,
"itiiwhowoud
reistrs.In
iiecicji
high temperatures cause tire lubricants used in
up, ooze out, or
io dry
all vaiiable rtesistors
t ohersufacs.Ingand
niiratimn
trebeains
*thec
70stoadee
V
A2
'P
.~
-)S
cliar-
acterihiticti.
hailCmpnt//
11
fenem
'
10!;h
'fickrtcvs,tt..niinal
_______________(25
------
-.
:C)cletly
o cusecracking.
('n),,Tr-fr
A KS (22)
~ ~.matter
.~
This iB especially
-cing
2'S ('l32)
f. 300 (572)
2U 500
750
1Q006
Durnoi of u Life Test, thours
*'
high temperatures, both magnetic and thernai circuit breakers trip at lower currents than
at room temperature. Thermal circuit breakers
are. affected more by high temperature than are
_At
6
11
chemnical
to which swlitches maiy
50 beThe
subjected areactionm
accelerated by high temper;dures. Reactions that take place silowly
.4t
112.3-? JieAvrag
tst urvval ofnorinal
temp.eratures, may take place rapidly
1 i,. 3-. Aeraj.(lifetestsurival
at Pigh temperatures to Impair tswitchJ
typi' al tubces vsi bulb tehzipuratures./7/ofenough oper;Alon.
4aisu~lation resistance between thec
'
__The
f~iso
g~ons3
Imwv
h dnesintof. the equ tpdlctepequdpemtnot,
ent deternitnez to a great extent the temperatures that th6 corfponents will Im subjoc-Led to.
In electronic equipment, the proximity of
-transformners, and resistors, in confined spaces
and enclosures raises the ternp erature acid. may
-lead to malfunction or early f ailu re. T~a eL~eat
producing components themselves tcoid to o Prate hotter, zompourding the deleterioui~. ct:.
ihtmprtrs
The trend toward miniaturization and greater
power output also accentuates heat intensity
problems in electronic equipment. MiiiiatuirIzation, with its small space factor, leads to an
~uponets.
Mecanicl crn-
p~nfiit'~ui
.0"'-', it rfls Eudi as pumps
valves
l'di., dic :,-.( pneumat~ic actuators, sliock andma
i~
vil'rais etc.verity
~!
tw
"
''~
This is particularly true since the total electrical power dissipated by zLminiaturized unit
is usually as great as, i1 not greater tlan, that
dissipated by an Paulvalent urnit of conventionsl
construction.
Thp combin'id effect of mainiatu:rization and
increased power output has been to increase
heat densities of subminiaturized electronic
equipment to from 0.5 to 3.0 watts per cubic
likely to occur when the heat dissipating surface of a piece of equipment is required to dissipate, by natural means, more than 0.5 watt
per square inch for a 122 F (50 C) rise to tempe.tre
Other effects of high and low tewperatures
equipments are.
'
'~
:
~~
tir;rdursdiffrenialconracion2.
-- eprtr
ElectricalmindicatinaTnsturents. Most
aifcotriaf iniaigisrmnsoprt
indiily at reduced temperaturce; changes atin -87F
percent
10
than
less
be
kmay
cation
(-55 C). T'hermocouple and rectifier type meters
Temperature reduction can cau.3c meters to read
inacorrectly by altering the properties of such
basic mote" .ir',-emnont parts as cootrol springs,
mr&aEn_., and coils, as well as range .xnd functionchanging accessories,
cotosec
,*1.ms
'
-Equipment
3-7
The thermal shock of going from a reiAtively low ground temperature to extremely high
temperatures wvithin a few minutes puts trernendous stress on guided missiles. Dilferential-xa'psions and binding of mechanical parts,
as wcil as malfunctioning of metering devices
ia occ,,r quickly, leading to system ftilure.
High rarn-al- andl skin temperatures lead to
compartment heating and constitute the most
critical aspect of supersonic flight. The increase In ram-air temperatures with flight
speed Is shown In Table 3-5. From the figures
In nthis4
tLr iable it Is apparent that rain air will not
be a suitable means of compartment cooling.
In addition, compartment temperatures are increased to dangerously hihlevels
o
the he-t tcanrsi,:ri ed to comipartments from the
hot skin of the missile./6/
_
_
~Temperature
Tro
,icreased fliht altitudes also increase compartm,,nt heatirig. The effect of-this increase
in attitude- is to further decrease the cooling eflect of a givcn volume of air, since the capacity
of air to absorh heat is directly proportional to
its density. Thc order of magnitude by which
the itcat ahs(rhing capacity of 4r falls off with
altitude :s shown in Tble 3-6.
0l1O
1", .
-
eI
"
~
.
N.
-
:
-
,
89(
1570
DhLferentlal expansion between the inte1rio and exterior-aircraft sturcture may set up
reverse thermal stresses.
790
1420
19
470
92.
ll)
4110
(,80 350
'
-.-
(wtet)
Pinh T
neratnre- WffertR. Hhih temoerature
con-diions can effect virttually every system and
-- part In an aircraft. Important high temperature
are as fOOWS:
Temperature Ineffects
'Mach number of:
A ititL
,"
280
LthJ
'I
25
So. t
-o 1
,li!
'If,'it
0a-.
250
_1(1
1270
40
640
5.
Absorbing Capacity
rti-n ()f
f Air With A!titud /G/t
_____
690
I,,
(I ,at
ri,
.4
-t.
______temperatures.
:"O
(,
50
;(,.Wo
25
,:'.,,
10
2. Moisture may freeze in pneumatic systerns, clogging metering orifices and lines.
3. The starting of reciprocating enginesfi Is
restricted by the congealing of oil.
__...._,__
V
'1l
p.-.
0.96
.4
ruln
Trbln
0.2Fo
E
C%.
E
I-
2 0.90-
~i
2Lominor
'n0.88 1.3
Flow
0.86-
2.08.4'35
I0.8A4
5
8 O2
m5betr
L2c0
3 M2c5 N35
to~useciuinefltobcorc.inoperative. Elec-
~':.1s'9
pri
n-leans of hevat exchange Ibetwcen
a.;::uaur vc~h>-.~ rlid its enrvironmrent is radiation.
ex~iuve,,plus any internal heat geniaiw iw
t'uu-u dutermzrine the .spacc vehicle's
ir.tenA-w Sat-face tempera' ires. The amnount
(if riLWtti'ur
h thi ehicie depends on
I),,he
-r
Ule
';'1~r1 al'sor1)iolrr
.- rlavteric~ties of the
SrUiat:c Iurdt'!rial
and uect~rurealchaacte
of iresurfce.lative
I !I
I uoarly %,ith
VIi
ILO
1I)I1
t-rrrpcrairur,
tt'Jlpcirturf-s
71-,
*.,I
eilF
renern
pla-eta
the nose, where-the air has zero velocity reto tire vehicle./l0/
. .. .. . . .-.
.-
'-*
2F
160
Velocity
2e
2
20
-5,0002
.20
C~
-12-00.
ag
:t
!r/sec
RRongte
<1
024
0,200
0____0_
0 20 00
4000
6000
6sOJoo
Ztcgnntion Tfe.-;perature. K
IQ00
0
-)
34
Time, minutes
Fig. 3-4. Reontry vehicle altitude vs stagnation temiperature with typical trajectories as
Beat generated equals 100 Btu/
paraimeters.
fi 2 _scc..'10.
--
Nose
Reentry al33Deg
2500r
"eon,
I.2
Ay-y
A-
f___f______
8100
600
4100
^v Timne, seconds
2100
500
SI.,T'J
fli:
6)C
miles. '11
02
Lii.
lll, Lo iue
04) 0-_ s-o ~rI il
.''itr
.
r-l-i #i
lI
)[h)
thi! t-a
IS C(Alttli(2ld.
n
,If
ail 0,r.(ry
e'rodofaerdnmi
i:
S'v~ .U-t
Y'rre
46
3
m
me, mi nu t s
~nxj
etig
when ree:(,.try pathis below
It is also apparent that
-')iitj1 atI fne.
flux to the staiu:1tion point is reliI
I'll
_'ln.-;iJcrah 'v
utt Ow k
Muc'i,nhthl~
ahlmlit
Ownili al ir-a(.twns occu r, resulting ei ll-, in ;wi I(,rIII,iteir1 01ntrnrc oxide. Thec
w)0:,: 1 'it~lle, must I K: able to resist clhemical
the. veii Io. A typ~icali ballisticaclt ! it, pr'!t
anid
:t
I.~
(From Recovery________________________
At? Body
1000
1Q000I
- ,f.ier
'
IE4
ao
onsJ
1579
is
N1
e,5-ic bSPI
3'
,1
,
.~
hock 13/
*
*
*
*
cies.
The
tity
I~-
0.005--
0.00o
000
be, tranmittdt
1-mp)nei
.0
50
100
GOO 600
is
Vih'tAiUn1ML11 h periodic, hinwhicht-ase it. consi~qt. ofi rinotionis at omil(- or more frequencies,
willh Oic
o ant eauch freqjucncy beine, harmonirI, i nt hv
licU.Udoni, in which case the am-
to tim':,.
A( ,lrio.
rah, Iii
iI:cv.
Itli rcila i to cither speed orS
dircc(i~in, oi U~thl. xVhe(ther-rdispl)acemeit, velo( OY )I at:I, lc-rat iunIi is tJit'In def ining shock,
ith,
.0
41
4-1P
-0
com, t-re~ut eiiou!,l to cause fr~acturing of brit--tle lm~terialt or yielding of ductile material. A
s Qcoi id Ii v
C1tshiock
ofI
isj diiaL tiea;ee
ratibis, c ha,, '-t'jri stic (if the abrupt changes
ass n iac~tl %%uW: shock, nma
tasitdt
equpin~n
wiI cmpniutssupported byth
Vil
'
ETfl
vutAcitv or dispiaceia;eut.
*Shoc(k
IIII-r
0.05'
incplhic'tie
l':~iiusisalwyspreutent. Acceleration by
it:.'itj d's
nil't ons)'titkimi sock.
nl
For example,
at
~ration
2'
.AcauRtics
-by
g~tniratc~
All or pitrt 01 every WNeapon systerr is transpo~rt~edat some time during it8 life. The shoc"i
and vib~ration1s to be expected during trarmsptrtatlon vary, depcridln~r ulx~n the type of carricr,
3_l11
3D5
iiI
too.
I !fIfi1I
iD<J
7!
oo3
ii
to.
1/
IL0 iImpoa:t
d1 E T
.o,
o<o
o,
"s..
Speed mph
ihorizontal acceler-
YFig3-.
Total 'i average numbeir o' ......
1onfgitu,!inal and iat. ral shu)cks per 1 i00 miles
,iii trayv [ meaisurcd on freight car ficx r./14/toit
resuIt~ant
displacements.
These large displacemenits may result in a severe shock environment for unlashed cargo as,bouncesth
tr
abouteninthe rtrucktrflossonfr. Vlhraiion~sy
e~xdule
truck transport.
--
frigtcars
from
50DOO
to
Iabout
<I
"
LozJ- L
LI l,11
I i
I-
2 .___L
_L[ ..
t.
0 e::,: I 12
I-,.ict
~90-cps
"'"f
lrge
range.
s 0.5
gzer-"-peak',"
were observed.
7____.
z(=1
2
/
l0
0 22
S ',e'ed, m h
atior~s.
It should be noted that the mean speed
of impact is 7 mph, which is well above the approximate 5 mpih linmtt for which the switching
gear' provides cushioning protection. Longitud-
.,-I
:..
'
I.
,:
I'
iplti|( llth
in
natura.,
i*',, II: ::
tI
"i '
.. ,i'
1.
,'
,-,
.!J .
,""
"
,I
.
"
,
!"
.~
tIip'I
..
,.-
J_
2
35
iseconand
the46lpredominant1000
10 to 0
jl
Cshock
'
'
101
Z-]loaded
u[Fig. H
SC
arls
",
-"!
fregularitieB
I,
i(
(
extreme body
B___________
road conditions and the speed of travel. Intermittent roadsahocks of high magnitude can occur,
'wiUl
laI2?
_peed2,14,
impact of freight car body vs sw itching
~-ations..
Sr~4
'.
,
r
,
r,
"
"
r
T6
r-iO-Nawarlh
eE
A-Clevolond
5-Buffalo
H - Derrolt
J -Erie
C-New York
K -Columnbu%
L - Doyton
M- Cincinnati
-Bridgeport
N - Mansfield
F-Hariford
4
F Lii
-
00
COO
pt
03
0*
c-
00
0,
CC
CO
GB13
JA
were
IjPa
re recorded.
wei.~
From: 1 3 5 7 9-1-1
.-.
o:246
0.0o
~~~~
~
,.j
Sjl~tk,ra11
1~
W~
l
rc
012o-
fro
iii
Iti
*,
o;nl Values
Tie
e~
n1TlI\'flUvinw
Ii(
SI)1Sand
di)A
:
ajti
y ft
tl i:.jL
vibrations
inil ih
II'~-,0.4.
I u'hI~t''l~i
I'nr,
'. jndttoe-~f
thust5.
I*
lii
!tlf,'iintij.
cticoufterwu.
ariseL I ror
I'
maniy
__-
00~bI~
-~~~~I
"-.~-.
--
176-8
if.
2C*~~~~~-c
OcaeBns
ps-Dsac
4800
9600
Z
152-
t1
0
14
!a.
140
-B
*
44
~2d
""/
_j-'tp.Crtnosndlceeos
/ ,,
~~40
~
4800
Ov-nll'175
) 50 3C) 60 100
7, l12)o 3ICC00160200 2400
9600
00oveBands
cpsnoise
Bordswas
Octrne
Vi.3-15.
'o');rtuflefts
'1
L. oddobiui
rclative to overall
(,,trum
""r1'
llock- loads and transient vi-*'
t'rat! li
ortIhjsO v'ihraLions are at dif-.
fecrcnt lr~~'c';froni
those experienced
d erry
44._.t
the fuosen1firwa-
hae1
n~fut beepn
t~
Cfl~f'
duri..: flii
13"
~J-y;;An
iij;o~inportant cosidertio
it wuterth
sun
A discrete
spciu-i, _hara-teristics such that the time
hI.AWui
0y .1"11( 1oc
f
'utionlS
is periodic and
tli: r. n.)f, (i'mI atiilzed by mut,ictid of Fourier
scrii.
N'i:' p~rdJ'cec i by a sp)i nning propeller
ifllO
'::rt
or conitinuou~s.
r-(' CX,11Jae
-l"
it
If flie t'11'
"a"rIii,
01 a. discrete
rumcraft
history of
ti'; frf(iltili('
Sound prcssuxes
is
aiuilvgls is Soimetimes
chrctrstc
ofLL~L
seece
.,-
4.
-
.j.
jeLt~aVdir-
I
'
I%*
-. ?
.roI~n
O.,e.atI.,A
11
/ 0
434
146iw~
(Trgq
?s1nin p9 uti o
_P
d l
r toaduoo
110
1211f
f Distance from.
0'
too
11
50's lw
30
ofU
t00
1l',,
~
116
Fir 3F7
I'
Noote
-~
re do itg.
Cenl
o e al e
II
10
w6fA
14
92
61lf
3-19.tft NI*stc;'
2A10
ofGwv
F-kl"
end
this~ chptMs
of
owthes- v oibrtione nvio
met t aro u lO veall Monet'arbopraqOswatra"
port,
jt bml~rscenuryjetfigter
an
heiotrM
epciey
Avgchn art I rya
9"sl
~~ ~i-2J~mi
tip
manyQ
Moanaog
10ll
1an
for adito
I,
to
W
lDYeput Pty fork 0es a4Pnd S0upport
Th.KTZILL.ud.,rp
U.. AirForc
~.
-w
~
.,..",,~1n
211
~
174
,-------
mn
Vbatvaion
ports,
datatcovri3ng
s
jt
a endt-79ur
j-et bo-75r,
helT-opters, resecivly
anThan
enineBo transbo-jet
fihersiand
et chargts drniae
""60 al type
and f airerf alxo available. frm
EngiAneeroughu
A-91* (ladi
ly'.~~~0 3-1 Cl.1w~jitc
ai,~
r-'.'1T3
LU~(U~ft./1/Areseroatctalt
If
'U~~~~~~19
"
,.*
.'
..
______Ito*
~*
4.
Boudar
____
Irflo
~'I~
L~!RY...
07
O.
D,,sIi 0S.~iiw
.~. ',.orS.
Rot
.
4M
Their oprerationaltie,
is
Sshock aDivibrsionloddu
L4-11P.-
AirRasarchand
C"Air
Force'
eveopmet Co man
~~
[~
~
~
~due
_____-
ti-nAl..g
*
M.i-..A.on,.
I'lo-Emain.o O,.vutL.)
to the tir aitted number o~f operational experienices. The following however isxe conside'r'd
reasonable limits lor fiese'environixxents:
lb,1o
Vibration
20
8,0
bolost phase
'
90
-3)710
500
50
20300
1000
2000
!o.I,.r.,flShock
70400
l,,
400nl 7000
00
oono
~'4r....~.L1s
0
0%
(Q.4
50%iii~
o
mlnlUisecond
separation
14
-0
Engine Ignition,
0;*
landir'-&
IitSoft
/Acceleration
*
deceleratdon
--....
15 g for 11 mUiisconds
or
0 to 7 g dtkr!.ni boost.
phases, and 0 LO 100D
during recniary to Earthi'c
l-ow
0~
0'?~'t
n'
~4
4
MAlo. A.4
1O
-4
9______111
3-20. Noi
IdO
;MaW1.:.MinivwYln
AlmntgPwloorl
AIIn.tboftwt
A "
0
_31_Ell,____
Yht
'
C Mq..,.v4o'~atmosphere
A oustice
I~
characteristic;3
(All E14112ii
Of 13O
2!rcrat. 17/
'Y Lrc
euf
flles0!
so
nd emertue.50
gra.!iml
orcsdesiy
~fr'
fu;~i,'
iriw!
0 100
5100
CIP-9*11ofe
wE q~ SOV-11
P19~6, L..en
6
Rasca
1000
c orpr''~Il
so
--
2000
4000 700
.,'
)w
-~.T
*~:'0'
--
?0%
/P
'krfRsa
4'F
~I-
200 300
5!)k
1*44
rI
il~ler2
Rlegul us
'
Snarl-,'A'
iiiL tjrA
Mat a (4 r
Ta s
C'Terrier
Ora.1
0 10401le
Level 0.vS OP4nullee
Ins~ur~Vrrisns_______Mo.
tMet
3-22cz l.vtcaos
tlhe data presented In
-; 3'2,
o urih 3--"4 are not assuci~ited with
ific ndisilos. MonI. complete miissile shock
a :l I jr, I Lv
-4t~ia!,iJ~
nI
in reference
IqC
101
,,,
[-1.
Z..
4
h
Av
M1%
Mie.
115.g
550l131
1,1,
14?
sie
P"C
'l
k"0I
1215
141
01'
_o!
AVg
156
**,
d k-p~tce VehiclesIIif"01Vr
a;
li'l
-Lh shl(LL and vilirat~on eiivironrnents of orl,i!..l .id
uqvu
cvlilclcf
have not lbcen ecoufirmed
#I A"%ofeM6.ll,,we Radlelf"l
1IN
,.4
0.05I.Cntn
4~~~~~'
41~
.21
Freqgency cps
Virtancaaccist
f orC
3-22
Fig
200
"0
1000
00
10(
3000
-2
I'll~~~CIe
nd-
pe SecondIV;
U,-2
t.--dth
nonc
of-
imacer,,i~softh
vrs~n~yofa
ui'tIf
. 11in- np t~e ra
sm
Ulu
:~ tH!
LIuro!
u,,-hl
Fig.
srutue
%iratnio
then
loulo
isZ
trutue
ve
1dfuetfeuny
,e
tue
nVopoet.ujcedt
sok
rdvbain
frm
mcaialsrse
fftge
cw
\,7 cas
r-e
v
cLtiuecsiesr
SO 1iri(2-N dcK0,,e st00e
300uhfaiu0aiueuual
defecton
C~r~cror
-N
to
sqae
aclration
lte
aaen-odn
fgher
ive2
material..
J"
F-6Hje
togh
evr desruc
trlhI
.'an
Vib
ancfeunya
anpiuomycuen
7,r.-
'
3-25.
eevto
ratrsiso
Ce
s3-17n
Failure
eurn
a
aeilo
vnulyfl
at
alrsrsl
ea
mosdwti
ca
occur.
esrso
eihrtrog
xesv
-.
1!
'
I,.. .
.
,'
...
"
'
114
I1
vibratio.
The 1,kaprn :wystem designer can gain considorajlc `n.si;',t into the shock and vibration
prolhl, m from sun.niaries of shock and vibration
danm:we to typ:val structures and cornponeais.
Foll - i rg i 3 s;on ce data taken from one series
of tV,.ts. 1-.
Ca0-riwt
and_ Framne
some
*2t'h
opti-.,t
cabii Stnicture.s.
n ~in-m-Among
elrun-ures
20iim_
q iL
abnt a'i
fr
-itruVlures
dfcs
e.ns
VA
_______a
r.-
Tr'
form..,/20/ Transformers are pro- rest
t fou
-ably the heaviest and densest components foun"
onan electronic chassis. Because of the welikit
X'
i
.
,1
A uli~
dopPts - whch
ate
freze~
..
~organic
ice.
The moisture content of the materic' Pttacked is Important in determininng the extent
of the attack. In general, wood c-ontalaiijo, ie'ss
thani 20 percent moisture is not attack~ed by
fug.Hwvradierneoafwpret
in moisture may determine whether a given
species may grow or not. For example, one
o rwV
ugsde
odsann
priua
In pine wood with a moisture content of 23 percent but develops in wood containing 24.5 percet
Beyond high relative humidity and suii~ahle
temperature., the only additional requirement
for fungi to thrive is abundant food. Thia is
supplied In large amounts by a great variety of
materials produced by veetatlion. Many
items of equipment as well as clothing, shoes,
boks, oods, and other items, are composed of
;UL
J,
......;.-,*
ar
11
*1vl
cooeu~Lic'ix~'tocasemoisture to condense
and ejo1ipinent within the
up~re' Lt. -x ''ContEvery
Flf~r:1-'
'0
*
!Y:,,-cr
U- ':I
ha
NJ
1F,-4tion
L i
;!
~,
slt~rj,
of Ma.terials -- Causes
'(VII )nIhtritin
cr Iini jues, IIy Glenin A. Great anid 1,1 rt~r
esy o:f Reinhold
iN . es;courtP.
I,- ;tl .io
*Puli~'r'gLup'r~i inn Ihk D~ivision.
Tha
ro
inert
eol
~
-
1.
M.;tgriersiim
2. Magesiumli alloys
3. 7ine
4.~~
c~
5. Aluminum (52S11,
2G.-Alumlnum bronze
(%iamicomes
27. R~ed brases
7.
8.
Ai~inu
rn(75~Tor
2%1.ocopjxr
29. Silicon bronze
9. 'Mild stcei
-mr
10. Wrouitht irorn
31.
11,
Caist trot.
Imetals
32. -Cornp.G-bronze
12. N:-PRcsist
1.3.
70-10 copper
nickel
1
chrur~iurn stainless stt'i, tvv, 410
iAt
t i V'J)
Nickel (passivo)
~..15 Iconl~pssic)
]:ij-insoler
Inonl ()-ssie)
ii.23-0 oldr
lid-in
) 5. 1 -8 !;0:iinlrss !'-dei
typv3(5
B;.37 t;nls
tvpr
17.
3(3. Moniel
stinlss
18-8
steelntyea
~Lcive
.37 188
sel
JI6ThtVC) pass~e)Paint
..18.
*E
Ef etof '-.1st-ure
I____
~tp
__
-strate
_J
on Mtras4
*4~
_.i 4t
.
.IA
'
1)y i v)ist ur e. In the usual case, the more moistu~c oricsent -ind the easier the access to it, the
mellrt
e ious is toe detriuweital effect on matten .1
OrdLoimrily, the more severe file mnoisture ufmitlitions, the more rapid is the degra~~d-r.:e fitect. A peculiar feature of moisture ist!je Iact tlitt in a neg~ative sense it can contribute
to ti~c brfeal~tiin of isome materials b~y Its absence-. ['or most materials there is some optinmiun n seture content for the maintenance of
usef al pnopvm ties. For exampic, paper that is
tuo dry is brittle, and leathler devoid of moistI-;
. ;i~pt ti; 1,u btiff aumd unworkable,
*C,
'
16
-and
18-8-3 stailllcsF3
isve
-influenced
33. Cv;mp.Mh-bronze
34.
104
~'5
0;
Wood. Wood owes much of its physical propertie.s to its moisture content, and a change in
Jie
oinu!ture level results in a modification of
one or mor2 cf the properties. Wood is subject
to rtnther iatge c~mensiona1 changes with
chant,-es in the moisture content, When moist-r
ure
tistiken in or given ieo. a inoistlire, gradient
is et-1i'-hod, and not -111fibers, of a piece of
wood swv~l e shrink at the same rate during
vet ini-wor dryinf. The internal stresses set up
Uy L2,, loss or ! (entry of mnoisture often resulte
int,
ig
In addit ion, moisture in wood is res-
Tr ajddjti'i
whiitii;n-
to
are especially
alt( ted byVt11ISI.ture. T:-c pirniolic case is not
ah~nitrirreadte'sobdmit
ure is
vwe ins tatbility.
c.~lfiit1flrosistors
(Tit
i01-
50
o0
Hou100
50
150r00
0O
Hour
Printed Circults./26/ The effect of moistureon printed circuits resembles that of its cffect on the base laminates alone, except that
when an adhesive is present. an adhesive layer
Is left exposed after etching. The effect of humidity and temperature on clad laminates not
subjected to etching is shown in Fig. 3-28. The
poorer insulation endurance of epoxy 2t '70 C
may be due to copper corrosion products resultiIng from moisture.
Trans forme rs./27/ Moisture In transformer
windings pro motes corrosion, supports fungus
growth, and reduces dielectric strengt of insulation r~c.Elect~rolysis and clectrolytic corrosion of the metal also may take place
in the presence of a suitable electrolyte.
Motor and Generators. Moisture in and
across windings of motors and generators reth.e insulation resistance andl dielectric
strength. It can alsoresult In arcover between
high voltage points. Galvanic action corrodes
-- 'the bearinigs, causing rough runtning and early
failure. Fungal growth destroys insulation, re-J
suiting in short circuits. Howevcr, sh~ould the
atmosphere become too dry, there will be excessive dusting of the commutator fron, the
-*duces
__brushes./4/
3-21
Nat
to flsI-
:,cpecially
-.
during periods of mio-A
on the sprepders of open
dulatiol. Condens
UIre feeders will detune the f'nail amplifier of a
.Ak!i
Moisture
o1)tif'Ual
also promotes
~
-7ig. 3-30. Rail da~mage
4the
S:
*equip)01ent./4/
-metal
jilecting
vehicles
mechanically,
cof~ne
etherby
ailue
ypasing
that plug-ged nozzles or by
jic
-I
...
4%
AV~
_31
--
4ICING/22/
*~k
-~
AA6
3-
rfiut
4 %
1x,nint ice is =n opaque ice formed by thie Inostantaneous frec-zing of small skupercooleddrp
lets Sine
tese roplts dhere In approxiirelspical shape,thy trap air in the ice
giving it an opaque hppearance and makicni I
britd,.-. Clear ice is 1:)rred by slower freezing
of larger suptrc.lw'led dr..-p!ets. These have a
to ipread and assume the shape of the
*tendency
surface on which they deposit prior to complete
Clea iceconainslitte ar. Fost
freeingalso
Is a deposit of ice crystals formed on exposed
*
uppe
Fostcan
suface. lsofor on ircaft
in flight upon descent from subfreezingr air into
a laer.damage
wam,
ois
In
toeconitin
~~.ara1 rquird fr iing
is tile presence of liquid droplets at Bubfreezing
temperatures, that Is, supercooled clouds. Af
loud isoewoes~eso
suocoe
hofuh
oeane whfozen suvenn
s
wauc rcoplet
th
ater dropletsc rmain unfarozeno feveznthouhi
tentp'ratrc,
beinfretre
is an inherently unstable suspension, wen a
supercooled droplet hits the surface oil an aircraft or miss ;lr, the Itmpact destroys the eta..
hility (if 1he d-oplet and raises its spontaneous
d
cr*V;stallizaticinpo~int so that freezing is Initiated.
-
oten
h
nircr:Lft itcn, con'litinns exsigI
1lcnum:phcrc ., various altitudes during tie dL.!1cr-'.
~c ic..utedinrAferncJ2/.
casn:
to :T5
grani: I _r Cub;')
*
meter.
4. Itie tornverature range for icing conditiuuin,-:rious fItcm -40to32 Y(-40 toO0 C).
lliJ:!, %atcr contents are associated with
ci (orivcc i e cloud.,;, and thle generi.1 !-d!-
be comn-
troyed and the mission unfullied. Icing rea hazard whenever adequate means ol re aent
rvde.:
Aircraft are affected in several significant
wy
ytebau
fLe
h
eoyai
ways bythe wigadtice
uidu
of
Thfaes arerodynami
r hne
igadtalsrae
rpri~o
by the Ice decreasing Lhe lift and increasing the
drag. An aircraft burdened with ice requires%
a lon~ger runwity for takeoff or landing. In addition, ice adds .to thes total weight of the aircraft, decreasing its operational radius. Ice
of
or hinders functional operation
upnet,
mic prevents
aeuuitaesoesr
by blocking the air' intake duct, distorting the
fteaenaec.Sncua
raainpten
to turbine enginces may result wi-en ice
breaks off IWet surfaces and is ingeste-d by theS
engine. Ice accumulates on leading c4.-. nroinlets, wings, Induction
pellers, compressor and
all aerodynamic surlystems, pitot tubes
faces of aircraft. It is also induced by operating
conditions In fuel and oil lines, fuel filters, vent
leowfreesg.Ti
aay
ie.'
n niebete
Air induction systems In general, and turbine
enginea In particular, are most critically a!fected by an encounter with Icing conditions of
~~~high liquid-water content, ever though the duration of the encountex is very short. Oi, the
viindsh-elds, -- gsa
ipnropIer
nthor handl
tolerate brief and inusually
an
talsrae
-- termittent encounters with icing conditions ol
greater severity. Severe icing may cause a reciprocating engine tu stall.
rie
*
'
.'"
.
.
"ynalyd. For
3-23
4A
of natu'al
_________
Averag edus~t
conc entratio
Region
rom__
From
Clower/31/
From
Kayae/32/
0.4 to 018
0.8L to 1.5
0.0032 to 0.0130
0.0130 to 0.0485
suburban
Metropolitan
Adr
MeanV
Height
tempera- concentration
(ft)
Weather condition ture (C) (mnllligramAt 3 )
lifuifuel
vocaicacivtyormeeoicdust.
*im
Atm'ospheric Pollution
600 Clear to slight
33.0
0.0060
.4
henor~damonti f amopheicpoluton1000
haze. Visibility
30.5
0.0065
Th
rnun.,
nrm1o amophri pllt-tin
2000
about 80 miles.
30.0
0.0049
found in various locations are given in Table
4000
29.0
0.0039
3-8. ItLis apparent from this table that Indus60019.0
0.0015
trial areas have a higher degree of pollution
th~iii don 1!i1iir areas. it has been re.-orted that
500 Slgh haze.
Z1,4.
0.0067
ajprvmx~ina1 Jy 200 million cubic feet of dust
1000 Visibility about
33.0
0.0074
ir:islt poriiw,ic tly in the atmosphere; as man'
2000 20 miles.
32.0
0.0057
1,, El0, 00-D .C!osol (soot, mietal, dusts , fuingus)
4000
27.0
0.0039
pryies v'r-re found in one cubic centimeter of
6000
21.5
0.0054
thn-,i in Ncx York Citv.
500 Moderately detise
27.0
0.057
1-7 ,riJeratz dust storms the concentrations
1000 dust storm. Vis25,0
0.493
at lin 100 1o iotlevel is about 0.0005 gram per
2000
ibility abjout 10C'
24.0
0.197
C~U'lj( fit, ik creas in a severe storm it may be
3000 feet.. Wind 20 to
MO.
0.051
fiv.! t- tr' n tinius as heavy. Table 3-9 gives the
4000 25 kn~ots.
22.0
0.018
vnr'-vil in o. ('mflveitra' ion of a dust storm with______________
I easHj! al-titude. The fact that significant
of dust are found at upper alIti't'
en eiitritis
or erosion by removing the dry dust. The dustbe an indication that some degree
iuius 1ol
ier seasons of the year are the seasons of tight
rUSt he viveni to aircraft and air6! [irott C'''1
Winpf ertmi iimut. The uipper limit for this dust
atmospheric pressure gradienfe, sharp troughs
and frequent frontal passages.
*
kli~t I V19~0 feet.
a"''i-~0
r. ~
.01
)it~Cuulyrfr
o
dmianicter and is given in
t aro generally limited to part!i`i'1L]it"'; ri;;ai rom about 0.1 to 50 microns;
s ti All >aid
a,
a
articles between about
5 1 ni c rmis and sand taiilings from flotaki. i (air-imie I,- win"' or someW mechianical
-r
lii
PAads
~'lxt'v~
c
AL.1.)
li-
N.-tir ti D1
Ih
mam
"
a.
'
..
'r
Cr~tind)i~i/30/
I I' i,
i'~iictlin
h-,
i:I;I
dust
ar-
particles In motion.
The hetght to which a dust storm riscs is a
function of the wind velocity and the stability of
The:i-10.
Wind Velocity
(mph)
micros)
40
2.2
80
4A4
160
8.8
3Z0
19.6
650
29XE
970
_________age
____________--
the entire air inass. Unstable air masses createe~:trni vrtical air movements, resulting
in urblece ndconvection currents, which
can c.,rry the dust as high as Aen to f ifteen
t~cumd
fet.leaded
4
~ation
ifte
compo-
dust
Dust.icumuliesbeteen
*
*
:]'.i
*.
-PRESSURE
The eff ects of pressure fall Intotwho categories:
-Those resulting from ambient pressure, and
those caused by wind.
Ambient Air Prepsure/34/
--- Ambient pressure is the surrounding air
pressure of a given point at a prescribed altitude and location; it is equal to the wei,~ht of a
column of air, ov.er a given area, f rorn that point
to the outer extreme of Vic atmosphere.
All aerodynamic and therrno&,na~mic charactoristics of a flight vcrqlcle are dependent to
some extent on ambient pressure. Drag, lift,
thrust from air-breathing propulsion systems,
vapor pressure and cooling r-ates Increase
directly with increases in ambient pressure.
thrust from roc~cet engines arid control
surface size, on the oth - hand, decrease wil'-n
Inraermietpesrs
If the cabin or compartment pressure were suda mieteor, or possibly ene'my action.
of
extremely
q.,.
CjrauL~jilt
;,buisive.
or molecular gas filmsr, coefficients of frictionmoving surf aces rise sharply, With gal"Ibetween
ling Inevitable and cold welding probable. Extremiuiy low pressures will also drastically afidi hinds of seals; even a good welded joinat
Afet
ji~ay prove to bc pcir~ius.
ri.
soS
40,000
25
c'so0oo
10
100,0001
-____
*
V
1
sras
nraeo
eces
ordces
can inceas
stem,.
A~ chianuiuKe la whirou ape-'o
aveaziiliu.
m'ra-torS
h
h
ag
aeo
'
Udk-tLi.1cUit
or th
air
ot~et
*re ~dhig~h enough orteairc
a
hpport
to s
' piilac
low
. may~t
injivitc
pr.'Lir
are
kolt
~ ~~~Ti lc is nothe
0V~
~ ~ rsmytk
poinp.onhists know mas
of ~tie and')voui ama(
opnnsadmIra~
u
n
('ori'
If
20,000
80,000
an
amae coducive
Destuctve
rcs
parts, and fire. dw inutosoththe
will conduct. Connectors, terminal boards and
relav contacts are examples of parts that arc
the p~rts suh
uU~j('tprbles.
t aroce
capacitors and transformers
as rcisor,
low prsurc1 nvidneveo nte rcnag
i
aruit-t orcua~
arcm~g n alowpresureenvronent Aring
is p~trticularly damaging to brushes used lIn
:Ind
100
r-tor;
Percent beat-Rbsorbing
capacity of given volume
of &Ir to that at sea level
Altitude
(feet)
'
blwsadndid-onso.
irltc ci r' !i: C. 'ice ionized air caused by corona
Stes Srsscudbywd
1.1ol it o2s -:'onc anid oxides of nitrogen. ThieWidLa
StesSrsscudbywn
nzi-o:idc'm~s natural rubber and synthietic ma-WidLa
loading is a basic consideration. in flight vehicle
anI I t: 'o-xidcs of nitrogen combine with
debignI since sufficient strength must be pro%&at':-r h i') ni acids that. contaminate and devided in all structural members to withstand
,-,s
riu and bushings, and corrode
I-, idencountered.
Ata
A,:1,7(lprssur
,om
gvIX
tj t'i P *: tu
~
0-
aij;
i~'~'l;
Convection is a common
het ro)equipment. Since
wth Icresir.
in-t
r'
tiPair'lereass
n' ic': I z 'srtiini
w'nuith inrasir-,
a*'*Ao
hinaiCspofitvarious
T.
I~
c'I v:rin.Tle3-1l shows the heat('ii~~ t
' 1 cp-itY of a itiven volume of air at
a'ic~r:'i
var'-:s ;miiituu s as,, a percentage of its heatheari
ic
t e ec.
ibaa':ct
1'> 1i'tali'surb and remnove 1eta he
allill-'d-s, thec teiniperature of heat prnducing
r saf e operaadng
Il".V I ise aoethei
n"'rl
iinI.;s pre
At.i"
int"
r!i''clie oa
hua! rsosgarcnn
entippexmeatuesy
o limactely
ppran
ogrb
ofapprxi-
10-T taken,
10-sidere11osdrda
*l
'~I
uaingsspo
n
hr
Lwvlct
uaingsspo
hr
n
Lwvlct
ducing accelerations of 0.1 to 0.5 gcan shake
gusts
EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPIIERE/37/
Witi 14/
ui
caused1 by differences in atWs s.0ll
i ( dcily, which producec horizontal
duff, ' in air pressure. A pressure gradi-
"n"it
.1
Cob
ible gases usually a mixture of hydrocarboui vapors ana air, may seep into) equip-
A~
*
*
*
*l.X
'
~,
'
'
*4
Atinospheric Plress3ure
A pit4entially explosii e atmosphere varies only
sligPt lv with ducreases in pressure. As atmospheric pressure is reduced, the dielectric constant of air 'ire ruases, thereby lncroasing the
possibliitv of el _,J rical dincharg--. Hlowever, with
decreas'tatfl i .~ ericpressure, the explosive
mLXturc bccorn2 mrore difficult to tgnite./438/
Temnp" rai ur
Tetupe(_rature( [%;,
"s little, effect on the explosivflcS O a as mitr
ihntetmealure rAl-C: cOf
Y (31) C) to 131 F (55 C). Raowever at low tc-iiiwratures, which exist at higher
altituiJe!, t'::,
4,losion hazard is con~siderably
rw d.
ll:iirh. ty
for11,110I'
I;.''
*i" llJS~phere
lin 4-tisLpote'ntially
explosive at-
i'lespark
unay occur a number
oiu to ".! and rr t 1I ite the
-nixue.
The spark
mut iv- oif l iuiimli hevat to brinii, the temperaturf' ol thw iiix.,ui-e to the flash iclnt. An electrwc spliit d''Iio,'wed ovef a. relatively long period i,.u
tiii
'si- cifictive ijniition fiource. Aoijve
20,00f) I( (t, c ;r, na ratllir thanL~ electric arcover
acts
cc f a;ignuioui.4,?a/and
a sw
ia
Alim sgh've htricilty includes static dlecici"Y all I lvhi~i.l'kott call cause serious
ayii.:
d hi:iy interfei e- with the operation
off lb
*t'hIiic
!E
Fig. 3-.31.
=:~cag
.
Aircraft damage caused by static
or lightning strike.
"
*.i1
'
..
by cxhiaust gases from the vehicle propulslon Eystemn. These charged g.i,9es make Uhe
antcnna nonreceptive.
flas
LightnLig
Light,. 7j is a d(snrril-ve discharge of electricity and may cause danrwe t~o flight vehicles
during thunderstorm activity. Control surfaces
may develop small pit ma-rks and holes. Non-12rnct-illic parts, such as radornes, windshields,
aiteirina i!ulators and canopies may be shattered. And the vehicle skin may be burnt and
pitted, witli most of Vie damage taking place at2
sharp cdg.2s or the sniahest radii of a curvature. Apa-_ Ir:)m the~ risk of the crew bebig
in
liin ded, there is little danger to
temnui(jaAa
humans inapi -perly bonded flight vehicle.
0.50
1.98 X10-1
7.9 x103.1 X 10
AI:Iuio,iJ
t~e
r'frc
"Idcti'htcileat-n'terteprils
of
niicromieteorltes
is the
a~ the s-pt1
vei' :
Thre positively charged
rllicimr~if ~-'rieparticles increase the erosiOn
1.0 X10~-
1.2 x10-8
1019
4.Ox101
12
1.Gxlo
17
6.3xl0
1
2.5 xlol
3.lXlO8
8.0
7.7 x10-8
5.9
2.Ox10-
4.3
4.0x10
3.1 X106
x0
7.7x1-
1.'?
2.0 x10- 5
49 r 5
49x1-00
0.93
00
1.2 x10-4
-4
0.51
2.0xo
Jr
9X104
7.i0
xO -.4
31X1
1
1.6x 110
.3T19
.71
.51 9
.
0
1.2 x10- 4
1.0 x10 9
3.xO
*
a~iu.
:r '?,"To
Ut-ri-ally, if a s-pace w-hicle
rnh'U ie
roelor-t
riOnih i
Iris it ).Irlt
an. il tro.( late.rti
br
' r
r d al e o
is exposed to
161
79x1- 6
7.xO
3.x106
31~ 6
4. x 101.x1023
.
0
.X0
25X07251 7
2.Oxi10-
4.9 x 10
.7
0.20
0.15
0.11
lx1
.xO
1.2xlr 2
*For vehJele operating outside of Earth's atmouphere
(From I'Meteoretlc Phenomena and Meteorites", by
Fred L. Whipple, In Physic2s and Medicine of the Upper
-Atmosphecre, edited by Clayton S. White and Ots 0.
Bcnmorr, copyright 1952 by the Lovelace Fvundation,
Jpulbiihod by univorsity of New MeXICo Press, Albur(iru)
'RADIATION
Exposure to large amounts of radiatloa inddces changes in most -rnaterila.IB From, the
stanidpoint of proper operation in military sysAems, these chianges; are generally harmful, It
soul bepointed out, however, that some radiatlon induced changes are beneficial. For
example thue yield strength of a metal and ti.e
ateperature resistance of polyethylene may b
improved by Irradiation.
*--
aito
lxnbadnint
IHowev
r,oi- hot1.Rdaond
agof
i n d i '
m ay be postulated:
.x0
1.3
Csi
ru(: f thc sl'Inl and may affect radio commnu-smcRdito
t-u
5O103103
5x1
fls'lu:!;i-2 -ci~t
Ar'Jt.i
Depth of
penetration of
aiuminumn(cri)
i:'TiX:eiJ IT'S
T;OIlo 3-12 -iot s; the prob~ability of a meteorLe or r icr',,nsi~torite hitting the surface of
a1Spd
lii'i'
And approximately how deep the
parti lc will pc't~n-iat'2 if tWe vehicle skin is
m,,de *rf ao 12moorm. %Ietceorites having a mass
of onuo !NicI-ogwAIo rid trave~llng 30mlspr
secood will 1-nuti~re approximately one millimeero :liniiumn f-kin, However, the probabii' fa rls'Iorite thijs size h1-itting a space
veh':c
i v~y iiht. Oni the other hatnd, space
VC-1ikiC L-ncounte:rs with smialler and iesi3 energeti, --~I ti(l~us, such as micromneteorites, wail
be rwsr- fej'obut
the depth of pcnetratilon
I~~
'~~rlc.~,
, - __344
Proba-bility
1 hit per
24 hours*
Iof
--- 4-
1.25
MICP0,1
Kinetic
energy
(ergs)
Maas
(gin)
pr
netaue
-1
cir'cuits.
a'
i"
N
i;'
-
-~4
tcrWal-
kkill
Visualiagnitud
be
at iisit.ri
Fig.~ 3-2 Meterit
Solar radiation causes heating, which resultsFi.-3.Mtotenesty//
in tlia. !)rca-c'.i
comi)Cx molecul-s "a,xs maike
Igators express their results in difiireal. unit,
'ISice a(ptI.aqurrubr
und Im;Lt ici
Although the true physical unit fo- radiation inpandu Lplnsles. J~ the heatt tranwhirchheacgtaerstensity Is incident radiant enervy per unit area
placs, d'!, nia cioi thehati tansferptcvearcperiper second, exposures are often reported in
rtieprpr
U,
I-cL or aite ridabl
tics,i -i~I
tie~I r t.'~oI''ct
mteralterms
of thc rate of energy absorption or Ion
many
for
production in a standard reference material.
Thus, the roentgen and the rep, defined as the
atmophbre
is a1io Eaths
Soflar prodiati
If
tic intheEarh'satmsphre.
iocssc
radiation Intensity required to produce a speclUl rxJ,1:tI, r;1td ~tplin causes iolli; itioi of atmosfled ionization In air and a specified energy ab;ihr
u
ti~~ ~,a_- 1well, as ionization ariddit3S~r~t .0u: -r~is
~y.~'.eitte Ij thesun
sorption In tissue, resioectively, have been employed as measures of radiation exposure for
y: LhI' E~rtlis upper21 atmosphere,
liI
al) J~
materials and applications. Various utnitb
Uiei,,ij,1;1-layrs.other
l)'~'d
'I'
layrs.are
u'
also used to express the energy absorbed by
a material, with ergs per gram, rads and elec'.
Nu
.dIA~t
"11
tron volts per gram being the most common.
'I h.~.
U:;u Of
o.tonfic
enerlry in mi-
*
-*
jI
alt- ':;its
~Lit-t r~eutir'nis, slow or t.`crm;L1
1lI"ut I'.' JS,
p'tonus or 1g:,mlna ray.;, and
ldri:i
I1,la 1I': T 0tie
Ile
h alpiha part tcls, beta partkr 1-s rid fiss;,nip
iraenir'lWs are generally con-I'
troAecutr
'rlo
titI2:.11I'C 'UI'i
ulicti~r, theirc
enceiry has been
.1. T!t iJ-foIII, the follmoi Ing paragraphs
n~t rli-d ninly %;iti the effects of high enarltji.
cru~'
lt
Unrit
.!idC
of :1-
1-
r~s-were
01I:
i::s'e
A i-r-!d - 'h-tat:
i:ifnx I :a1ti-)
j~IT~O
U! 'I
agad
wi evaluaoting
fl1in
11111
5 Uthi!S On tite- effects
r111.1 tilli is tlic aI that the invest -
'in
)u
nuclear
reotn
gamma. exposures.
extensively
described
ermosly
teotigP fory
Peiulte
In roentgens,
or
"Radiation
dosage
reuilred
for thresdramage
hold
Materials
"1iLa23-13.
'Io
T') conve'rt
r.
ro,,,z,,
crgsgm
ergs/gmn
I00
erg.s,'gin(C)
87,7
crgs/gm(C)
84.6
1.6 x 10-12
,5
-,
n/cn
',"hr
7.1
/Scc
2 x 108
Neoprene
2 x 10
Butyl rubber
8
2 x 108
7.5 x if,
4 x 10
8
4.2 x O-
1,3 x 10
1 x 10
8
x 101
8.8
r
.0
3.3 x 10
7
x 107
1.5 x 108
"
of radiationonseolccted
the effect
show
3-34 al&oand
laminates.
plastic
plastics
In gereral plastic materials are more resistantto radlation damage thIn are elastomcrs.
Plastics maybe exposed to 10 to 101( ergo/gm
- -irradiation before a physical change appears,
while elastomers can only absorb dosages o0 up
Most
to I09 ergs/gm before being damaged. when
-12"-elastomers, tend to increase in hardness
x 1
'r ._,hr
n/el/see
8.3 x 103
raIl;'br
4.2 x 10
55
rn
S2
Vt:,nnlnnast"cn
IL~nr 5.77 x Id
,1,,,
" ,,,,
r,
' of I
/sAcc
I,,v.
)tA
..-
~~\J'
, ,'
'"
f4
"
.
.
T
"
't
" *
3-')
w='
r ,%
)w)'."W~"
, ,;
8.3 xO4
elastomer.
,t/cin/acc
"
h,
.C
4'
.
10-10
Nitrile rubber
______"._-
4.5 x10X
",r5
1 x 10
Polysuilide rubber
84.5 x 10=8
,,
(.r41: 'gl(C)
,v,
c8
C,,'..e,'gn)(C)
2 x 10
Acrylic rubber
2.5 x 10
Silicone rubber
90.0
. x
rgs,/Ymn(C)
r ,! (*alt:,,
Natural rubber
90.q
(C
(ergs/gm)
8
2 z 10
Material
Radiation
dosage
requl red
for 25%
damage
or2
(args/grrm
J~AJi
)
,.'.
C
n,>,
J~J~
'
"
% .% %'%"%'..'..
.
,"
't'/",
R
.'
'h ,".
.*:.
'"
,"". ",
&.
fr.
-'"".'.
[
.
"U
0.44
-t
Radliationi
dosage
required
-eg/m
lk:'terlal
$1
C10
for 25%
damage0,
(erga/gin)
V-_1
10
4 x10
aL
Phenol formaldehyde
Z`.9 x 10 10
3.9 x 10 11
Polyester (mniieral
filer)Fig.
83.7 x 10
3.9 x 10
q.
4(2
10
S xlO
Polystyrene
Radiation
doSage
required
-1
A,0
.. 'J
11
P1oiyvnTyl chloride
9
1.9 x 1(1
1.1 x 10
Poly, 'hy!"'ne
1.9 x 10~
9.3 x 10~
U~rea h~rmialtkhv'lc
8.3 x ios
10
~.0
5Ivc, t 11/2 Nov Ot 5007FI)
5007-50%
*.:,*as$ i Ulf, 1-.N
Ma" "of
5,',.,h
."l
eo
5. x 10
ctbyi'w::
*0
A09
Ph"-
1'tv''
Cl(I,,
, aut)rrv'.hvle-nv
L~.
-____
-
_______
____
er: 'iit
'coit IA
1.7 x 10
Roe
10
'rsgmc/r(o''ore
3.7 x 10
_________
--
O
Dos
1.1 x
10
8x
P4
O3
'
a cAibon-to-carbo~n link, This causes a loweringof the tensile strength and hardness of the
n'iaterial./49,50,5 1/
eal-rgPolyethylenesMeao-rncCmoud.
Iccmpouns, surco asCompounds phaosporosand
black )iave a higher density
sili1cone polymers, arc res;istant to both high
sti2tilcsit~u4IC)nucearranice
ciiati'tn Itchx stxiarittd l)'ly('tltylIenex/47/
temperatures and nuclear radiation. Elements
ox low atomic weights are generally more raYlkuw 1;".2ei ' t
11'Ivnrs. Fluor~inated miaterdiation resistant. WNhen an element such as
lals d '2u o
t'tltlty to nuclear radiation,
boron, atomic weight 10, is coupled by means of
Mu'nt:;~c4
ol.,nters such as Viton-A and
gammia radiation with a polymer such as polyethylene, which is also radiation resistant, the
u'r'ntar"5zut'ulyregrciehyrelatively low
ra
e ii'itxp'trxz
cce dost;e o~f 1 x IWOP
and 5 x
combined materials are less affected by radia1)' cut.. 't.:t, rcsrtectivcly. The poor stablility
tion. Metal-lo-organic compounds are still under
critaiw!
initcl'tlus values.
cr-h
3-31
biphenyl
diphenyl
Table 3-16,
Poet
Teilstnghhree
Ductility
HadesDcae
Hrns
Imato srnt_
pestng_
Electrical resistivity
est
conductivity
er~a
Ducrease
Dimensional stability
Affected moderately
Elastic constants
Little or no chu-e
f~C
Decrease
Increase
ereased
moderately
iUcreased modurately
Cre tnghLtl
Fatigue strength_
ro'hae
Little or no chanige
Damping capacity
Uittle or no change
Difffusion coefficient
Little or no change
deconiposiun
Temeeti
Throleti
'Ihli
),!,.v
as 10"
ergs/gin.
oeag
Corrosion resistmzice
Little or no change
Internal friction
Little or no change
ed
1,
m
iteo
e'oLtleornl.u~
ffec-
-Satisfactory
;1f I C1tcC
te-'rated fijux levels above l01j nvt. Yieldcotns(kay-50
st iin-tLh may increase up to 450 percent for ar~1
ncu;,led ni-t.ils anid to a lesser extent for coldwor lad ritAlds or nietals strengthened byv heat
Iria, ina2t.. The ductility, measured by percent
tie:a i'lofI
a mect-LI is lowered. Loss of duetil ut rarice fj-.ro
one-fifth to one-third or
in e.Th
larii~sof a in etalI may be increasCo
'.
;e iuh as 100 ihn after exposure to radili rmn .5/
ln*rs
resi-stivity of Generally
10. 1- [cent, and dlecrease in density of
ill ulcutrical
I
tel
1-! t 'i
I,, 1ided in thle thermnal conductivity
au.I
erpieeficprirperties
i
of nietals./55/
V.
~-i s~iwswhat P;roperties of metals are
attP
radfiation, and Tables 3-17 and
1
-,;1
ieY. S'i-it of these- properties arc af**
U ud in %eairitis structural metials,
%'.rtirr: N-i-rkials.
A problem
often
en-
Taile 3--17.
"Integrated
.1
neutron flux
Material
(1019 nvt)
(1000 psi)
Bcfore
radiation
(1000 psi)
Before
Change
radiation
(percent)
Before
Change
radiation
ChangZ
6
ea
+19
21
-4
153
-36
73
35.7
-4
+15.7
5
1.4
-1
-1.2
Tantalum
5(F)
Tunvften
Tantung u
(MV beryllium
5(F)
'
240(F
24.5
'15r i,,yinum
1100 aluminum
240(F)
210(F)
24.1
18.4
+18.3
44.8
32.4
20.3
+11.9
+6.7
2.7
22.3
-2.3
+3.2
Copper
20-70(S)
9.5
+42.5
35.3
+16.7
56.7
-29.4
Nickcl
"inm (T,-75oA)
20-70(S)
20-70(9)
10.3
6115
+46.3
+43.0
52.6
82.2
+13.9
+23.3
52.7
27,3
-23.1
-13.
20-70(S)
12.7
+17.2
36.1
+3.1
36.4
-i*,7
20--70(S)
13.4
426.4
35.0
48.0
56.7
-22.3
20-70(S)
98.1
+53.6
99.8
+51.9
43.7
-43.7
86.0
+5
32
-3.0
Zi rconiun
Iron
u vd,,-nilmn
'I
,otcl
.(,)
I ) I- ,st Y:U'*t
.-
,,-
.4.
"1:hl'
3-1g.
I Inh___,,__rt
L grat.? d__neutron
neutron
M1 te
fLix (j0
19
n,.t)
"5
(F)
"*
147
,;
5()
l'
"-
"-
, ".
210(.)
67
+29
2.665
-0.02
2-10(F)
38
+14
2.713
-0.004
43.5
+56.0
61,1
+54.8
-
20 -70(f)
177
+33
20-7(1(-)
68.5
421.4
20-7'(1-)
52.7
20-7f)(1)
[ .A}l.
3.5(1 )
It
I 'l 'Ii,=
.1 1 J
4.
8.894
-0.07
+41.8
204
23
-4
150
+59
8.8{36
---
."
-0.20 to 0.25
1.847
,,. I(1.')
"" .;!,'
-0.15.::
+52
.. ,(")
'( ,' , 'A )
-0.1'
-
127
N.'I20-70(F')
"A'
Change
2 10(F)
71()
C ,2')-
Before radiation
+53
'V !v',
Change
',,).(1)'-
j.,IY ),!rvill:n
,,
_'"______
Density (gm/cm3}___-_-.-
Hardness (Bhn)
Before radiation
:/
-0.05
3-33
%*
irrjoimt ion.
LmeatbIlity,
aeil.
Stutr-entv
pr~of)_`ifes of inagnetic materials, such ms perremanenre and coercive force are
affectted by nuclear Jrradiation. These eI'ects
Are moat serioup n the
~such
as lie,..iv
which hpvo- the, highest permea~ut),ies and lowest coerclve forces. When
exposed to a dosage of 1017 neutrons/cm 2 , the
pernicability of Permalloy Is lowered by 93
percent and the low coercive force is increased
111 pecrent. Pcrn-.alloy also sliuws a change in
the hysteresis loop, indicating a deterioration of
material. The properties of 50 and 48 nickel-iron alloys are less drastically effected by
irradVclalc.
'1 ;e ;nost radiatiLon -resistant mag-
*the
TIbAlo
____point,
~10
,~~
'I?
20
~~~
X'~vc
i
10
x
p.
1.25
I X10'
"'C
;"'
1.43a X 10
2.5~
io 2 10In
.,1 x10 17
J-
1 h'V
"~*'
~.
2I
11
0
x1
.5 x olo
12
X 10
1. :)
I' '~
2
'i'1)
10may
115
13x1
-
;~
1 t'~;
II
is t
'';;tl'Tl
-
coli
1,iivalf rit !.
3-31,
Silastic 80
1 x 1019
SiI-X
9 x 1018
Teflon
5x 10'
Silicone rubber
4 x 10~
Nepee3
x 10~
2 x 10
Polyvinyl chloride
1.9 x 101
Rubber
1.3 x
iii
Kel F
IX10x
Suprenant A-10
1 X 101
%aprenant B3-2
5X 10 16
lyeiciaterias generally decreases after exposure to nuclear radiation. However, the dlecrcase In resistivity is small in comparison
with the original resistivity. Tatie 3-19 shows
the original resistivity of various pciymerf: P0n
their resistivity after reaching equilibrium.
general, the electrical failure of organic
nical deterioration. Cracking and flaking of
brittle polymers or excessive weakening _and
bubble formation In softened polymers 1hiiliy
lead to breakdown. Table 3-20 lists the accumulated exposure doses at which insulator!;
R7.1 crgs/mni.
Ix1
eAfteiri
x rig %inti
rti~ivitolmlibIu
-.
Polyothylene
of chain cleavage, and tensile strength and meltIng points way decrease. Crosslinking causes
hardening, an increase In strength and melting
an Increase in density and a decrease in
Afe
T rgia
'r,'U~
1 X 10~
_________
_______softened
cr.:I1
Polystyrene
In particular,
the absorption of water, either on Uie surfaci! of
an insulator or in cracl-a within, may cause
electrical leakage./59/
Tevr~
hmclratosaeacm
An.
The breaking
of
b--,r~elbnds
and the accompanying side
reActiiuris niake, p)Ilymers susceptible to attack
f rom tile .1,11osphere. Ozone and nzitrogen may
~~~cornihi chenmic ally with a polymier anmd destroy
~Breakdow-n
-(neutrons/cm
Formnvar
I~ci
nsulator
A f
t
substance~s. Atomic displacements acco,.nt for nearly all the permianent damiage In
lnr-jr-aiiic Insulators, causing changes in the latticeparamneters, density, strength aud electrical
properties. The density of crystalline Inua
torsi decreases while the density of amorphouis
insulators suhas fused quartz and glass, hicre~s-"i. fhiere 1calo a strong photoconductive
effect acctu_,';yyng the nuclear irradiation of
m-nst inorganic ceramicti. The threshold flu
for detectable radiation damage of Inorganic
materials is as follows:
101~~9 n/Cm.2 (fast neutrons)
MeiZt
raiii
Ceramic
(eN(Cept glass)
1fli7 n/cm 2
(fast neutrons)
Radiation causes
two0
(11ct:;
.1 Semicntrductors:
transient
c;ian~w!-; inI selv tric-al properties and permanent
t hn-it,-uxmc
s9tructures. Transient effects
Peruonntchagesinatoic trctues ay
dchic to irdroduction of defects in the crysta-1 110!'ice in tfe forin of interstitial atom:S and
v~ii~c 'sor
bN tranmuintationx, 'which results
fr-sri cutp! urc of Uier'mal neutrons by the atoms
oc iur
Of
110T',
taCr i
Al.
hot],
.'N
'
'.v
Ets.oliinwt
olso
lsi
Coulomb
tences
ihtences
Interaction
(Rutherford scattering).
L':
.1.
."r
-barrier.
-- tice atomq.
~*Gamma
photons Interact with orbital electrons, producing photo electrons and compton
which in turn may have suff icient en ergy to cause atomic displacements. However,
gamma, photonis do not causu atomvic displacements directly. Electrons generally do not have
sufficient energy to produro i. zaacade of displacements since to do vc they must have energies in tdie reiativistic range. In summary,
semiconductor materials are damnaged by highr
eaxergy particles and radiation through any or
all of the follow ing processes:
-electrons,
1. Ionization.
2. Trans mutation.
3-35
semiconductor devices. However, as far as radiatiotidamage Is concerned, no great improve4. Pispiaccnment of atoms.
_irients are excpected, since basically, one sem~iconductor material is nearly as vulnerable as
The termoynamc
aproac to he rdiaanother. Thie is true with respect to mechanicTion
thraeprmodylamic approac tossthe. Aprtdia al displacement caused by Incident particles,
with the exception that materials of lower atonienart-u
tion trnavrig problemrisaloprodcsibe an
Ic weight a.,e In general more vulnerabiethan
andenoreou
prodice
a parteicula
aioe trav herAting
anio:~t-~fhea
at ~ ,arlcuar oin an a eMaierlals of high atomice weight. Also, transgion of niatei.4d ...cound the tract of ifie particle
mutations wlfl produce the usual donor or acwil) be heated to a high temperature. This rapid
cFto elements, but mechanical displacement
hetn
qunhean
ingo sml vo~lume
omawills till be the most severe problem.
portion of the lattice in a disordered state. The
end result is equivalent to a localized production
Components
of vacan~cies ajid possibly interstitials.
Cosmc
r~vi'usi
r-yc. desribe, prduceungIstors.
Transistorpraer3cnycprvi(usl
decriedprouceutin
Cage with irradiation. Forwa.:-l cr
lattice ..Clects and noise, and because of the
rent gain is5 reduced because minority rarrier
small number of collisions expected, noise will
lifetime is reduced, and reverse c~e.rr
probably be tie primary effect.
baseleakage is Increased as a result of tchanges
in bulk~ characteristics and surface effects at
RadiationEffects. Neutron Irradiation of Nthe collector-basejunctlon. These cause changes
in circuit pa-rameters, such as a. decrease in the
!ype" g,.2rmaiilur results initially in a decrease
in conductivity, a.nd finally conversion to P-type
forward-current transfer r-atio, and increased
mateial.Theconductivity of P-type germanrvrelaaecret
iumn inc rcases %w-ithneutron irradiation, provided
the radiation level is not too high initially. ReTransistors eventually become unusable in a
sistivity chianges in P-type germnia-ium occur at
radiation environment. They experience comna Qlo,-cr rate than in N-type. The conductivity
plete failure when the N-type material converts
of botli N-tvpeandP-type silicon decreases with
to P-type, thus destroying the junctions. In lowix
radationfrequency
germanium transistors, the changes
"1 41 -~iOr'atoy- lA
LIW Ai
T 'ALUL
tUiA-116 degia,
4de tirE 'L .~uI
sistor' usefuliness long Wdore N to P converThe life time, of minority carriers lx, semicondur tor mnatarial is sensitive to radiation,
sion occurs. The sensitivity of various typcs
doe rcxst, inr A"O, increasing bombardment. In
of transistors to damage by neutron irradiation
additi'oi, uns;tahl- minority carrier traps are
is shown in Fig. 3-35.
~
3. Ela!rti-c displacemenct.
'~'I
-'
'..
K:.
~
i----and
S2.ctn
_Th~cL. hcvse~
Yr
Th
verse characteristics.
._______
I--__gamma -
I7j
I
________________
____more
I h,x
aa
4Transformers.
b'se-main
____
__________Transf
______little
0'" 10"
101
in'
1014
10 11016
inerldFu', rNeUtron FluK, n/cm?
I'~terc~edat
-*.
Ei~1)ron Tubc-s.
lollo
i-c
CPIMA4,10
101~
(~~
o..,p,
D41og.1 MIi'A0o
.1
Aihm-1.a
Np
N0
-.
3-37
'
-.
..
Approximate useful
tc:.perature r.lxge (?)
1;
Lubricants
Viscosity
OniddaUon
resistance
Relative lubricity
(4-ballwaar Lctt)
Commercially available
65 to
S1010
350
4,1 t. ,oG
Fair
Good
Polyalkylne glyoIB
:Esters
5 x10
< x 10
St icons, chlorinated
<5 x 1
<5 X 10Fa
Mineral ollb
5 X 10
1 X 10
Very good
Trimethylol propane
5 x i0o
<I X 109
Good
Su|r
%w..5 refined mineral oils
llaesI
5 x 1010
X I00
1 x10 10
>1 X 100
10
Very good
Fair
Alkyi aromatlcs
5 x 10I0
<1 x 10I0
Good
Polyphenyl ethers
1 X 1011
5 x 100
Good
"9:
:Fai
:1T
E.erim'ntal materials
E_5
to .nn
"
10
0 to 6(,J
lid.
-n4
4
4,"2'
-rq
6.
,..
s,4
,Vv
r
%
,Y
t''
q,- .,'
?*
'p ,
o-,
.
rr5-, '"
do
Rl ,eOp-,,
,
,--
latively unafectedby gaiJuna dosages approaching I 1"1010 ergs/gm. It is estimated that they
will function satisfactorily as high as 5 x 101.ergs/g m. Petroleum based fluids show excessive viscosity decrease as low as 5 x I09 ergs/
gin. This Is attributed to degradation of the
Alkyldiphenyl
polymeric viscosity improver.
ethers and alkybiphenyl base hydraulic fluids
are expected to be usable in the range of 5 x
.01010
to I x 1011 ergo/gin. Use of the metalinked unsubstituted polyphenyl ethers in hy"draulic systems Is expected to provide satisfactory use to as high as 2 x 1011 ergs/gn,.
-. They are particularly desirable in that they
need no additives and no viscosity-index improvers to enhance their characteristics. Pos-slble radiation-resistant hydraulic fluids are
listed in Table 3-23. Estimated dose limitations
in the use of various hydraulic flulds are shown
9in Fig. 3-38.
flvseC
lo , erqs/gmtC)/hr
(Von De Groaff Source)
Fii.. 3-37.
yrAc!udbaedo
fillyralc
1. The hydrogen content decreases with increasing dosage. At a dosage of I x 1010 ergs/
'
,
-'
II,
-,
lIable
2-22.
F_
Grease composition
Approximate exp~ostire.
Flukri
Thi2keflor
tolerauce (oz-gn/gm(C))..
1ndanhrene blae RS
4%10 1
20 to 500
Polyphcflyl ether
-40 to 350
Octadecyl byphenyl
Sodium terephtlialsniate
7x 1
Methyphenyl siioe
Aryl urea
>101N
______________f
-.
kP
*Trible
Appr~xiruite URy'ijlFui
tmNripc~turc rangp (F)
-2.Possible
Radiation-Resistsant Hydratulio.Fluids
omoito
Addltives
Dase
-65 to 250
Petroleum
-65 to 420
Di!3oloxane
Silicate Ceqier
(OS-4.5)
Alkyl diphenyl
-65 to 400
-15 'to 5~
Q()
t'~
Approximate exposure
U6W-1l3~n~
characteristi%.a
I1X 1010
Poor high-temperature
Alkyl dipheriyl
x 10
-
~~
x 1011
rproportion
1 1011Poor
lew-temporat'ire*,.
properties
(41w r
.0
"~@"~.
~diation
OO~Q~
dosages.
10"..,
Oil
Mx'I
IO'j."*f*
GdY
Poly$;-
ZERO GRAVITY
.'\
Anobject eprncsa
or wegteses
iamejnt~
1.
fX
Fi i. 3-38.
i:u CisGro~-.-
'd iulc
I,flids.radial
and
van ad5 hvr~eilicfludsacceleration
~c:.~s
~':
Al,_C
1 u
ti
in
va'u,,m.I
hh
I'ot
ercntto9 os
ofvoumewm
of voum
1) pecet
los
willrs/r
.ronment
C1C,:; tm7.
Fa.rth
peren hyro-
frilln to
ni
bout0.0
'~
i~mos~of
o
2.
it
zero-gravity
when:
case the weight of the object is equal to the accelerative force acting on it.
IC
;i.
5 X 100
-2
Potybutone
.Ali.
Poyphcnl
-
tolerance (ergs/grmiC))
Experimental
information
concerning
zero
%a
*1
Velocity at entry cr
max-imnur epe'nd after
burnotit (mal/hr)
Vehicle
hleight of
trajectory
(nti)
1370
Angle of climb
Uktration of
weightlessnoss
(dog)
(mi~n)
0.49
155
0.47
J -sc
4530
Sn 1/2
0.6
I -IOOF (moidific 1)
650
75 1(2
X-1.1
4300
80
85
1'edstonec
3400
150
(P-0t -'!ti"-vellicles)
10,000
200
10
Jui ter
10.300
>600
11.
Lio~dc~itsI
I8iO0
>600
Infinite
cn[17'i:-,iitint
urni-LAtIL
1,1.1 ad
j)S~i~n,
s mehancal
dealLKsU
-x/71,
t
1~
'nonsrgswlhvecangcd
c:I~,
L~rid"',ference
2. C b'i1* ""illnotrisein
iquds n site
2. -xll
(
ot rse n lquid Inspfe
(if r!'i'- i y dll..rLuncs. Also, gais bubbles gener
--it ,li
will iemnain in contact with
tho- via:
."!" 0
Ontamiriale surfaces, resultin',
it
:-i' iti )u1 uf elect roincchan ical action
,llah~r1ne,-
th-t ha
an unde irabli
'''
Licr:i'J
'
to
nIifunctlr)n.
~r)~ :5
liiii
11 -1p i1 to
lvinvrte p~s
onIn
oquiipoioit that will not funcan inred
pos'c.ityo
ion Earth
a
ii
envirnment
niqu siuar c~jjpw-ntares
i whch
whih uiquesita-
I raras
nonumni
n
'it
1-:
ourd (toI
de to zero gravity are lubricin,ml: oaiis and ixxa1tCL ia stresses.
o''iu~iA'ro~s
NTEFEPNCEbroad
1111
3_-4 i
Il
0
.'ihiwe',
it
oI~ix C
wimnunm'ations interfer-
l effecttofother environ-
IS'
C' o';tz'miLl
:i (hohat
ti'l-
K
Fz.10
4. "I'CT
will
1-v'iIdt-.ices
3. Broadband Interference,
which generally
'
N~.tural Ti~tcrferelicc
noise
ffetcts.
A'rospierc
&JWTsfiiMer ere-ic,. with commumaTy-T-wcaJse
nxcjtiovs. The highiest noise levels are due to
scaittering of radio frequency waves by tue atmosphere. This occurs mostly over land in the
tronical regions. Atmospheric electricity, conFinctirig of Y"11 static electricity and lightning,
;!_-fect co mmuni cations. Static precall a
zipflatlun, cspecidly in the lower frequency
ranjgcs, may block radio signals and cause corona and electrical arcover. Lightning will
block communications and may also damage anter.na cquipnicnt./72,731
-Atmospheric
el.v'irojA
omcNie
Ionosph~cfet
hidi'l
cause reflection of radio signals at lower frequencies as weti as radar refraction errors.
Durint- periods of igreat solar activity, such as
sunspots and aurorae, the lonosohere rises and
in'terferecne with communications becomes mcre
pronounced.
Thc aurcorae are sources of opticzl and radio
%kavcl~fltvth interference. They occur mainly In
.iramrnd !o':thcrn latitudes and are directly
rclated to suncilput activity. At medium and
hinji radio requencies, aurorae cause complete
N1ackoint, v hicl. may la-st for several days. At
i~iv; ir*.]ncies, the effect is not as serious, Ai:
vury-hih7t and ultra-high frequencie~s reflect1)0
orb~cksptcr
ayoccr.In addtoa
a irora cau.sos absorption over a wide frequency
ruur. :,uitirii in attenuation of signals intend'-l to pas~s through the ionosphere. Electron
dnii:;within aurorae may exceed 108 per
cubic rrun~imnieter. The high electron density
r
nl adrng
r, rws,7?,:n73,7 4,7i5
'7?T3,-,,,that
r'rs
111p
y . ij'
~NN;
ONMYNTS71
;A Hypvrn
Nut
';s'
Enivironmenets
~svsmeteorite
l
n
i~tnd
as'Shile
miinnn!wtic radiiationn
Thermal shock
Ioniization
Explosive decomprension
'
Nuclear radiation
Magnetic fielda
Zr
rvt
Exam~ ENVIRONMENTS
Exotic environments are those environments
are strange or foreign to the Earth and are
based primarily on the findines of astronomers
and astrophysicists. The very fact that these exotic environments are strange means that very
l ifflP im kninwn nhncni them- Whbile the~American
and Russian satellites and Moon probes have added to the knowledge of what may be found in
sp~ace, much Is still in the realm of speculation.
There is little doubt that there are environments
Jr-. space that are presently boyond our comiprehension Find imagination,
The full. effects of radiation belts and
nag.-
.''-
unkimmi nviui
AIIcftht-l
tta
has been
,5:I
sl-USC zipocc
'wa
COMBINED ENVIRONMENTS
The prior parts of this chapter consider the
environments and their effects as occurring ono
at a time. This format was chiosen, first, to
facilitate the pre~3ent~xtlon o.l data, and second,
because most of the information available to
d~ate Is on single environments. Very little data
exist on effects of the various combinations of
environments that n-ay be encountered in actual
rsahisnddints
ue.Mcmo
area.
01ntua
metalysxitoghr.I
of jirlit. The~re is c'oraj-t ure that as livin
tfhinrs moave
';ur
and closer 10 the speedmetalyseitoghr
~natural
C~ombined NaturalEirvivonsnents/77/
A list of the natural environments is given
-in Table 3-1 at the beginning of this chapter.
No one of these natural environments will ever
humidity arid
occur by itself. Teprtre,
--pressure are always present in the atmosphere,
and each alters and IG altered by the3 others.
This varying combination, including t~he otheCr
environments, produces what i_- known
ni z wspathey'
Tct?~~r
~me
I
6
>Chapter
Lo
'I
--
.30
Yl,. :S-0'.
3 42
30
*-
60
90
Latitude
N
in, oltd
IONdata.
____
LatitUd~inl J:litu'n
eli.determine
of crnviron-.
i~ina
in
uaaithr fri-rir
f ma toi
'
i~-aci
gtQ1J1i1IJt
c:ons~iderting
For
.,-
JAi
is
*
---.-
ature ac-tin.
a
Alcss direct-example
of interactlrg natural
cycles.
prccipitat son
Evaporation Is directly
i,
vvAirnprtatt
orcein atual evirn5) ar;tdiitin.
t '~1etrntnesthe
,'d
at(r and air; fixes, In
j-
LL1TId..
-verity
frrrl.
llanu
courtcr p . i,
;.n
*
(l.i
f theC a -, such as tern~t
nhr'i
ccur in all
h
idity, anid j1tsi
ir9
pcra
,:ornii
tti-.s 'ni th orufor: niust he considered
( I-,
cx'kCxtr( Tw':. Teniperature is closely
with]
Iirii.cd
!ziaa
influll
ri-- 011l:
tc~ ;Cih
~ ~ ul:.~ 'IIcl
Larn1.
Iiunrolity, or water
yiit'.twant,
u
Waltr valpor varies
itt ~iito
m Lii'' o pic andti nc t tie
1 -,1','
7f [-,'v al-nut fiic pr-r(:cnL by volJIM11i
tlat ii ,itlsplicru. iThis variability
ii I.t
is ii n i ii s dnic iemI inttdiaite effects anid
i 1,,ir ji~iluttii ing othier elements,
inl ilsTh
'
ottf v.lit 'i-rvip xz in :n 1,.ven miass of
thf. ltinbotipici-C's c~ipacity
oC(I
atir .I; a Pi' i 'lul
i' r pi. nj 'iaiou. Its absoyptive effects on terrl.st viail iA i~t tiAn crt-itn1 atv tt'-t loss anid thereby
vapor represents
:ti't i l-iu";ttulmc. W.Ittr
Litentto a v s i (-d in Ulf- at ritospiterec for tVie
..'d i:nra Uth if storinrs. /i / Precipitation
VJV )I , I. *
*uujto
J'oril~i
'
"?J1,
M"
J!.
.~r
lr
Poss~ilte
rl
Combinatoions,
vt 1 117
,.~anelr.
ar,'
Because
vI rr.~rn,'a
.9
of their
sirrnu,
PIP-
tinents are likely to occur simullkneously. Ec-anip);s Include: hum-idity arKI rain; pressure
gractiierit and wind; wind and blowing, dust, sand
or snow.; solar radiailon anld I.( per?,fure; and
wind speed and wind s~hear, In most cuombinations, however, the exirerneui of one element do%
not occuri together with the exi-romres Of wancther.
For tins reasion It Is hecessary Woconsidr- vrious con-binationa Uthat include sortething less
than the exlvrc.-mvs of somne elermients. One 2pproach is to assign an extreme valute to one, tP~e
highest value of the secon(t whir~hever occurs
naturally with the first, the ttilfIvat Value of the
thi~rd concurring with- thle assigned filtensities
of the first two, etc. in the descending order of
extremes. Aisslgn;&ient of thle absolute worldwide extrcinea may result in as few as one s~et
of valuen in eachi case. In practice, therefore,
thec f irst assigned value must be arbit rarily re95% probability).- Tfie number of
duced (egto
plossible combinations depends upon the numbher
of elements coexisting ac ishown on Table 3-25.
3-43
er repeated. This Is evidence of the vast numner of possible combinations of Vhe eiemients,
x~ n(n-1)Qi--2)(o-1a...f-n1)
n!
which together shape the .vcather, Thorefore.
Nunicr
o NimerofIt
is necessary to consider tuje more practical
rather than the miany possible
Mimier o Ni mbe ofcombinations
ones.
combinations Wx
(n)
[frnilion:
vat'irbk..r
R~~la
omiitoo
One element that
mnustI be taken into account in all combinations
since it is present Lai all environments is teinperature. Weather-wide, everything transpires
within a range uf temperatures; thereforb, it Is
probablywise to-use temperature as a basis for
determining useful combination data. A one -toone comparison of temperature with every other
element in turn is a Aecessary step toward miultiple combination analysis. 'Figure 3-41 iUlus
trates how such an analysis may be presented.
Temperatureliaplotted against the other nittural
environments. The scales of the utAhcr
vriioc-a
can be of Intensity, amount or im-quwflcy
of occurrence. The curves shown in Fig. 3-41
are hypothetical examples, and may not be indicatlve of actual relationships. More work is
needed In thIs area to determine actual condi-~
tions.
I
2
ii
3
24
120
.-
G720
5,040
-ments
540,320
-362,8850
li3
6,f29,800
.7F
~,* ~
.be
__________withgiven
_____
---
~andwlnd speed
_____________
____peculiarly
--.--.-----.---_
_spray
--
.J
KrThe
0 -20
hemperutue,
-40 -60
-80
4
.~11.
4
'1dlIwj'Oratures at which various other
mr r occur.exceptional
lirmi
To enalyze
1~
~
la
:,:c a nurriher of ornmIm.I~r.And autually, th esc are only a smiall
Iriticr1
f tihe l!is~ibu combinations; omitted
environments,
[1
1:
dcl-
combinations.
J1011Anli91 it~iiuleeet
llLu
I`
4-
(!ater11
practical combinations
of
do
(Lil
It
42
ti~(t'Xticrelmtotal environments.
11U0
the
nallyof Wich
NO
11SII Lhl
apl-aL
Ic'5t
oftompezature
Ltta~
________________
--
salpractical
__
--I=
ly
Wlthta the limiting prof ile of Fig. 3-41, lines ci
equal probability may then be drawn.
__________
___
conditions
'!"'
1P
s
nv-n!-sit,
th
toal
ify
w_-aen
te
oher
an
(3)wheherthe
J.-1
Low temperature
pressure.
ut
jrjw,
ndsanqri
'
The many combinations of induced enviionmcnts tat may exist depend mostly on the type
of equipment being considered, Its function, and
tie various possible missions of the weapons
systc~n. Since there are many types of equipnicut and many varied missions, the possible
combiriat'i~ns would have to be determined on
an indiViiual "uPalVSIS ba~,iS. Whi su1ch an
an-aysis is made, though, It is more advisable
to deter-wine 0Wc natu, al-induced combinations.
An an-ysis o inciicedl environmental pairs is
incl!de iTable 3 -26.
A complete analysis
32iomnsis
adIdcd8tiomnsI
and26x.edeirnet
p~~tue
lie
mistre.2.
ad
tnij
wratu to
4. Launch or takeoff.
5. Flif~fif,r
8. Reentry or descent.
zi
shonnTbe
Storage.
natural
lw pessre.3.
1!iiti ad ijoratro
IIiX,:
soni
Environmenta Analysts
Each weapons system mutit be analyzed to
determinethe OBssI P.lhe.- an coiI binat ton
ofienvironmenfa that may bo enicountered during
operational life. All phases of the mission po
file must b~e considered, suchA as:pr
~IjThad mpeatui
hmidty.1.
a
of combined
Detaled-~ information oia how an environmiental analysis Is carried out is presented in Chap4.
Trans ortation and H~andlig. In the Initial
stages otransportation aid handling equipments are usually kept in temperate climates.
Thle principal en~vironmnents they encounter arc,
shock, low temperaturc mnoisture, temperaturecondensation, solar radiation and possibly rsard,
~~Table
3-26.
Legevid
cioud:J
Roi
f;p7g in
F io ezin-io,
_________________-_____
-
t+
---
Fungus4
Hail
IJ6of
SL~4um~d,ty
Lgh~n~
36
4 1
Air
_____Rain_
3I
~ S~d
~41
D~st-~
-
fTemp , Hih
5 .'G 3I
I
[]
~O~on,_Sonr
enumbtl!*
1.
'
tl.
X?
;not
obfit.s eko
Temp
'66
ow'
122 ifi?
t,
41
'4 4
uef-e
%Pollution,
----
E.ctwon li
17171
--- Gouo--4
-,'3-5-'-*-.--~..-
nue----
'A2.
ZJ'm
C.
~.
'.
systuir operationrHig
of a
!!L
eln rature and Acceleration.
This
combination produces the same e-ff-ecT as 1ig:.
temperature and shock and vibratiou.
!!igh Tem erature and Explosive Atmosp here.
emeatr
ey
iteefet
on
ffhe gnition of an explosive atinosphere. But It
does affect the air-vapor ratio which Is ar Ln
portant consideration.
Hig0i Tempnerature and Ozone. Starting at
at6'F3-OTFF-(1OC), tem-perature starts to reduce ozone. Above about 520 F (270 C), ozone
cannot exist at pressures normally uncoutitered.
3-47
'
'.j.
1i
Temperatuite and Shock and Vibration.
Sinice bothof these evironment afectcomninon
material properties, they will intensify each
other's effects. The amount that the effects are
intensified depends on the magnitude of each
~nironment in the combination. Plasticb andA:
polymers are more susceptible to this combination than metals unless extremely high temnpertue
re Involved.
operation O'aSse
A
of the environments encountertid duj iinn launch, flirlht and reentry Is given
tlie 'IP iiit latfin" section of Chapter 2.
*dvtal'-ddlsuoasl)n
*in
rounid h andlin
ilw;d
SolHigh
iat1 n This
on that causes increasing
-- ihTmnrtr
and Sand and Dust. The
eoszi~riFiad
tmybecclaedby high ten~erature. However high temperredarce sand and dust penetration.
Opcr iin,
%ec
is a
iks in triinsp')rtiit~of,
shock due to ha-ndling
to wid fruni sl'!irige could orcur in combination
widi Wny of the Other combined or single enviroamrutc.atures
<
peerto.
h
eealdtroato
fet
ofhumidity are increased by high temperatures.
!i2eaueadL~jsr.ec
of these environments is dependent on the ouier.
For example, as pressure decreabes. oilresssing of constituents of materials incre4sLb,
an stmeaueIceae
h aeo ugs
increases. Hence, each tends to intensify
thefctofhete.
Hihem rau
ndatSra.igtruetenist~nres
ecorso
h rt
byatr
tnsalto increay e th aeoIoroin!
iry
cue
ysl
efcio
rai
aeil.,
High Temperature and Fungus. A certain
degree f high tmperat re its necessary to perA-nit fungus and microorganisms to grow. But,
above 160 F (71 C) fungus and microorganisms
cannot develop.
A
ln.
wliri'vflT]us m
(;rou.-i
2.525
CjN
20
I~'Inches
-r,
F
Hg Abs
V
_974H.
--
AJ 5
400 F
U_
g0 % Rol Humidity
300
200
80
80F
Cr~109Oc
Skrma
iyArdn
(PialyTurbojet No~se)
CarrieI
E__<_F_____
120
(
am~AalbeDt
r 2095
s
0c
20230
Minmriyutesnm
( orey
it4
LwTmeaueadAclrto.Ti
0.hete
cps
and1
copesato
5-37tur
-oncI e
__
Ro. -Aire
r_
Tr! ....ratureaidswand
Iu
___
~~ ~ ~
~ ~i-ttr'nnI_"i
ai~i-unu
iid'
y.
andowpresreto
eadln
hteprthre ingestin
ond
orrshove
s
hwevr,
roughE~
veryrtues
lut tozroun.eohngt
zn
VI'
This
fti n
lo
Ahtcmosphibrtion
ams. hee
u itdit oels the
t
urnidofan d Funoiv
i-an
or rorganism buth1L
addsin
everwt affect th
ar
and
Pcm
acind ofiheratio.
andaulExplsiv
TeTenr
ni
hsso
t'Lo
t I,
n k i~IViti~iiiii.
eaures
~ lwcombInation
~
~ ~~
mosr
-. (:4Fit
0,ii
nJ"r,ti~i cic in
c4 'i~
en
grun
e
nonerddrein
3-2.
Cmbied everonment
geI n
eiicto
Trlocier
atOfpeefI oshw
o
e
rain-A PotCoed
Missil. Fligh
arMl~
Minte
virt 0nd on
and h ck
peatr
ofdan e
cond
steortartntnl_,
Carrie andeMisil Fllt
I~i!
viabe01
Coi p.)
BiIi~Olp~il.
undary Layrcraf
of
T3""iatradHmdt.Hmdt
511entuc
M-irnito
Mc
re dii tvfflc
ai2 owe
cocnrto
nraeswt
olarRadatio.
atres
Lw
oe
opr
Co1i~nd~iaLloli iici
cases deterioration,
ozone.
1IirniditX anjd SI RK21diation. Humidity ineterioratirg effects of solar radiatioir on organic materials.
tCnUijrC s th1 C
7The
combination
cclrton
e Accaeleaton.sTher
atd
pimid5.J--ity and
c
da- -hck
e.~idtosorfo theske acenv
neratio ar e onsiertJedtoo1,orfy Ilmdthes
toiaio
bndaffatonect-r
* te byhebidiy.
Hurn~di'v any - _iosive Atmocsphere. Hurni~iino nepo
_an
h
feto
dityL
silve atnmosphere, but. a highi humidity will reduce thec pressure of an explosion.-
Il'
aBAq
I-..
.
"""
U].
i~w'r:searid
At_;k
16t:Sl~c,
-
iashavoc; t("oot
FzdI LwSr,
s5.1
jl1j
ti'
:-a
ui
'Fluris.
ar .1 Sin
Sailts
~n
:2
Th~is is (onisid'rfed
ece
Soa Rditnad
ThsolarRaination poabld
Thsmoboaiisturlyeodcs
effect 0 .
0,C.
~h
v),
EI Ifs
ini im
'
on~e.
Fungus is destroyed by
'A'
~~bainad
Acceleration. This combination produces Increased eff-ects when encountered with high temperatures 2nd low pressures in
the hyper environment ranges.
"
MultipieC~ombinations.
-rhe results of one
evaluatiion prograrn /797 suggest that the fe1-
l~owing environmental combinations produce essentially the samne effects as all of the environAii;nt pairs described above:
Transportation and Operation Environments
1. Vibration
Temperature extremes (cycling and%
shock
Humidity
Altitude
2. Shock
3. Acceleration
Sr;
:~
plsvAmshe.
produes
Atosadherd
oade
high-.~
SI'iiii~yadsn
5-__________
hsc________
Temperature extreir ns
3-49
C.
4.
Explosive atmosphere
,a)
Tempj'erature
Ar-fiel
jc)mituregreatest
="3.
"
The
the noise.
andto duration
ty, frequency
In the freoccurs
heea-ing of
damage
quency range of 500 to 200G cps. Sudden damage
may result from the noise of a blast or an explosion. Gradual damage may result from continual exposure to noise over a long period. A
steady noise, such as from an aircraft engine,
.will be less likely to damage hearing than an
impulsivenoise, such as from a pneumatic drill,
/37,84/
tA
Solar radiation
Luw hunidity
Acceleration
The effects of acceleration depend on the
body position relative to the direution of the accelerating force. The effects of a longitudinal
accelerating force applied against a person
V face down or on his back are as follows:
0 g Weightlessness will occur.
I g Normal gravity.
2 v Hands and feet wffl feel hen
it difficult for a man to walk orcim.
!n,,1,ing
3g
Walking and climbing will be Irnpossible. Crawling will be accomplished with
difficulty.
sag.
Niie
Mea!,uir,.o','
Ca n'.-,,
1
1.
v*
Ge
I.
'
it
tr
impossible,
5g
arms
, ,
an
'
'
age to the body will take place until an acceleratingforceof 30 to 45 g's is reached. In general, a person in a sitting or upright position will
idsobe affected less If the accelerating force is
".
I,
'
'_
occur,-:'
of the ey-ball
voluntaryoscillatiind
but theso symptoms usually
last onlywill
a few
nil-"
nutes,
3I-50
............................
,.-....,.-.......
Weiittlosnessthe
Vdrri a human enters a zero-gravity environnwent, hc tends to lose his sense of orientation.
Fo.- examnple, he would not know whethier his
armi ish'mnntingathissideor stretched out in
front of laim. 11 he wanted to pick up a pencil
a'wud is
av oloka
ishn t id
otit wher,:: is. Then, watching his hand closely
he would guide It to the penect. In the dark his
senses could not tell him if he were lying Ao
0fl
or standing up.
The worst psychological effecliof weightlessness inight be felt when the Individual is asleep
or trying to sleep. There may be a. constant sensation of falins' cor perhaps floating. This might
IcAd to ~iuirea', cf sieep and a resultant pattern
of disturbingfaTAlSies. and even panic. Weightlitmsncss can only be simulated on Earth for
shoi t periods, so additional experience is ie~ccssary to understand more fully thi;aec of
':;,and
11...
141t11.V
'ihmns~,
6,111
.) hih tmpeatues,
s-c-r,_1%Af~ct
'tht
1ir~vrn2rai
ufecs o bih tmpeatues,
dipe' r;oa decu ai-d lenith of exposure,
!:Ii-;, l-;!, ut efficien.:y, weakness, headAt
arez J~~t:in
h)rcathiing, nausea, increased
bo'v tn~pratrr~
tet srok an coi'uslos.
11nmiditv affcr'tz sweat evaporation, and so
t rrit
nianutes
"l Comfort
'vi,
/93i
Typical failures induced
Principal effects
hI-iLh tf.npcraiure
Insulation failure;
Alteration of electrical properties
Thur-wd aging:
Oxddatlon
Structural change
Chemical reaction
Softening, melting and sub limntion
Structural failure
Physicel expantion
Structural failure;
.,.
-,,
-..
v
h ,I:pr;1
tion
Ice forination
I.nbritilement
.]
'
Structural failure;
Physical contraction
Moisture absorption
iiii-.
-PhyslcaJ,
breakdowin;
Loss of electrical strength
Chemical reactlon:
Corrosion
Electrolysis
lw
rIt
humidity
','t.
Ikaiccation:
Ejilbrlttlement
Granulation
or.
'ft
.;nvi ,nmnt
Jprincipal
111gh prcssure
StructurAl collapse;o
Compression
~Pen~'tration
of sealing;
Interfere-kce with fanction
!_,,x pressure
xpanslon
Fracture of container;
Explosive expansion
Outgassing
;,
,Solar radiation
Surface deterioration;
Alteration of electrical properties;
tDiscoloration of Materials;
Ozone formadion
Salt s;pr.i
Abrasion
Increased wear;
Clogging
Chemical reactions:
-',
Increased wear;
ioer of
Corrosion
........
_
Surface dotoricration;
Structural weaki. ning;
Increaaed conductivity
WIi: d
Force application
Structural collapse;
Inte- ference with function;
Loss of mechanical strength
DI'lxjsitio of materials
Heat
--..
(low
(oss velocity)
:Physical stress
Structural coiiapee;
,'a
itor absorption and imrnersion
Increase in weight;
Electrical failure;
Structural weakening
r'ir,)s on
-.
Corrosior
3-53
d'
S....
T-bl],
Temperature shock
Mechanical strens
S--pced p)articier
(nu clar iredhion)latin
Ileating
Therinal aging;
"
-'
t;
Mechanical stress
Interrupdton of gravity-depend', nt
functioa"
Aggravation of bigh-temperaature
effects
();eone
Embrlttlement
G ranulation
"\
:{l,,iv!
o.dation;
Rad
a~nb~dw
i , cs.
Arct I-a
s,n
Vit
darcc-ve
--
Chemical reactions;
collapse
Contardnation
proprties
Mechanical btreasB
Structural collapseo
echnca
'
stress
Fatigue
"\I..,,,t,,
(: ldsi
lndmuced magnetization
-Structural
Ire~
Increased wear
collapse
Interference with function;
'"
I'^
' Kj
:
2
MM~
,woon
.n
WS1 0
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Pam
.48*
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n.
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482
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Chart I.
16- -1
Wt
t-TT
1.
nlued,
.11
tt
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is 1 6
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14 1
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57
3?3-57
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T. T-1a,
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44
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ba
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w
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to
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tel.-
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L7JC-L a-
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Chart 3. Vil ration Environment At Various Locations on Century Jet Fighters (continuod)
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16
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it
REFERENCES
Trowarthia, G. T., Anintrodggton to Ciin~~McGraw-Hill [ook o, 1954.
2.
*GuidcJ
9.
IC.
13.
14.
15.
Rozhm, J. M., Paper No. r,2-SA-41, presented at sremi-annual meeting of Amierican Society of Mechanical Engineers3,
Cinc~innati, Ohio, 15 June 1952.
16.
17.
..
.,
Eluutronic
IL.
20.
lit-lond, 11. and Dr. J. TIhale, Reo
finn'a Satellitic Orbit, paper iicet1Evaluation
Al. senii-anmital mneetinjc of American
neeClfriI-101,A
Pocket Society, Lo
elCifraContract
9 12 June 1958. LsA
12.
21.
hc
Jacobson, R. H., Virto
of AirboYie Electronic Compo net Pats and Eui nients, WADUC R
rmour lv.-,eai'ch Fouiaation,%
No. AF 33(616)-233, Electric
Components Laboratory, U.S. Air Force,
ASD, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, Pecember 1956.
Abstract of Effects of Vibration. Shock
issile~SGuld
and Accelera[tion o~n___D
tems, flooz, Allen and Hamilton, AF
77ec hnical Report 53-124, Appendix D,
June 1953.
3-79
WR
NBC,
J
.Y.
REFERENCES (continued)
221.
23.
24.
25.
26.
34.
35.
36.
1 June 1953.
37.
:32.
.13.
3- It0
38.
39.
Atrmos-.'12. 0 c
1eSses
Pressure -on Gui~
Appendix G, Booz, Allen, and Hamilton,
AF TR 53-124, U.S. Air Force, ASD,
Wrig ht- Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,
I June 1953.
40.
"Static
ards", Chemical
Electricity Ilaz-
EngIneering
I June
1959.
41195T-GMisl-E-nernJ!d
42.
t
T-i
Oi1io.
3 1.
of Atmospheric
Abstract of Effects
-Pressurson GU`idZed Miss.le Svstenis,
Appeni4x 0,Booz, Allen and Hamilton,
December 1956.
:30.
*-
..-
-I--
Jd
-.
--
~-
10
REFERENCES (contimN"-d)
.4.,.
444.
4~
45.
McC'ol
53.
The HA Pr Environments
a~c 'roirSi~riiicace
o~ ro Copo-
54.
-otM
55.
My1958.
600001,
tute,
56.
f
Bulletin.
f ects
NcerRdito
Materials," ASTM
4nlr
.ITe
feto
vla
of Nsocears
Le,.1 i111Cr, 01) FI..Th Effett
i~i I i'f-erent Evron
riments, HEUG Men--..
orandumn
N'o. 1, The Radiation Effects......
flit(,trmation Center, Battelle Memorial
58.
VIslititttc, C,ulunibu'
1, Ohio, Contract
N. ' 336057.Poj
oA13
N.6001,)
33(s
5171Octobecr
No5. 23,Radiation
I1. :i
Pr
Lf11(1
'11
Ii
,
en
59.
5)
4'
Columbus
AF 33(616)-5171,
4
~ No.
o,~"A
v/.
Project
2133,
31jetN21331My95."
o23,3
Jc
'
1
T. M..
ration.
46.
52.
~.
j'jce Handbook:
Astzxonautics and Its
jpILton, Staff Report of the Select
Commiittee on Astronautics and Space
Fxploration, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C., December
1958.
'.
..
,.
1'
"""
W Y'
7W
'
.'7
REFERENCES (con.nued)
o
69.
(;0.
6;2.
70.
71.
72.
"Radiatkin
11. R.,
Dvorak,
63.
Aeronautics1,
m_,"Sace
C. C., "Nuclear
i{obir'-o,i
C.OV7xiients5,
rl. cUol,,c
EnvironDecember
73.
Effects on
Cal
Eleti
74.
August 1956.
.....
Inzgaaoo
onCerainMilitary
ffets faditio
C~.
f Inizn~
in
Rep ort,
Fnal Sm
aferiai:.
ASTIA t)ocument No. AD 42185,
Sarah Mellon, Scaife Radlatiun Lpb'2raloi y, 71niiver~ity of Pittsburgh, Pitts10;T
uacturinj.,
i,uih,
Ile-nsylvAnia,
No.
Contract
on1C
ffvv
ITW t
I- Wt,t
or
IP
of Nu
Hhlembrand, L. J., The Efct
clear Radiation on IFEThe Een
r
Fuels
hon
The Radia11, T
REIC Memorandum No. 1,
tion Effects Infcrmation Center, Battelle
Memorial Institute, Columbus 1, Ohio,
o.
Contract No. AF 33(616)-5171,
60001, Project No. 2133, 30 Novembwe.
1958.
Surosky,, A. E., D. A. Hill and J. S. di
Rende gravity-Zero Gravlty--Ervironmental Continuum, Prpcr DI-ivNi-re-t
search
bridge
Force,
Leary,
,Scioe,.ir, M. C.,
-C-,
1'1o0 ,r
(hlar
1~
'"
ti
--
Thg_ Eff:cts
Efa.,
of
-Force,
78.
No-"
of.--"
79.
S.
80.
........
v.,.,..,,w
.- "'
. -
1944,
r,--1944,
CoLined Envirwim'nt
t
"i"
ior_
Test .roioran)
gualdicatio_
ui--ment, Montihly Ilrogress He-.
Force
tates Testing Co.,
UnIc
p:1,
Ah'
Contract AF :i3 (616)-G315, U. S.
,Inc.
tt
lhill A
'J020-11-001,
ii
4.1
.
Force
-29
list r
u r~ n1
9i,
istics of-W -a - n_. -ysle,,is
~~'iAir
Ba'ie, 01hlo.
(J.ial
ASD, October
Wr ght-Patterson
0111o,
1957.
L.,
LIIIrlg~iiI
Base,
"
Memorial
tiEffects
ill.
Force Cai-n
Directora'-- "ir
Research Center, ARDC. U.S. Air
1957.
F., "Coinm un ication s of the F'uElectronic , 3 July 1959.
DA
Ohio, Contract
In1stitute,
d)u1,1,TOhio.
CColumbus
INotil.Atle,
No. Al' 33k616)-5171,
Task No. Cootrai,
60J001,
No. 2133, 30 November 1958.
) rojcti
.
|.:
60
ti
I---I-V-e
31 March 1959.
I9~8.ture,"
64.
AV 33(fC1)-5171,
!Effect of Nuchcar
Ilydrautiv
Ih
S. L.,
HEIC Memorandum
,ent
En- im_ m
c[r
Cosgrove.
*.~
v'''
'"
...
. _=-
,mm..a
r~t.
.'-
-.
~.
REFERENCES (coninued)
~.
I-itrpo tin
87.
q..Arraft
lnted to
Dv.jwners "HAD
11,apdhNok of TitqtruIctCon.
Eciuprnnt__Designers
FYTrigh
-'dr
80 - , ui. S.
A ir Force llaie, Ohio.
v82.
83.
88.
89
flosenblith, W, A. and K. A. Stevens,
H,-irdbok of Acou.stic Noise Control,
Bolt,
arid Newman, WADC 'FRl 52-2-4, ASTIA
~Document No. AD 18200, Aero Medical
90
90
Contract No. AF 33(038)Laoaoy.
20572, R1YX) No. 695--63, U. S. Air Force,
ASD), Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,tronAr
Ohio, June 053.4
84.
I
*
91.
info
11. Internal Enviyl
DlS.
MaInned Spgac-e Vch zles, RAND Corpotet
ai
3P I0
ration VeS~.nt:L Monica, California, 24 Fcbruary
108.92.
8 5.
'i.
IA
IY'
I-J
AOU,
G.J. l,,SnR
RariItiior nn'-
ehtIesane8fii-TTI eFI-p
58-b ATTA
cmen
o. AD 135012,
Aerontedical Field Laboratory, Direct-t
orate of -Research and Deveiopmer
Project No. 7851, U. S, Air Force..,
AFMIDC, Holiornan Air Force b~ase, New
Mexico, Apr'il 1958.
gftorGro~i
AHIGF
R
-Pteof
Schock,
93.
-'
'-
an
otrTha
osa,
3.A
McGraw.- lill Book CornPhysiooig,
ij7iEEdition,
2ndane
New York City, N.Y.
'
Oto 11ullr
Lpce Environ!ment
Faeo
ms
chultlfr, Ott~~Vxs
Bpace Medical Labo ratory, Wright-PatoreBeOiJaay
1960
Brown, W. S., Jr., Physiotogical. fa~zard
aitoATADc
o-nti
Lockheed Air13V916,
urnent No ~
craft Corporation, Burbank, Cali~ornia,17
20 August 1952.
Cpjsarett, G. W., Acceleration of A in%
~yjnz~ng Radiation, S.i~nn
WEAN2~f, Atomnic Energy -Pro enct, P.O.
Bux 267, Station 3, Rochester7 20, New York
Contract W-7401-eng-49, 20 June 1957,
McGee, JTohn and Cheater Polak, Tile
Deve-lopment of Standard Evironm'gtal
Test Specirnevi,
WADC U1l 59 -697,
Laboratories Division,
Inland Testi n
f,$&laLL
PIU
Ar
ll
U.
Ai
3-8Yb
Lm.'
'~
'
K%
B3IBLIOGRAPHY
Curtis, I1., Effects of the Primiar __________Ila
Ai
1'i-N
diation on Matter
rec iiFV-eyB n teciphysica No. '78, Atmosphieric Physics Laboratory, Geophysics Research Directorate, Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Bedford, Massachusetts, Juanuary 1956.
~k~iaiIi~pp~5May 1960.
AnF,.r,1nati.)n~f timC Psychological Problem
~ec df a.' of
ci-cv' _______
U
ol irradiatmuimq.;-iosqe,AST1 L 0.
MNT)PA M ediciifldcv isory, Panel, Subcommittee
\a~higt~l,
2 Juy 149.DeCoursin,
No. , DC.
D * G., W G.
mhd 1-leat
Sheppard, Aerodiynamic )Leatinv
T'ransfer PthmewMenp atMagk Jiutr brt 2,'i
through 5.7, R',-scmount Research Center of the
AC'R539
fMneoa
Ute~t
ASTIDocument No. AD 8727dp WADC E(.Inpment
Laboratory, Contract No. AF 33(038,-iuC-7h,
Project No. 136?, U. S. Air Force, ATD, Wxr'Ot,
Patterson Air Force Dase, Ohio, Februilry joG4.
ben
.
MIssi(ITT
'Id
C.1).and0. dati
:Iu~r) isoanI
lias
SidIAit~
Io 1)1r
11-AA10
.-2 l.2!j 395, 18 February
C, 41L -o'.1
Jet Propulsltion
Vo trime
Nunibor
-- ni
'
]711).1;1y 111l59.
Fi
.VJM~
~4t r~f
v
'
ekr198
C
joo ethosforlec vtQ
Manual ofq
o Shps
V55-7900.
Ecraturcn
IL PlZ'J,~ivs
7!
f
~NuclearRadiation
j.
17
BIBJLIOGRAPHIY (continued)
Mannogian, H-. A., "The Challenge Of Space,"
leetrvnics 24 April 19G9,
fIlesti,
to At wislki~j, Lodjr
,lil
CE-- Loo dA7i6_~u~~;
July 1957.,ArFreBzOqla
I'.nodA.L.
i* r
Mu
'i'.
i lectrji
IttJ..l
. 11. and W.' If, R~ivera, Pr~obleras
p~iiI
Mnh tltC..
n di\~utli
iUiiS.of
itil ii
Iii lit! A
Cunit
.i1
Uldwr I 7*it
I i
r~
No
;I.
N(;rA4
!(1
-vptmht
a rV65.ViA.
311
F'w
'
'
j"
6W
01P
. .
Powell Alwh 'rne T1rotlem of Structural Fail ?e.
tire -Due' to tT oie1orteto
Stoothamptoun,
ASTIA 1Docurient No. 115'155, March 1955.
~I.I
Reich, h~. and G. E. Pav/ilk, A &LyvM, of thqe
Nuclear Radiation Effec-Lo on 0e
irnicmu'2t0X'o
_____Li
Me~ranxi~o.nl~
Reid F.J .7T
02 June 195 7.
W.Moody
~az-1R. K.
Willardson,
4~
V 10.
M ae19
~
P.3gg,J. C. wid C. C. RTobintson, "Effect A lP_"dlaticn on Semiconduc-tors," Electr ic~1alyarufacturing, April 1957.
,~
j, eilA~ria~i~a Laoraory
I
1(600) -66,Project 3.~~
No.
7-140 V. S. Air I urce, ASI), Wrilgit-1'atl.Ciof
1
Air u.rci. fl
hi, May 1955.
10v
Iii!'
~~
~ctNc
30
.S BaseOi
irFre
Air orce
,Oi,
(el
,nn
gffect' of
t"jia
A-689
6P
40
BIBLIOGRAPH (continued)
s~-w.W.
1 ju,
and Indoor
-uj,1Lptherin
StoalV -Exosure TIesting of= Air
VarilM
Ai.WACT~H 5
Materials
ASTIA IDocUnic`n~t No. A?) 210226
L'Itwiratory, Contract No. AF39(0)365
Project No. 7312, U. S. Air-Force, ASD, Wright-T'attersuii .Air Force Dise, Ohio, March 195i9.
Trapped,
Van Al~en, J_- A.. "Geoniagneticall
Stephens, E. D. and K. M. Tuechsel, The _A~e~rg-1
leihsc
Jirg
Radiation,"
oruular
Hlat-IngProbiern, TTcnalNtWCR
1rainic
be_159
te____ove
iclN
ch
(1____
99
Nvme
,,~-215, ASTIA Document No. AD 27650, WADC
. J. Walb.h, U.MWelsh, JP1. n
AeronauticaLl Research Lalxoratory U. S. Air -i to
ron
Mehd;o ogigiIo
Force, ASI) Wright -1Patterson Air torce Base,
"1io' Juine f953.tio
FElet,
Ohio, June
1953 lcrnis1ArFreGrfisA.r
58,-126, ASTIA Document
U
140C
0S, Rome Ail Develcipment Center,
*17
ucerJnl,
nL
~'oiumni
xii
^iuk
V".
D~
ase, New Yorli, June 105b
Wh ite, C.*S., Ter erature and Hlumidity Coneprt AS-Taj'
vair AeroznedficYECnsiliant's
~c-urner~t No. AD 1589 5 Lovelace Founidation
for Medical Education 21 dResearch, Albuquer-
.
WlisnR
o
.ATeE eto
Wlisn
Strengt of Outdoor EKp Be
the Breakid
We-',ing
58~-201
ASTLu1
Docum~lenlt
'
go.12
r
Of26893, U, S. Air Foorce, ASD, WrightPatterson Air Force Bane, Ohio, November
1958.
DAjocument No,~~'~'"~"
9.'I.
2:330Jn
Wacholder, B. V. and E.ao
tclEii
nstltute of Environmental
de, Poceding
Sciences
Naional Meet~ng, Los Angeles,
Californta, 6, 7, 8 April 1960.
'WillIMIN
'
'd
-
CHAPTER 4
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUiREMENTS
-4have
5272C c~an be used to determine whether the vehicle and its components can withstand -Ik nore
jected environments.
s~eo-h-dn~yntalwadsg
e
eci
ntlaayifo
Annvrn
hile~s requireg L worci reuined approac-l, since
mnore da~tals ofth evchicle system are known wid
dcf1.nito performance and reliability trnust be
achieved. For this reason, an environmuenta
analysis for a hypothetical Weapoij system must
be carried out, with Ithe analysis covering the
f'light vehicle anid Its oubsystemsa, equipmnesnIt
components nnd aiateriala for both flight ancA
ground conditions.
1 )'ossi~le
applications,
Of puLbli.she(d 'Rtzndard
* lhds"iieni,
in ~ latr
anl
oc
Iother
,ie~tnvehiaclsi
teprn-nturcso
Ril
r-i~
ftea
,Isltn
h~rceltc
will drop this ternpeiattore to VI0) F, or
with additional insuiaiuri, to 600) F Iiithe vibycangnth location~ of die ractimtor or b
using auxiliary cooline equipneut, the temperature near Vie Actuator might be reduccd coiA
Biderably. Furth ermo re, an operatiortal arvalyd
s is might show that thio si,eeds, ldtltueP8Wil (It,
140
10
~-
4-1
'
*.
'
Operat~ow~il aaliysis1
Tahic 1-1.
--
Date
____-~_____General_
Dncr,~
__-
IPolicies
1 July 1955
AiWCNi b'0-5
May 1955
ARX".) 80-
15 Aug 1956
19 June 1959
MI-v411
lA
19 June 1959
~I) It
August 1960
.1anuary 1961
ARDCI)C
80-
Mu -b'JHOPDatai
(7
60 'j:-
identiTitleo
AIUX:
,,
'
lr,.i'icd
W'MJAf
I?
1961
NI
E~nvironmental factors
Al ('IulL ltwnwf~ok
MI<l
ZOA
3957
2Ag15
July 1957
IaielnTteDt
Weil4-1. Air Forc- Policy D~ocumentsl
-Hi
Flight vehicles
14
ANC-22 Bululetin
Juae 1952
N1II- 1- 5 289
USAF Specification
196()
Augast 1960
li~ l
-.3
WADI) 111
60-627
arch1957r
Naturai arnd
--
InducedIL
4
Airborne eqtprnment
MIJ-i.-25647
*1
~ll-E8f~(~)
~Srecification
-
[1
4 Sept 1956
16 Apri! 1957
for
Electronic
_______
I.
N111-1. 9.15A
~tItlitii
15
1-,-So
Test;1is;~
roNdch. Goround
prs
ISA'
~~
Gtrou
-l,
z:P%
IIII-Jni5
2
)-41GFvrnetlRqieet
lcrncCmoet
Apri
1958
24 July 19i56
onent
nd,GElecrica Compir
por
Lnirnmnti
15~JuJy
Componneahndts.VlmsI
Eieeton'c
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
MI~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Jan195
pport
riera
su
orGround
uipment
Eeq
0Jl
91
14 May 1953
d--
Ml.--16
re'3ervation, Methods of
27 Fe~b 1959
4-3
--
TitleDO
Ide'ntification
Test rncthodolotry
11I,-E-~>497OA
(UTlfAF)
3 March 1959
13 April 1959
MlL-A-26C69
14 July 1959
MIL-T-5422F (A.SG)
11 May 1953
MIL-f:-26554
MIL-TD-22Telst
~.n"11?tn
24 Oct 19563
Parts
M171-S-445156
12 March 1953
Test facilities
ICtiamber,
MIL-C-79F]A (ASG)
Tet
Oct 1953
II..
M11
C-91H35
12 Feb 1954
5 May 1955
Mli-C-4 ~Chamber,
MIL-E-26CC54
3 Msrch 1958
,
MI]1-4-44'A
%Y
R X746Preliminary
Part If
--
Part iII
WKAIW
8 June 1954
Ili CO-7W)
-
W API) 'I1It
--
Simulation Mehd
Jan 1958
1961
1951
7'a
*~~~~
4"~d
.~
.,
U''
If nid1hxA, of Geolphysics
Iw
11 'ItonII(,ok of Geophysics for Air Force
1)eines"v~as prepared by Air Force CamUiridge,, Research Center to present probability
aindlIrcqu onry tabulations of many aspects of the
Patucai environlments. It Is cricof thle most conipiuck-cor- lationsoi jo~
,~physical data available,
Surface parameters
(Earth)
the atmosphere
Military Standards
A number of mOiitary standards contain envitonmental requirements and associated data
helpful In the design of military equipment.
MIL-STD-21lOA, for example, gives the probsabe
surf ace extremes of the natural environments to
which millitary equipment might be exposed, and
C
:
th2
w
-explosive
GopI
GopI
-Gon
-Gon
qimn
qimn
~G~deupetwe
*UI
.cations
eriasabtyi
of~ prime importance
Group 1UI
Group W
4-5
.4..
AA
ih~rts
'Dhecre are many studies being made to gain
knowledge about design criteria. The resuits of these, studies are made available 1D reports by the varlous service aenceie.
For example, Acronautical Systems ivislion (.formerflY) IC
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSUS
din
The environamental teet criteria, alsodevalupedby the weapon system contractor during
the environmental analysis, should be supplied
tothetest engineer, the test equipmetsf designer
and the Air Force. This allows the test engineer
~be
setih crtei
als permi te
test equipment designer to build the eqJuipmnent
required for testing, when such equipment lis
the safte-or-the-airt and adequate faclp'ishing
Itled are not available, An part o:. the envir-onmnental analysis this data alows the.A~ir Forceto ensure that t'he contractor is reflecting the
latest technology, and also permits thu .~-For-cc
to note environmental state-of-the-art. wer~knesecs and problems and hence allow n~iating
research and inventigations to overcime such
weaknesses and problems.
1-7n. ais uvernil standpoint, the purpose of enviroinmental analysis is to present as complete
a picture of the anticipated environments as is
practicable to the system designers and also to
provide sufficient criteria to permit assurance
that the systemn design will withstand the enviMethod of Environmental Analysis
ronments, For effective usage of the analysis,
eut,
rouesud
the rvsults must be presented in a logical manFrteanls-t
net. Ba~sically, the resulting data are supplied
must follow a systematic plan. The following
two categories:
major steps should be taken:
1. Environmental design criteria.
2.
'rho. environmental
vi
4- C
ini'it~.shoiuld
I'
4ground
I~at. Te
sysem
veicl tsel shuld
a __d
trme()wht.vrnes
to ai~y2edtorites,
,;xill be induced by the vehicle, and (2) what parts
of the system are most critical from an environ.mentl efectstadpott.
his an e acom)ishe ~ by utliing:temperature
ypeof
The
ehilenoise
The
ehile.terior
ypr of
2. The layout of the vehicle.
and location
Inhr
7, Coiatietto
of vehicle (including in
eac01 compiartmfent the location of all environenvi ronment -sensitive
nct-,',nerating and
cl~i)
m r~t).larlytorulie
8.
..
environmenta c
adtin
Le weapon
-wi,~
encounter in its regimes of oper-ition, such as
extreme temperatures Ionized gases, lneteoozone etc. lFurther, for th air vehicle,
itremeoflgtwlasoeureondetoofteyaniridudenrnnrsasociatedwith flight and operations, suc~h as skin
field.
-accomplished
poeisprial
anrdnvomntlcterla shall be used where applicable." As 2xplairtedprevioualy standard environmental critnacnb
bandfo
h
ouet
o
scribed under "SPECIFICATIONS AND STANBRS"Teyofefc
hteoea~uu
or mcchanical, should ason be indicated. An ex-
~~
Tal
-.
Efc
E- ect____
Profile "alaysin
Flgt
AtmosSpace Iphere
Albcdo Naturaxx
__Takeofif
Reentry
x
x
Cosmic radiatlon
IN i~ty
i
;l~ectricity,y atmosphere
MechaniCIS
P1
V_
A4
x
X
x
Ax
ItzI
x
x
a
x
a
x
x
11.0l
Humnidity
icc
Iv
x
x
X
x
Ijset
Mvicoroids
Frost
T'ung'
GaIses, dissociated
G ,s es , i on i7ed
Geooiagictism
Gravity
Fog
.
I
itA
xA
x
Xx
Ozone
Pollution, air
Pressure, air
RIMn
Salt spray
x_
o la r radbwini.t
Xoe
Tom!;vrfItilre abock
X_
Turbulence
Snow
x x
x.
ax
IC
xX
X
A
7x
x
A
\'aciunin
Windsrng'
iim i--A,
WinA sheur
A
x
x
.1
x
X
infuloeed
Ac~celeration
Aecrdynamic heating
I;aicni, d11c~.,,ciated
'Gasc2. 'onized
cliipcraturc: shock
cni
Operatiornal
IxL
Viihration
Zero gravity
Storage
x
x
Dlew
3E
I
4
K I I
x
--
x0
and comp4lete.
Specific values
LAnding
Transportation
Clouds
clear,
or
launch
(jround
handling
I.Taeof
~-Mach
Ts
To
.~
390 + (2(7748)(.24)(3202
()78(2)3.2
390 +314
TS= 704R
-
peso
eue
Tr
7.
*warily
900
T~(solT
Taking the recovery factor, r, as .85, the expr9io0edcs0o
.85 (704
-390)
+ 390
51
is determined by
~V
JAV,
Re
F~ach of these Ilight levels and performance
r*!requirem-ents most bc reviewed to establish the
rnaxiniinm lo~ads on flie vehicle. Depending priair density at vehicie, slugs/ft 3
where: p
on the specific- mission, the vechicle may
b-tUibjected to maximum dynamic loading at low
V =velocity,
ft/sec
altitude wid ria-imurn aerodynamic heating at
1
fcw1ntf
l-wenti
Ta~d tion levels will generally beI
Iiij,1 1 aititod'. 1.
bieter in Uie uppe)(r atmiosphere and in space
ofIcetfviosy
while maxiinuni noise occurs most frequently a[=cefceto
icst
takc-off.
The air density at tWe vehicle can be estimated
as:
ILcatirli. Iii pidictions of aerodynamic henti'w, vIeofa.r :icnt temperature, 'l', air denV p_/T 0 '
suvp, id hera.1conductivity, k, can be fouindV
intc-ece//
Ile stagnation temperature,
(Tr)/
I',(r Vie tcriperature of the air whose velocity
is ctuic dict~Myt htof the moving
P .0063
To0s
.1 rrnciacal
It).
t,
W1,1
tiralu
111
tm;
t! 2
PTU
spi-rifi
.000216 slugs/ft3
Kh
.
u
f c %ecured f rum references
',lie stagnatiJO temperature,
au.3
-~
4-9
31wIie:.
tran~fr cefbiet or lamninar flow, I,,
j 1AII.)C heC1,11111UtCd f rom the expression:
ki{ei'.8
11.026-6
(.126)(2.3 x 10- )(l A. x ]Or')0whraisn
ii1.6
25thickness
2
Rfactor
zo4 BU/sectt
DT/e/f2
x.-
1 x 10'
Q~SA953
In reconstant. S, are given
Values of thesolarfuruit~~~~
:C//afolw:1965
At sea level, air mass
=.055
32 8 0)
BTU/sec/ft 2
assits
In sacealt
S =l.026(1322, 1 = 13.60 watts/rn
A),ti
:)'
watts/rn
S - 1.021(027.9) -watts/rn
i.
a W~C1(fl~
s~orc'rthan0.2
mironsari loger
30'~ (.6)(G 7)
17.3 x
2
Q=19.3 BTU/hr/ft
-.
-------
7'
'00
(q,
o9f
mem
38
r40OF
-j--may
I
400'
Area
38OF
--
Ul
bl-'e loses by radiation, condluctionI and coi~vection tice resultant h~avt inpuAts to aectionti of the
Vehlcle can be computed. Detalikng tils LWormation on plan and elevation views permits the
designer .ovisualize theconocUtionshr. must conlsidtrarid enables him to design a sultable strucAs the design TproIgres~ts the heat Lrailstu;.-.
ferto each compartment n.t it be deterrmined so
NOF\
3~Fall?
4_OF
Turuptratures at
77"1
tai ~ ~~ .SI~
-Boundary
nient o the flig~ht environ ment. A numrber o~fermpirical expressions have been dev.31oped for the
predictionof the noino level, one of which is the
following:
'
fe0r-03pyinCatr
~2 o F
4.181x10
Vehicle speuJ-c-Lf",-ons outline vibration envirnnn11ifr extremnes, and documents such as refficriero /5/ provide limits for particular types
of einniponwnt. Whecn tentative configurations and
C )In)cit~oSare
selected, testing must be re!-tvd to. In this manner, proof of the coneept~oniis oitajfled, and if necessary, modificstions
na~iy Ite Iiiade to insure th'e required level o1 relability under 'hie inpecific conditions.
=aynbient. pressure,
Piort
8-343.SPL
To estimiate Lhe noise level in the cockpit of
ao aircraft flying at 50,000 feet, the cockpit
icing aisuniecf !o have a total surface area s
o~f 5,1 ,quare feet and to be pitessurized to 5,006
1--
-!,
~~
-Iitiiat
25
tem.
Sysf
Jets
Jhc.w'
1 ,werlevel
ESPL
=136.6 dh
K..-1
U.
UI
IF1)
log 4100 4 88-
PA366V8
Ai-
tht-vi
watts
-oweris:
t1-ueoicy i:(152
180
0.2-
/W
0.2->-
S~IA-I,
14
0' $
SI 4o i
1)
i'
HI.~
50
l'-~
x 10 '
9500 watts
=3.66
I iix3 50 epa
i ill SOUWitprf.osiurt. -lzvel is:
1i.
w=pwr
1!
%~~
AIbI01
=, poer
--
I NM
',
PN)witiraecxhaustdiarneterof
V!
11 1
1K.na~iIn
,'W
ThuB, for avch!cle tra,,.eitng at hleb 2 at an~ altitude of 50,000 feet, Uhe BouflU pressure level
wvould bv;
F''W t
PAL
1)
lb6/in2
1 A~ch number
M
Noi,e. Jet and rocket motors proiduce high
Iint'oni1ty n~oise levels over a wide band of frequkumnci:?s, thus crent~rng severe dynamic proXenma. Ueneraily, the effects are most severe
:nf takeoff. Nevertheless, the total noise enivir(:nn1 !nnt must be investigated during flight also.
An example of cockpit noise prediction during
fl1tlit at 50,000 feet is given OiWADC Technica
&
-711
12=20igp'
wee
wee
'
0,2377) 7(.)10
PWL
FWL
PWL
170 db
4-11.
IhCp
SPL
area., or 2nwr 2 n
ditribution. If a diecase
inmtpliricr.
m
taxrccf romitile source Of?22) feet Is assumned, tile-,
sound pressure level will. be:
SPL =1710
10 log 2500
Wave PropgAjtton.
Wave
If a ran. ofI
mil"-.of5'(2)
is desired, the total
attenuation will be 3.1 (11)one way. ~quivilent
valncesarevrovided for more severe conditions,
Such ;is in a polar a~tmosphere with heavy snow,
in an initenise thunderstorm, or through a dense
water cice
Each of these conditions must. behr
~~~ ~u! eqruipnmeni urild-r .L1 conditions st
e elzd
':anbnliy
i~ucstredthe
imit of
IL-sDientiific
2lIUA shiould bxy considered in tire design of al
Itens iubiejcted to the natural environment,
'.ir(ertain environmental, factors, such as
acrI~dlsinsrts
prciptatonsal spayand
. ind and dust are not a imajror importance at
11' aLftitudes tlicy are important at low aiticE~d~
o r oil tHi 1,rmurid. In generatl, these factors
am1. dfefined in reicrenresi /4/ and /6/. Where
1xoneedcc low alt itude flighlt is a consideration,
Ilief. t~p- andl prevalencle of Insects must be stuCd in the ,;pecciific localitiecs concerld Tran -t
ii'iai.is
describedf in reference /7/.
I At ,i SS~ 11~i
3S dissociated and Ionized gase
a rfe I imp' ri Soc eir :~r0- lwer,
atmosphere, and
''
An
-
nna~r
17
4 1.,
* 7~T
'-
NLSST
ion
The
InT~t
ell"
Gencrally, !hepattern of jet engine noise will dev ia t e P,-i-wW at.fr oia
o rI oi1l patte rn, re ach ing a peak ol about ptu!s, 7 db at an anf'Je of 135
degrees, off L.he forward axis.
1
OEAIN
SPL =r1363 db
Elcctromlagnctic
I, Opp.
%~
04.
-I A
Of
CUITIpiIXity
n
90t! =2 2t 1_2
el~r.
A logi-Al
tc~~t'anhadlethse
cii"~~ll
'algei.And
inan newu
cmntsve trime, undern
cst
co1nzddev;i~onm plies thaot simplertin mprcv~o'isy
-unneown
The
rang ofrxiid
rejnr(.n-im-oioflthe
~vi~te~uc'~A
necifisry
o shur
ir;arohermian
su-a;~Imbi 'J~ue~
wAtd
'.'ns e
acoystqenesm reany
o
aecisioy affectiv-ivironient
yms~reqio semo
thavetie cost,
andd(:lmV
rnf3itWcorcomple~ftely n13kprcraft,,4I
Ah;!iwn,'.Vitriw'
ip~
~ o a ebitIt
'ut rwra5Jlig
eigi
'7w~ai~~,
t te p-iccof
Itthat thi'l
aitem
caidot 1)0 r
ine 111210sBy eartan
ifLar~aofhe ma~ir huoimic tviri.
oExacctly wrehnt
trjisdtuti
d~syst)n
;I
rirtainto w grat
coniuea
tinl~ wo'Uat
-v nch;
Ofth
sy'stemis Mt he
ijsii
u;1(is-r
2.il Co::iji'nomi
u
3. iqiiiis;
X111ls
c.
-,
eIrom
-Te
ir
nte
fo
the
'm
~ ~
col[e
iys 1tm,,
iw
fntdsml
~ ~ ~
tinues
3.
....
0.
lumntrti
1. a r ruist~r
.1~~~~~~~~~~~
emnlgiac
Co11'nlcrutbadtevolti`n,
,.r.m
,-
sie.
,stowacosiue
rilk.Ti-(c
nvef-copto r
ainidedsample
siet iIsproducletio staging
t the
coulpment con
-- taliph th enumeral tanof aaiabl samles.canbIfmtioen
ta ined Othe mgximd m amthpopet cofrs
thke ample i--1o#1 o-e. y armattr of stallsthcat treconsisuentbutho cothos a lie
ithestotheg
n~ft Itgher
e
lomevealofprogwapri~s tattheinfor
toe tht sucee,
the
1,, j..
r,,,d
I,,r,,ni nfn!e- luwu
A;inc sevintie u
wortwh
tj
lie
n
buooiturnoe
(a ill1 11i1(-CA 9 1i .1t t i ( )rjCC[f; to
I`I il
1 Wee~r
Iint
ghIj
Lht
cano
I~pO
raystem.e by ce
Ilsu.
Paito
v-1
les.
hse~ -'iisaent
t~~~~~~~~~~~~~
ea-
of appreciatinig the
unlikd e aicrf
consequ~ence
MDoe~cb~1-nasei'
acua
us.Dfeecsocr
4eatospaerdcn
-.
nirrn
itol
Irt
h-u
*"fil
Morlover, (lie environment of R weapon Is esiu'ittally competitive; that is, thle enemy seeks
itsj df,,1at not only by direct means, but also by~
!o)rcin1 I, to operate where Its performance Is
iiargnalchoooing
he
facspeatinsanays'
Tho
Uitittatio
faes he oeraionsanayir
iiretivrrnmnt~al testing of knodern systems may
be silnrzdEsfl'w:sclous
3. Environmental test programs are performed with budget, facility, and sample limitations, al). under the pressure of time. The optiinum strategy must be decided upon.
4. The results of environmental experience,
inl thof ield, particularly the effect of hostile comnpetitionL, miust be fed byack into system improvemieit,
lt
,"
'4i
'
.t:
4'i~
'
Mission Effectiveness
-~"
-opI
.~
el
*il
*
is'ot (if Lite problem to another that approximatins ire niot only possible and necessary, but
artttidly dcrahie. All ailbeknowiecdge re
Hipiemadlat
niomn.
Thi
sesi
Ulronlgthe
test pa.T
is nvolves the
applica,,tion of scientific micthod a conscious use
oLhe tr.chniQues usually labeded "the design of
e:xperi-ientls," and die use of a sequential apJproar!: S
he
4~.degained at one part
of t~epro'gra.,i Is immeindately fed back Into the
other pairt~s. Thle basic philosophy 18 to continue
the programi until the results are stable within
thle degree of accuracy reqiuired by operational
requirl'ruents, wihse
ifyteprxB of Ole
weano:,.8)stcm~l
an inicte th
ot%;Its
Ise
V al, the contract "'statement ol' work,"
which is the basis for developing either compoinentsoracow-plete system, refers to specificationsand Apecificatlon bulletins that further de..
fieevrnetlrqiex~t.Even
wlitin
this convtrrgent chain, however, there is rooim
and, indeed, necessity to translate the mtssion
rinto its environmental Implications, and to re'
view the applicability of a given environrmital
requirement in terms of the mission.
w~e.The
Utiliz.ation of Results
--
'
"
~
4,,j
'
Thrre Is q rosrx-~irhilty for P~tzilhlpehcn Pn. vironmcnt~ai rcquirc .iwntg at each. leveA oi tile
weapon systerv development, but this Is riot a
ScopCl~ of Op,'tations Analysis Participationot-aysre.Ufren
ittondtr
mined at. each level he
a reciprocal feasdback.
For example, a bomber may lhave bceen requircd
The specificatian is thie starting point for esfor' the basic mIssion of high alit.1ude bombing,
tatt~lishingthe~lenvit-ronmenital prog~ram, By spectand ELsqtlisfactory vehicle cesir'ned, developed,
fication is meant not only the forma). docunien-.
terrneasure developments, Itis concludedi Utht
very ('ortsid(ra.ie bo~dy of kaiowleige concerning
low altitude nilssiona are also feasible the ensystem purposes, usvr de'sires, etc., whiich do
vironmental specilicatlon is changed ;nn&the airriotL111ltwilhin the scope of formal requirementa.
Thu, scciicaion,
uinfo;maJandinfrmi
crafttrmust now be further c..uable of perforining
ato given diflerent weigjhts, depending on thoeirtueubieci~dwde
e mn
ver anw load conditionsB. This Is an Inetance 'in
intiortance and the suppottng, authtority. It
which technologicait developments In one flc'd
the rcfore ar-rooriate to hriefliy review hepr thle
demand anew mission capability Itn another, ard
piocC,Sic5 ;jy which ;a zpc::lfication comes Ino
it a new environmental requireanrrzt for the
licitig.with
weapon systern.
sphec ifi'ai,i of the msission and trisriion alterlnalives beg ins, at a national 11vol. The frame%work fOr -,p(cifying nthssiocs may be traced
up Utrou:~It tite celnsof
0c, Army, Navy, and
titL Air I orce, Ut-rough Vic Sccretary of Defense,
In the- Nafltonal SecujritY t(otncil, At this levclp
(it re( t isi lii tornis of mtissionis anid tJheir probable
ct,-irtmint ntts
.is ge~neral, but, ieconies increasitily spec ific as the directive is translated Into
5Iv
lo bytheproot tug agency. Thus, the
Ai ltI or (vc atl~it
ltuure of ARIJC tttcini*.t.oh
jies
ahic stsfi-tth in general terms
O;11it of,
topt'enlt
I
In key a7a
and the proIdetI-und of d'lpustt.Weappon systeins
'.1
od o sttfn I; genveral operatbo~iaI
.,"
-%x-A
'ter
V,;'
,1
2. Extierimcniat p~hase,
3. Prototype phase.
.Poutqualificatton phase.
'1. Poductof
lDirinp the rvecarch p)hase, eryeffort is
made to obtain dLaw regarding the characteris"uis of the phys:ical environment and the current
d.:veoupnicr.ds i'i) physical and engineering prine~ic
! exploration In w'hich in.ciples. It Is a
major roles. Pilot explay
R]Jtadjudgment
aridquestions
~~ht
purirncnt.-are filied out only to the extent necessary to cstablish knowledge Bufficient for the ex-
and
bestpossible
allocation
eflvliO'.'feni JA
mentalof compete~acelof
This "environ
test the
effort.
the design is attained by making the relative value
each environmi-mital design feature an integral
factor in attaining capability Iii the minssion. To
doti, to major qluesttons munst be answered.
(1) what is the probability of a given set of environmental encounters and how important are
they, and (2) what are time trade-offs5 a~mong the
mission capabilities? The answers to these
form the basis of environmental engi-
perirnental p)ia~e.
pase~~entatsone-
ftasIibi~ity u- U. physical equipment. Here, enV roiinintid test results become useful for preo
sse.
dictinf-prrformaico thIs
ruaiunm,
~e~el n reucin
hN'
~fitale
toal lad-
4~I C.a
-
.'
.rm
Wol'Aai
"'
mc
equipment shipped to England had to be rebu1lt
before il. could be rendered serviceable. This
neglect of the storag~e and logistic envirc(4met
was an environmental desgndecision aii;ufortuikate results; had the designors cons~ideredit
na. ptcurcse
to define 4he s~cope of the
-itema
01 sybteri.-- Ttx', broad a uefinitict leadn to
annecessary complication; too narrow a eil
tion omits r'elevant factorn. A practical ci-oice
is to sclect a functional ertity that depewlis .
level at -which the environmental design isi
p. rformed. Thus, a miavigational systemn must
all-weathe.-, blit a spc itit: optical corepo~ient
~be
Sum~aY
maybe restricted to a daylight function. lVene,p
ilic~;ctpe f operations analysis paLrticipzathe designer of time entire navigational1 syswAith wvorking (ot the frame cif retiv .i)ir
tern must consider h'owv the various ('leulents
f(ii .ce~rIf the Ctlvironzl'.ewltal program by br'ing-*
fit togtthcr to give hlim all-weathvrc p11w In~t'ioCii r all ol tiC ciclvatit specliicat icris
but. 'he Ces igner of the cr11 c at cemvu of
-bililly,
thein injto (:onsisttitz detalsh.
mo
l-rt si .'ti
the Bystemn ma' reistrict his attenition to day
ad ri- 111:L. Speif 'atio*.s; rnusf be coy%,l~ ma
operations. Failure to attal~i t4-- V,(al of the cIv;aL-ijI-nd to' each,
cl 11( rciA.tiVU W0ihtit
mnewL has an Imm ediate rcpercussion at the syr;, trrazilsatL-d Into an en1hriiz
~p'4AicaI'r(a
'
eeignayspcfcotx.
has been seen that the key goals of operations analysis, in terms of faculities, uuA. mid
money, are the optimuim environmenital 'iesign
I. Rsearh phse.It
fntooSc
th74Y-R3,TJs~pf
''3
Atv.1
Asigmlent of Values. THie value of a given
prnhabilityof encountering the envircrimc~it and,
suecond, u:: the importarce offunctioning minder
tile gircin cond~tlonti. Inforaionoitepo
hkihility of cnvironmentai encounters is increasinitty available, and sourcecs are given In other
sec~tions5 of this haLndbo~ok. Thtip;, equipment int1hJto function in altcrnative envirortments
tnd locations may have computed for them the
probability of encountering given environmentH,
and, whact is of equal imprac the probability
of enconntrlier , given coii~_environments.
Ili c..'e6 where detailed' values are lacking, it=
temi
vanit~ l~ay'e
ake ofthepo
Thbe cmorrltiont
uih ete-kon nvr
amns.
Tempotiontb
The alternative courses of action art now set
assmpton3to elae te ~~'forth numerically- in terms of the unit eftort to
mad
s tht
exlicti h9posibl
torelte he
cope with requirements of intensity assoc'ated
whichwith
different probabilites of enicounter, and a
minimum may be sought.
The "weightitnig" of the envirn-mental enconter regrions by their importance to the missionoliwsloicalyloinsccilcaionsandtue
preliminary system studies. As equipments have
boro~e or~ comlexandsysems ncrasigly
large-scaie, suOt, values are increasingly diii- cultto
Oe rasonblewayof
ssig.
asiging
thiem is Uosed ri, Ilia consequence of failure (or
q.;t cess) to the user. Thus, failure of one, part
of a redtundant flight power system may be a
nildsanoce, but failure of one in series with the
other equipment' may be catastrophic. The
value of environmental survival is complicated
!'yth qucstion of establishing bouds of "satIRiat tory' plerfo rm-4nce. Thus, the environm"ental
engineer nctx~t .'e aware of just what limits of
perfeurnance are acceptable from the standpoint
iof.9
the~it
arrng
on.
mahin use ofsc
tul,,h
(anctarrtaige thle desuiredfunvtironallientof
untoa
lf frent
NMaki-i
of :. spit (iS
tionl natur11e.
ally eviginoericiii
ot -nission func -
5-'
-tiit a'
li1itn
theory attempts to ioae
! Mi.11JIpjintls of tto_ decisic.ni-raking pro-
'
.
,.
M,'
*-
't
coreo<1in
hi
ugeti
.'
lat
.'
'
coErts Involved.
The third objection concerns the very concllderable and difficult computations required in a
articular case. This is In many
naapowerdecision theor apruachonly
for
bounds,
or exndi etaserd~
sn
h
tremes, of the probable environmental eucounters.
There Is an important point to remember it,
.'
N:
,*
'Fi?tl
ilts
~rlial
I t~iostetS
holdnotony (ve
b~it ;&.i s(xcren Icr proces,; degradation.
s %kcilcovered in standard works
iiiir
/5 /
~d v uch
cntrl, s rfer~tcs
'ii
ad
w
'17 '. Failure analysis and troubleti-i i.vbviously foucused
on the particularcrtiaslte
Iiou bie.
ric
I't
14111IiA
voi
9. L
4it.
teosqnco
{~
.......
7
0
0.18
'
nxtsae
sln
n
ie
The formulation of fruitful questosad ie
as'mtin
oattack requires-that the data and
that are used be actually chosen and not merely
arrived at by accident. Shice really serious
errors and misconceptions emerge early, It is
stay as simple as possible, and to begin
with aseries of exploratory runs, preferabiy beginning in an area of known responzac. As soon
as irrelevant, undesired or highly correlated
factors are Isolated. they can be eliminated,
slrice iheir effects cithierdo wot matter or can be
prdcefomtekwn
Li4
l~isomein.the
Seictl~
Ut Mthod
of1
Itis t tis
lni
-~
-be
mde a toticians
liii &icisim
li
asan whether theW
:ipprojlriat teti1.snlefor a combined
orIuuetest
Is
thr s-
ointlercin
amon
01.
3.
aria properties of the avet age
va-riance and standard deviation.
i.
1.
t t",
p l."2ff
III
tfhu itenli.
:~rj..t'i~
, i'vct
j5 ,,,I.110
tiP. sm do:i
of
-' k'
' sfth,
m'
11m
It.
.Standard
statistical distrihuttoi-s, icludingthenorinal,lognormal, rectangula-,,x (chiFVl.ttre), binomial. Poisson, t, an~d Idiatrib,.itfuns.
8
B
Tests of hypotheses.
nlsso
aine
n l
so
a in
Ij.
An excellent general Introduction to the application oif statistical methods may be found In re.1~crenlcc /18/. This buok also provides usef ul and
wise advice on almiost the entire rang~e oi pro blemistencounte~red In prac-tical sCieit ~fic and engineering Investigation.
44
X-R
with from
ofvie in
of expert/16/. Re:.
(of
At the detail level of assessing test fulfillment, the environmental engineer mnust deter-~
mine, for the particular problem, the allowable
uncertainties and, by utilizing appropriate statistical techniques and engineering analysis, select
the proper cut-off point. The price of increas
ing confidence comes high. Figure 4-5, for example, give3 reiiability levels for a series of
tests with and-without failures. The rapid increase In the number of test samples for highconfidence coefficients is evident. The decision
as towheim the testplan has been fulfilled, there-
The puri-.'se of system development is to Linstire ffectjv' iterforimance in the mimsion environnient. Therefore, the imrplementation of the enivironnicn t al plan miust be followed at each
stage, first to asscss prospects, then to insure
the atctual fulfillmient of the plan, and' finally to- v;'i~n :i hasis for predicting the future. The evaluation is perfo)rmed at two different levels:
across time as the system is developed; and for.-ai~iven itemn in a given test. The two aspects are
slffic,,eztlyi diffc-rerit to inerit separate consideraoi,.
Chorcierslic
Alernot ve j
I
Ii
Avoiloble
Jg
echnology
Ie
Research
Areo
Technical
I
I
I,
I
j
Solution
(At Given Time
nd Cost)
L......Prototype
4e.
~.
ronnient-A engineer, whether or not lie participaisdirectly incdesigning the underlying statis-.-tical structure of the test sequence. Reference
"26, is a ctissic. B~ecause 01 the frequent relevaInce of the lognormal distribution to experi-menital data, ref erence /27! is also listed,
Assf-smie~it
(
,f'
41
I
'
3Y
1.0*
90%/ Pnifiden
0.89
0.7-
99.5%. Confidence
'
Without Failures
0.2~J
One Failure
C 10
20
30 40 50 60 110
Number of Items Tested
flO
K~t
go
rta-Early Ph e
Brad-
Bra-
Oraonri2alion
board
">mponent uevelopmen
type
Produ!ton
100
wit~h
_____
_____
Poduction
Fil
M71
Moleriols Evaluation
Productron Evaluation
Quolliy Control
Product~on Evaluation
Peceivi.1y
Quahl~iy Assurance
tions..,l
2. Product imrp-rovement.
T"1 jf71'1-ir
(Ifles
it
'111( systcrIs Point of viewx applied to t1he utih ::it ni of 1neiz-orirnertal te!t results is highly
o,1f till1
III tll( fiiillnw1Ifr q?'reaS:
3. Quality control.
4. Formulation o! environmental models and
pi-edictors.
5.
T-
77 M'
--
MW
.i
--
Evidently, the sequential asseDSsmVnt, Of ern,'iromental comnpeteace through the life history of
asystemnultiniately luads to a comparison of the
initial judgment of the mission envirowninim widi
that encountered in practice. The correiupodring changes iii the mission values act to shorten
development lead time and. attain the goal of an
effective system at minimum cost. The sanie
process lays the basis for planning uueev
vironinentudi raquircments. Thesse becomec in
creasingly consistent, explicit, predictable and
responsivfe to the ne'ads of modern technological
dlevelopnicnt.
cenru!
F npfo-fetie
v eltoliz
C)IrjlpCLVIflC
z:i
.it
en-r7rronment to th
c~r~i;ceS wih01must be mpinltained at the mran u-
level.
REFEREN~CES
f6.
L Mrn'.r
2.
1ii Isen rath andA i3e( kett, Tabli s ol Ther !iaRl lp~rr rrtres of Gases, National bu e
No.54
,R' -T"I
No.64,
~
~
~
3 ~.ad3.KyGsTbe.~thoKIS
~~
151).inar
rlm
ab
.. anJJ
iarno
Prelim
DionirrntoR.AiandJar
8.
Investigation offlyper Environments
of Simulation Parts I It . n~1 n Wer-r
of Air John
rrarw
n'rr~ I'rup rtiL
\~'ui.
6-111i, i.to. Ncx Yoirq,, 1941..
~N6
NsAD
'---~ 142002
Contract No. A
~1111,
ADl42j67,andA1Jl423:W,
3 3(616) .3915, Proj ert No.
tr!;arrji Ccrriui
* 7'
ru-I
ru'ri
-,
P.
(.Air
9.
10.
Jamres K.
Fifth Ph:,r,
filint
REFERENCES (continued)
I
20.
21.
12.
timore,
93.
13.
14.
15.
'5.
17.
1K.
23.
24.
25.
26.
S Ii
-I'V,
Loll,,
1939.
Wilson, r., Jr., An Introduction to Scientific Rceserch, M cGraw-Ifill Book Comipany, Im:., Nc York, 1952,
Wald, A., S_Suuntial Aaslysys, John Wiley
orr-o-, 1947.
anId
InIs,
-, -
Introduction to the
__._
ooti-l%-(iuodniy,
S., Non--Parametric
Siegel,-Hilt
~~~Grew
Book CompanY.
,,
Statisticsro.c_Ene .
r':,_
o_
n..
Dixon, W. J. and F. J. Massey Jr., Introduction to Statistical Analysis, Mciraw1"Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, Second Edition, 1957.
1956.
ahownrt,
W. A., Statistical Method from
the V1i'PQoi,t 0f
Contr.l G'raduate Scior", Dcpartment of Agriculture,
W.
1.
22.
A: M
t istcs:,McGravw-Hill
N9e3. York, 19
P,
.A.
:,
Boyd,
':
13
..
,-,.t
T...
4-
9,
tI
II
i~4
-23
I3IBLIOG RAP HY
*ti-al
John' k"d1
W.F.
an~d kons,
9
ci7CYrk,
EZCTjCI M.,Metodsof
Crreatio Anl
W4fLeRton,
sis, Secon d Ediftion7
McCloskey, 1. F., and J. MI. Coppinger, (1'ditor-s) pc~ratio.,sResearch forMania;emcit. Vol11I,Second E rtion, Johns Hopkins Press,
1956.
McrriU, G.-1l. Goldberg and H. Helmholz,
'Operations llcsearch, A'rnament, Launching"
Princpi es of Guided Missile Desin Volumne Ili,
D). Van Nost~rund Coripany, 1rc7~6.
'
Ii
ZI
r
7'
4;
'.'
CHAPTER 5
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECrlON
1.
2.
To aid designers in choosing the proper materials for varlovs applications, military agencies continually sponsor material studies. Various types of studies are conducted: Some determinethegeneralreactionofcertatn materials
to various environments; others determine the
environmentallirmitationsof materials; and stil..
others investigate the feasLbLity of using certain materlals and alloys for future applications.
Some studies are higfly specialized, liestigating only such -items as parachute materials.
Others are broad in scope, covering a large number of materials such as:
Pla'tics
'...-nF.oIfaU
vCLi1V adltU
U
iL)lL
eqLuLip
Metals
Metallo-organic corn-
et:L
pu
,_
..
,
'
Antiseize compounds
Gasket materials
""3
." :,
"
Hydraulic fluids
dUZ.
'
Ceramics
Chemicals
Transparent materials
Sealing compounds
Textiles
Semiconductor materials
Coating materials
Dielectric materials
Lubricants
Insulating materials.
Adhesives
Hydrocarbon fuels
,,
Magnetic materials
The results of the studies can be obtained in
reports made available by the Armed Services
5-1
,.. . . .
.,
Fo
17
xmlasrat
MATERIALS
Selectior. of Mat~erials
eh
]1G to Junc lU157 can he obtained In WADC Ti'R-53-3-77'1 supplement 4 (ASTIA Document No. AD
!.!l0UIS. Thesre abstracts present a review of
(lie Aii 9c materials research and developmcnt rnrogram during tha.L period. A complete -that
list of all known organi7Satins or agencies, both
mil itary and industrial, that may be designated
as miaterials informaition centers on the basis of
their collect ing and disseminat ineup-to-ciate data
on materials research and development in coni
4
Gluss -Phenolic, 2 7% Resin
cj 3
I
0~
~os-Peni
Refrosi-fhenoh
65% Resin
41%
ea~'eoc,~
Rei
eilltu
- *Ing -.--
2001 u
v miieoue
7000
S-i.iteatie
eosin rtesfordifer-For
1 w 5-1. i oionrats
tt.latve
fr dff r4'ri pl tiisji as a fin)(tion of titifperature./l/
-;M
Plsaktic Lamninates
Phenol ic-f orrmaldehyde laminates are able to
withstand temperatures up to 390 F (200 r).
These phenolics are always reinforced with varifibers, such as glass, silica, nylon or asbes-
1'
ylor.-Phenolic
14--
are then rated according to their relaiive erosion rates. The curves Indicate relative perforof each imaterial compoared to the others
atapriurteneaue.AulyhenIataprtifcedlartemprialuoe. notua
thdemoe
nylon.
oesol
reifoce maeil-snterd
as the temperature Is raised; on the contrary,
it rso
aea
00C1
ae
'uii.wa
at 2000 C, but Is less than the others at 7000 C.
..
Mi
j
,
*
1:0o
---
~-prot'~cting
1000
8001
Some commercially available electrical materialr that are able to withstand high temperaGlos-Melmineturen, together with suggested applications, are
ls-eoiegiven
in Tanle 5-l./2/.;
/1
Gj
'
IU
metal parts, ceramic-base sheet. insulatiou, refractory-typeflillers an~d castables for hermetic
constrtuction, and encapsulating coialpounds fur
entire units.
0Jl/~css-Phen:)Iic
~ I
~~ 4(0)1
/7/
sbe~fto5-17henolic
-Asbestos -Phenuiic,
VtCompos;tes
-.
Anew
12
16
Timemintestant
20
Material
77'5-F
11Evaluation
jte mpe rh -
jApplication
ture F (C)
lmn
miromphnrea
0(5)
Encapsulation
Reconaututted
phlogopite mIca
Interlayer
Insulation
Magnet wire
insulation
950 (510j)
(a) Magnesia
(b) Borun nitride
(c) Alumina
Capacitor
dielectric
950(50
lRadomnes
1300 (704)
V,00(510)
cerami
(b) Alumina
(a
oseieMta-ceramic
(ii) Alumina
Mtl//*
For flight vehicles, the ideial met~al would b(3
one with a ;igh melting point, exzellenrt strenfpth
and ductility, and near zero density. Unfortunately, such a metal duea not exist. The ntext be3t
thing is to modify existing metals and search for
ones tnat will approach the deL~r..`olc ..
perties. Some of t~hc Letter temperatu.ue rebise:isttng metals are listed in Table 5-2, together wfth the source from which d2ta can be
obtained concerning each metal. The specific
heat ratingis of these metals at various temperatures are given in Table 5-3.
Auiu
i'herinftC
-Nyu.-
<',
750,(3119)
electron tube
structures
Reaistor film
..-
950 (510)
7
*
Metal
---
K-Mannl
!',monel
Inconel X
Stainle:is steel,
Typc 301
stainless
steel,
.ous s
alloy,
Type 755-T6
AluminumCompanyo America
-1Stain-
Inonel
less
I less
steel,
steel,
Type3.6 Type347
Aluminumi
Aluminumi
alloy,
Type75S-T6
1010
mld
steel
alloy,
Type
AN-M-29
alloy,
Type
24S-T6
-200
0.2
0.065
.04
0.070
0.009
0.071
0.053
0.160
0.112
0. 11.I-S1
-150
0.73
0.075
0.075
0.081
0.080
0.081
0.069
G.182
0.141
0.142
-100
0.083
0.084
0.085
0.091
0.089
0.090
0.082
0.200
0.165
0.1G4
-50
0.091
b.092
0.093
0.099
0.098
0.098
0.093
0.216
0.184
0.182
0,097
0.099
0.100
0.107
0.105
0.105
0.102
0.299
0.198
0.196
1o')
0.107
0.110
0A10
1 0.118
0.117
0.116
0.115
0,248
0.218
0.216
1i
0.1 7
0.117
0.122
0.116
0.120
0.127
0.132
0.125
0.130
0.124
0.130
0.126
0.263
0.231
0.231
0.134
0.274
0.243
0.248
---
-- -
---- -
---
--.......--
--
6.;2
0.126
0.124
0.136
0.134
0.134
0.145
----
0.262
0.270
....
....
....
...-
0.276
0.286
----
2
300o
"
40
........
---5))
-:,;I"
0.123
0.130
0,128
0.139
0.136
0.138
0.159
0.125
0.i13
I
0.133
0.142
0.139
0.142
0.179
0,)
.1115
0.1.1l
0.143
0.145
0.143
0.146
0.209
0.11C,
1Q)
0.150
0.156
0.149
0.148 ..
0.152
0.203
0.167
0.152
0.1b2
C.156
0.283
0.1,
S.n
v('
hl(':,
N'
g,iVit
)1
--
----..
temperature___
slum alloys in their recommended_
alloy,
ranges.
Alloy AZ-31,
the standard sheet
has the highest
room.-temperature
properties,
1.-Mot,!
m.
Alloys containing thorium have
Man
increasedthe usable temperature of magnesium
up to 900 F (482 C) for short-time low-stress
applications. Figure 5-4 shows the best magne-
Type A-I-M-29
less
steel,
Type301
_I
Inconl
X
'.
e1h!y,
Alu.inum
"Te2.IS-'lR
'remperature C
'3
.tainless steel,
lYpe al3
Al[inity
".
Source
I. .
-.7
90The
60
A
Alum~num
Magnesium
Alloys
Alo0ys
AX000A-lj
F -HK - 31
F HM- 3f
=X2;210
C M257
7 0
0(APM)
0~0
--
-liumwith
E
I
B
B0
201
20.1
!01
0
200
.,
400
600
~beryllium
FL
800
1000
Temperature, Fwell
-and
..
.,~
0100
L
140Future
Hot WorkI
Di80Steel
All-Beta Ti
Allo~y;,1eat Treatable
eylmOV
EYdruded
*~TI-6AL-4V
1L
600'
Semni-Auslenitic
T~tanium. The strength3-to -density ratio of
Steel, Precipitation
titanium is its most publicized property. In this
Hreal
r,,spvct, it is isuperior to many metals orver an
20-Beryllium,
QMV,
iintccmt diate, alth(ugh wile, temperature range.
Hot Pressed
l'ilT1
e5 -4 r'ive-s a comparison of yield strength-___________________
to denit~iy ratio as a funiction of temperature for
0
080
WO
tiltt iri~n he~rylliuina~ndferrous-base alloys. On0
l
0010
Tempercture. F
the 11oL work die steels are the most
this ,V.
iunipelitive materials. fieryllium, with Its low
dv'n ,ity w~ill bt competitive when it becomes
Fig. 5-4. All-beta titanium alloy com-pared
;Ivii thf in greater quantities. The top curve
with berylliumn and ferrous-base materials
in Vu,, 5-4 rc[)resentit5 tie new all-beta tita-nium
on a strength-to-derisity bania at high terni0'y
1vIt
lm!; tlie potential of being heat treated
peratures. Strength-density ratio is yield
t n ilt tin~ite ton1
54l,
strungth (tJ, over 250,000
strength In 1000 psi to density In pounds per
1
I t.
cubic Inch./4/
WIT-W5
,r
J Material
Source
The curie temperature of metallic core materials is relatively high, and for the present
silicon steel has been used succesefully for- 930
F (500 C) operation. For higher temperaturos,
it may be necessary to LnvesttigkLt cobalt-Iron
alloys, which have a higher curie temperature
andvery desirable mafnetic characteristlics, although their activation characteristics under fluradiation might be prohibitive. Nickel
alloys have curie temperatures in the vicinity of
935 F (500 C). At temnperatur~es above 935 F,
grain growth in the material is expected, which
will change Its magnetic properties. Its use.fuldepends upon the resulting orient .tAori 2nd
of grains, and the application for which it ts
B~etter core materials sl id U,
ele
for operation above 935 F.j
(I IIa rt 7)
Vycor
W~vhite (clear) plate
laSsclear
Ow~
iwmical gliss No.
Co.
774
Plate Co.ness
Gtse
Solex'~ ittsurghsize
p*~t~
ga~used.
!Sol'x 211o8X plate
pittslburgh Plate Glass Co.
AN-P-44A.
q"airlaty}___
__-
Table 5-5.
Ti.r~u~
Clear fused
stilea (q~uar'1rAVyo
White (clear)
Pyrex
jSolex ""
Solex28Q8X
plate glass
Type 774
plate g
~asI
Plexiglass
Type AN-P-44A
0.102
-200
0.047
0.041
0.075
0.045
0,072
-150
0.081
0.080
0.102
0.084
01101
0.103
0.274
-100
0.112
0.114
0.1129
0.117
0.127
0.130
0.219
-0
0.1138
0.142
0.153
0.145
0.151
0.155
0.252
0.174
0.170
0.173
0.176
0.298
.1
.42
---
.6
.6
100
0.199
0.202
0.210
MB
200
0.22G
0.221
0.236
0.235
0,235
0.234
100
0.241
0.240
0.255
0.255
0.254
0.251
400
0.059
0.251
0.266
0.271
0.264
0.262--
500
U.269
0.262
0.270
0.289
0.268
0.271
277
0.277
oo0.
---
0.302
000.28G
0.299
iftiw
---
----
.-
0.3
028
C.
'
plate glaiss
0.071
WI
5 -0
Ple'Kf~as-,
oh an HasCheicl o.Ferrite
an llas hemcalCo.
Plexglas, obi
104
t jtinl, pernieahifflity, rnagnetticQ, and their proto40F(15
Ii250 C) for sonme ('nmflj)O9itiOns, While for others
Owc curvus tend to po.0 around 390 F (200 C).
There istneed for additional work to Improve the
chiracmotrist irs of ferrites for practical applica-
__more
CMOET
COMPOENTS
Selection of Components
Pg
4loa
IFilniE of zirconium dioxide formed on substrates oi 'luminum highly polished on one side
test purposes, hiave been investigated as a
possible diciercmtra
o
3
50C
if
-
.40p'am
tive also anncarq feasible for use at htizh temncraturc.3. D~isks of this material have been held
ot 4 BOY (253 (' :i der normal atmospheres with
anapplied fivldof-":0volts per "Il for 1000 hours
Aithout excessive deterioration,
d.
Koperation.
1;for
,~The
~~
trodes stillpresenta problem. ZLnc and aluminum are now used almost exclusively. Zinc melts
at 420 C(788 F) and aluminum at 660 C (1220 F).
The Internal temperature of a czpacitor in a 500
C environment would probably be higher than
660 C
(1220 F).
5-7
''I
P
-.
N.
~.
C'.
N.
N.M
'
Viy
ctpe265
*25
Viiiylin
65 *15
Polystyrene, prefoarved
65 A10
Vinyl formal
64
160 *90
Polyniethy alphwchloroacryiats
62
150 70
Polysulfide-epw4
60 40
--
19
e y182
--
Vilnyl carbazole
p~v'?1yk~.140
A35
Epoxy. flexible
60 *4u
U, r~~oie140
1
130
L~thiu m
56
140 30
ulyceryl phAutlaLe
55
Cellulose cvtate
120 *40
55
Nylon
115 *35
Caneisin moldimg
55 A15
Polypropylene
110
Polychlurotrlflu~troefthlene (e.)
55 *10C
110 *60
Epoxlea. unflhled,
65 *19
54 *4
S.)Z
T!2n0!O)
.-Ilullose nitrate
100 123
95 to .55
40
Styrene copoiynw.-
95 x35
45 *25
Chlorinated polyether
80
'15 *20L
Polycster, unfilled
80*:20
46 *15
tirL'.l-m,
80*10
45 *15
AllYls, ca.'
75*125
Vulcanized fiber
42
75 5
Melaznine-for-maldohj'de, cellulose
42 *2
foamred-In-place
Plyvinyl alcohol
Methymthacrylate
l%',,,ii s. unfilled
S-tyretee,
heait resistant
k I.Nrene, unfilled
\o,)ifi,'d acrylic rnoldiing
Lii
filled
70
Polyester liprainrtes
40 *5
70*10l
40 :15
70 *10
Selenium
37
70*10
Micas
37 *10
70 *10
35
Polyester, filled
35*15
0 2
iltt~65
71"'Ir
45 to 251
Cellulose acetates, foamed -rigid
'
'I
9p
'lablo
~:
24 to 10 (continued)
45to 25 (contintied)
34 *5
i
1l1nxy, prcoanmd
ihh'nolics
33
Rsixston filled
.33
'
Gold
1.4*0.2
Nichrome
13.4 *0.3
steel
1q.3 *k1.8
Nickel.
12.8
Indium
33
Thoriurn
12
30 1~15
Nickel alloys
12 :0
FEIxxy. sAiica-filled
30 10
Palladium
Iron
11.7
Beryllium
11.5
28+1
I"d
t'rca-forinaldcIhyde, filled
27GryctIrn1.
M!m' csiu
27
Rlubber phen~olics
27 :L12
2t,
Under 10
9.2
Soda-limne glass
i,
10
Glass-bonded mica
silicate glass9
.hv!'.filed2515Lead
I'hno-fomn'
Quartz crystals
9 *4
Alumina ccrmiets
9 10.5
Platinum
8.8
24 *2
Forsterite
8.5
23
Tournmaline
9.5+*0.8
22
Rho>dium
8.4
'I in
20
Silicones. glass-filled
"7-o 11
20
Alumina ceramxics
'7 A0.3
I lvo!pphr b~ronze.
18.9
Iridium
6.8
18.5 *0.4
Steatitp.
6.6 0.6
18-11.5
Tantalum
6.5
Osmnium
6.1
15
6 *3.5
15
Zirconium
5.5
Mu lamiint'-formaldchyde laminate.
25 *:10
24 to 10
Aluminum and -loya
....
SilVE
C('pper ailloys
0.4
C~1 p:'r
C' 1Iat
ramhy',filled
cimm n~fm
Prh'l~t.
~i
pm
SIm
fiber-fIled
St elb
sjl'cm-mme )mmmifat'M q
5.5 4*0.5
15Germanium
14
4
Silicon
Silicon carildem
-~5
*2.2
4.3
5.9
*-r
toil.', I 0I (iorinuclfli
Under 10 (conltinued)S
1M1olybdo,Iu I
Tar~-,tii4
3.7
F"wlii3.5
:L0.8
)1rronI caubbi(c
3.1
Carlion
JClear
Invar
0.8-
silica glass
0.67
Fuoed quartz
o~
0.56 *0.03
Vitreous silic-a
0.5
funed silica
0.49
fot piastics are gencrnehly appruxiinate, obtained by ASTM test method D696l, and arc pltal
over
3 tCn0Ipcraiurc range of -22 to 4 C F (-30 to +30C)g.-or higher temperaturns. more detailed data Snoq!-'o K.
obtainod (rom rnairfactu~ers Sitnce the CO(ffiLients chanve. ahniDtlv for somne plastieft nt 9 'Peririn tnrmperature. Values for othier muaterials generally apply over the entire range from room temperature up to a;,I
leist 7501 F (.100 C), andi much higher for most metals. Whenever coefficients vary with formulation or purity
of: 1I.Itcririt, thc- average value is given, tollowed by a value indicating the re-age of variation above an.,
hu-l-n this value that can be expected with commercial materials.
%Vircand Cablu. To date, copper isi still considered to be the general-purpose conducting miaterial at 500 C (930 F). /9/ Because of its in--,
fic-rent property of progressive oxidation, how-evcr,t It c~nr.aJt be used unless provisions are
Inat e for protection against oxidation. The moost Ii;.:e v appro~ch. to this protection is to exclude
Inc~~~F
1uu)~p.:
y sui iow-idu.ng ute copper w10,
ai material1 impervious to oxidation danmge. 11
this material is applied in a suff iciently tiiir,
layer, thec conductivity of the entire conductor
is nut m1i1h less tran the conductivity of an equivalpnt unclad copper conductor.%
In genceral., tiec use of aluminum as a conductor
muaterdit at A03 C ib 1iim~ited by the fact that it
has a relatively low melting point, and operation
near the melting point would undoubtedly result
-..i a degradation of its miecha~nical properties.
N, -crtl cI-,ss sonie special -purpose, high-ternperature applications of aluminum conductors
are ant iciontec.
Oimor materials with relativiely 'nnd ronnlueLivity that tiigirthe considered for conductor ap plications at high temperatures are silver, gold,
mag11nesmo n,, .riotybdciurn and tungsten.
rj
have goodvelectrica
a-~t
u rc-.
lOw,-c(i , ustfcoymechanical
properties, hich cost and p~rocurement difficult~uc, %%ilipru barly linitthe use of gold and silver,
Mau:nusiuin has lair electrical conductivity
i!l d L'01 rOSein-re(SiStance prop~erties- but,
ab
N Ni
J,
_%
i
I
k~,
P
;'.
"!
bhj, 5-7.
"1Volme
"_:,,_'rid
Mell Irg
point
C (F)
Resistivity
at 500 C
(10-6 ohmi-cm)
.,
(1760.9)
4.1
I%
ratio*
Resistivity
ratio
500 C/20 C
material at
500 C/copper
at 50OC
2.52
1Weight ratio
/9/
Comments on
material at
500 C/copper
at 500 C
operation
at 500 C
ambient
0.96
Suitable; more
0.8i
costly and
heavier than"'
coppe-r.
.\lutninun
(;60
(1220)
-A ,
cLIO copper
tl;0
(1220)
10
3.82
6.3
1.96
3.1
0.6
1.23
1.20
SlICr-3agnt-siuln
)to
(177t
(.8
1083
(19'I1)
7.9
3.35
1.65
1.55
5.1
5 .1
2.90
2 .9 0
~icke'l
'itt
nickelopi-r
_
6 u
13.8(1202)resistance.
3.0
1063
(Iu ;5.4)
l'1:tiii um
1.33
1.63
j_-resistance.
t, lr
10.s3
(19331)
Mu;nc$st
2.96
6.C2
1773
(2L1)
2.71
J.
1Must
be protected
;' '
0.53
Good corrosion
1.3
2.82
Costly; may
have limited.
application.
31.3
2.9
6.15
3.53
13.7
Suitable for
contacts and
binding posts.
8.4
Soft; corroalon
resistant.
_____)______
7.46
'
"
Permanent
change }n
2.72
( .
Easily brazed;
ductile before
heating.
5,7
3.4
MeltLn', ooint of
aluminum i..
limited.
agalnet
o xid a tio n .
2.9
18.5
..
Z9.I
_5370,
Temperature
rise In apparatus Is critical.
%
%
pittlig
(9).S)
resistan."
"\.,,l'ivd.!nr
9-1,20
15.H
",.I17-)
2.77
3.1
3.56
Oxidizes at
elevated
temperatures.
I tI.(,1111T
17h5
(3137)
76
N'I
1155
(2631)
7R.3
1.
14.9
10
15.3
7.50
15.1
'.
Ceramic- and
glass-to-metal
seals.
Useful as Cle-o
trode or
cladding
yi~ilii1
\*,,.lT~t.~
" ',,ui~lt.s
lecii
yti-clgdi
tic
w-
xjjj
l~i~i
-mAteriail.
11
m-
'.-
'~~~~~~,
..
Amuto nuain(Btu/hr)
Aon fislto
Standard Inairatilin - 1/2 inch
vr2%o
o iega
compar-tment area.
-____
-( by
~~~du(
tin
i/
rfoducng theter.Verature differenfythe use of intcrcompartnrent or intrawall air
flowA.
Insulation of Compartment Walls. In order
too.flectively reduce the heat transfer to a cornpartmnert, tlhe amiount and placement of thermal
inqruLaition b~ecomres important. Just an airspace
ill a hollow wall has good insulating qualities,
1-ut 01C use of insbulating riaterial is better. The
1lib, ker the miaterial, the -better the insulation,
[,lt the greater tire weight.
'rI'(
I T:
1:
Corn~armenstio.
I th inerio oftheyei&h
s ne lprie open space, the heat from hot
equmment will U~w toward cooler equipment and
oevrficat them. By dividing the lntez for of the
vehicle into compartments and properly becating hu-at-vci.,;rating equipment, it is possible to
direct the heat to dhe skin, where It may be dis-
~~
*-
.,.,.
10
tioni.
.i~
..
Heat flow, QW
35,200
______
20,070
12,100
Tbe59
Tal 59
feto necmatetArFo
Fltoor Hnealpramnsfer/Flow
Eff
-____________
Heat flow,Q
Cniin(~/r
Nor intercompartrneiit air how; belly
skin and floor uninsulated.
ljG
5,450
,2
1,785
--
-I
%nec
-,
.A.
equipment
can bc mnarkedly influenced by the choice of cornponents, while the location of the equipment can
determine tiLe problems that result from gencrated heat. Every iUcm should be studied from
two viewpiointa: (1) can a sublstitute be fouand that
w ill vecnerate less heat ? or (2) can the item be
locatced so that heat from it wil not be dh',ected
~-tion
to other items?
'1
-.
Itaal
hc
ytm/O
A:lo
Some cmoetprdc
leshatan
components~~~~
etta
others and ..!.ouild be Used where heat buildup is
aproblemn. F;r examplep transistors generate
Ie-q heat than Ploct ron htiiws rimorescent lamps;
p~roduce less licat thart incandescent Ilarri)s, and
rotating powor-Pupply components produ~ce less
1,vat that, eiectrrrnic types. It sh ould be noted,
Uacolnsytmhtdensupniqd
I
oln
ytmta
eed
pnlqi
and vapor phases is used, such as a ref rigeraunit, special care will have to Li~ taken to
separate the vapor bubbles from the liquid, since
thebiibbtea will not rise without the inituence of
prdc
es
gravity. Likewise, if a closed, pressurized-liquid circulaiting system is useci, care %ould be
required to eliminate all gas pockets friom the
s~ystem so that tht pump will not become vap'locked. fleat removal systems are discus-ed in
later paraSgrapthsrt.eprtcto
HEAT REMOVAL
of present-day ve.4ici !a
tecmlxy
eth
is scththawilstill
build up In the equil
In certain applications, It may be possible to
metoierre
sifcoy
*sbsttutpncrnaic r ydruli eqipaentfor--and life. This heat must be removed by somt
eicdrical eauipmtxit. Such a substitution ie likeHeantreoalinsam
prates
at
thichmittisg
geerate
.~~~~y
to b~e dictated by s~ystems consideration as
Hetrmvli
pocsofrasttn
from a heat source to aLheat sink.
well as by environmental consideration.
\'
-,
t-hirietprtcuarempraur.
"I
__________Spae___
Thermal Systems
A complete thermnal system involves the object.from which heat is removed, a transmission
medium to carry the heat, and a heat sink to receive the heat. Actually, thermal systems are
seldom that simple. Usually intermediate sinks
are required, along with combinations of the three
modes of heat transmission. These three modes
of heat transmission ara: conduction, convection,
and radiation.
C ucieeat
Transfer. Heat is transferred by conduction from one object to another
when they are In direct mechanical contact whitl
otilier.
"~each
774~,
t.
"97
e*p
Theriin~lcontactresiiatariteshojuld be Millutnized
by soldering, brazing or welding. If pressure
joints are used, special care to insure tight. fits0
is required. Also the conduction rath Phould bekept ras short as possible.
M~at-_'ial
220
Gold
171
Alut!rwAni~ j'c)
125
Alumninumi, 62,S
116
gril
I11i1.1-bueryllla ceramlc
I
91Ing
38.7 to 88.7
63.7
El brass
c lwIIa:156Iti
li ~
47.8
Ii I kllrotC
29.6
I~ Tylliur')
]'II( iton
I
1,1wpo;
III
vi'iii13.
07r
. I,, ,I C.
Little or no reliance Is placed on natural convectionfor removing heat from equipment. The
loads in confined spaces require the
~high heat
forced convection to keep equipment ternl
within acceptable limits. Forced conratures
1 pecto
transfers heat from an object at a much
:~~ate
r
than possible with free or natural confate
copl
~h~gresiumsmooth
~.
vcin
ht
e't Lcrd~ictiv.c)
F-rEpd Convectinn/12/
241.
5,
"
D'~
14.8
BoundaryBudr
7777
r77
Fig. 5-6.
of Fluid
t~Bulk
20.5
ae
7
*.r/
.
,
.
'
'
.
*
'~-
*
'I
literns
-~~
can be observed by hinjecting smoke at sevral points ak~ng the flo-w path. if at any point
~4Ilow turbulence exists, willhbe evi~ent by a con)
entrationof smxlke atitMhat
point. When components of different size and shape are placed in
series, the turbuence Will vary Pnd may become
~- undesirably
JoW- in some places. If such spots
are found, the
turbulence waiy bie Increased by
putting "t'irbulptors"
into the air stream. A
Lomio Tur~lentFlowwithsharp-edged plate set perpenidicuilar to the
[Lomio
Laninlen Fblow wit
stream is an effective turbul ator. the action Of
l' lowLan~iar ',v-Loy&which
IF show-ijn Fig. 5-8. Both 'upstreamn ald
downstream turbulators are shown, It ~s apparent
Fig. -7.an aminr
turblentflow/12/
that the tur:)ulator gUhroites the hLFirU Mow
id inFig.5-7.Lampar
nd trbuent low.12/creases
the required blower power by increasIng the number uf obstacles in the flow jh
-,N
____
tusign
rule
of sml
osplaced hi front of a
_____________
Fi,
-.
.*
.k~
-much
-~_____________________.heat
--
Ai
F~1()
**')
He-ourc
Sorc
_7
- -
turulaor.l1/or
Sir - the fluid velocity at the boundary must be
z7io, there is still a thin layer of laminar fluw
unde thetirlulenc.beat
'
-.
.~
':
V,~
stc
with thre
metal contac-t so that there Is a minimum of conTI irlu 1:1toirs, Turb ulent rather than Jaininar
all j tw is dvsi rahle bocause the turbulence re-. 11ts inia niuch thintner li~yur of air at the boundLh rruol~i vl~ili the he;1t moust flow by conductin,. I~~
Ifre-ovcincooled
equiputsil
lr'sostrettrrhrul-ice
near fiei
tc
eitne
3.* Short, rather thick fins ar'e more effective
than longthin ones. The temperature drop from
the base tothe tip of along thin fin may be appreciable, and tends to make tie flin less effective.
/11/
5-15
L
j.w
.3clectin of Blowers_13/
.'
wide range of operating pressure levels. CarefuL evaluation of the equipment heat transfer and
pressure drop is required as the basis of blower
selectlo.i. Once the characteristics of the equipment are establised, the perf irmanceof a blow--
".
fan
from the reduced pressure level, becomes important. Cue'inued reduction in component ternperature can be brought about under low pres-sure conditionsby Increasing the flow rate o( the
internal blower. In such a s!tuation, a requiremont mayexistfor control of the internal blower
to provide an Increased circulation rate. However, such usage is limited, since at low pressures, tho blower power required to maintain a
rasaHflowof air consistent withUiat at the higher
pres:ures results In a significant temperature
i-iso in the air as it passes through the blower,thus limiting the cooling capability of the air.
Z
Whirr bhowers are used to supply air for d1r(o('t dirsipation of heat either by flowing over
Blower Types.
--r~
/8/
"
f
..
..
able types. They are axial-flow types and en trifugal types. The centrifugal blower Is best
suited to produce constant surface temperature
of the cequipment. Ta meet other requireme.tz,
or to cope with critical space limitaUons, th
axial fan may be a better choice.
-F
There are two braiid vana f
Ther
preltw b r no , end
the propeller f-n, and
.a
fl
i
a more refined, suaumwhai moru uiiuILu
usinglnlet, and outlet vanes known as Uto axial
fan
both types the air enters the impeller in
a direction paraele to the Impeller rotrr i\xis.
In current applications, the axial-flow fa.i-Oy of
fan im
uneti
widel
i air.Lak
mpeers
uons
y n
capacities and is well salted for flushing large
volumesfair overequipment components. This
type of fan impeller Is available in a variety of
sizes and capacity ratings.
Propeller Fans. Propeller fans are widely
used for pushing air through chassis compartmentsand overheat-generating compunents. For
it physical sizeandrhorsepowerrating this typo
of fan is capable of moving relatively farge vol.,
umes of air. It Is not recommended wierr; air
is to be moved through restricted areas that JO..velop back pressures In excess )f 0.15 to 0.25
Inches of water. Higher pressures can be pro-
,i
rt
,.
*. ,K
.
"
erally produce more air noise. A typical pocpeller type fan Is shown in Fig. 5-10.
Axial Fans. The axial fan represuntr. A 1-, 1
des-"igFnr7 -gher
efficiency than the propcL,
type, from which it is derived. It features iM;ri.
and outlet vanes that cause a whirl in the ait,
which provides more static pressure than altalnedbythebasicpropeller-typefan. The vanes
also keep the air delivery in an axial direction,
eF.Lablish more uniform flow, and maintain high
efficlencywith quiet operation. The range of air
delivery ratings extends from 20 to 5000 cubic
feet per minute, with static pressures up to 10
inches of water. Atypicalaxial-typefaa is shown
in Fig. 5-11.
y,
:A
i.:
PONq
$Ar,"
Bla des
:t.
a'o
71
oi
ouig-
'
Housinia
Outlet Vomes
Motor
i~r (,it
_-___
ecj-UIyII
icat
:iccv,
ii
n~lI
I.
Fg
__ 1---F
a ic
I.
Lai.y LM U1LLE;a t
5-11.
osn
Hosng
z..
ArOte
irOutonet
Air Flow
Rotor
A fInlet
I'L41ULIAIIII
A'
Natural Cooling~
Free Conve~ction
~~~And
RadialpioiIl
~tl
Forced Convection
Liquid CoolingI
Cooling
I~--.
Direct
F. .4VOPOdzttion
50
0
____
MtcLfec
nba
1-of
~~1 ~'nottake
-
~-~:~4(
~to
(for
to
15
2
internal cooling
sealed units)
Jl
~
L
Fig. 5-V
Heat-dissipating shield foraseeciehtrmolsyem
power tul*.
HEAT EXCHANGER /11/
Ileat rottiv-0a Iy radiation may be increased
by: (1) using manterilas with high ciflissivity and
absorbency; (2) increasing the temperature dtU.
lerential between the radiating and receiving ohjocts; (3) choosing the geometrical shape of the
riai"and recevn
ufcs
ota
h e
-ei vi ng'ol iipt
ic erpt s hi-t
at
rNAIPvo~l metliods.
eyr'hanipr
namert
for
ftn
nnorou$Ina
wir.nviIn
.1104
=Vzw5'.
i-
-j.
.%.
-=4
~'-~
iL~fF~ow
Tcoll FlwTpYlllli-rp
_____or
Contertow
ype
Type with
Crosst'kw
Type with
Reversed- Flow and
1 Shell Pots and 2
4
2ShellVs~i
Posesor
Tubet'.scsTub
rbe Pssesto
Tube
-'oses
Iit'. 5-16. Shiell-and-tube type heat
cxcltm~ers,'l1/placing
to thetube-side fluIid. Fifure 5-16 shows the fouir
yp het echnges.
typs o sdllandtutExtended Surface Heat Exchan~gers
eat
reaer
Forompctnssaddtioal
For reperSaddtioal
ornpac.tris hat
tranisfer surfa'_:v can be olAained by the use of
fins in good thermal conta..t with the primary
11vat tran.11er surface. IThere are muany iypeb of
extededsurace
fo hea exhaners Fiure
3)-17 shows (ofyninonly used extended surfaces
a11,!,liable to heat exchiangers for equipment
c'.lt..Fjnncd-tulbc heat exchangers are ia-rti c-uarly effectivtu when the tube P uid is a liquid4,.
and the se cond fluid is a gas at ordinary pressure. Thcy arc, therefore, suited for the design
oiair-to-wile''orotlihr liquid) heat exchangers
air cooled equipment.M
in forced- conveclloio,
!Lxcihantiers
designut are well adapited to
Shel~l-and-tub~e
pressurc and can easily he deigafned sn that
high
the Inside of the tubes can be cleaned by t rushses
reamers. The outside of the tubes is dliff icult
clean; the shell should contain cle~rn ,er noi..scale-forming fluid. Expansion is easily ziloweci
for by making one tube header floating and by
an expansion joint in the shc~l. Shell-andtube designa are heavier and bulkier thais other
types.
Figures 5-18 and 5-19 show the temperature
gradients existing in tubular heat exchangers.
With counterfiow, the temperature difference is
nrearl~y constant, and the exit, temperature of the
cold fluid can behigher than the exit teukperature
f te ho flid.Allportions of the tube surface
have about the same heat transfer effectiveness,
eauedifecsaent
te
anexrm
present. With parallel flow, the heat transfer
rate Is high over the first part of the tube length,
and then decreases. Initial cooling or heating is
therefore rapid. Parallel flow exchangers tead
to be sho~rter than counterflow exchangers.
Gos
.7
'-
t:
"
W
'-
'
i
'"
trzm.iler
(i[
N~II~
heat.
'fur'are' tw' basic types of paniel heat e.-jYin i~r s. (Oi, typo (thnernt'i-pa-riis) consists of
~his
wth uinble einnbssings weldpd to-
Gas
Air
Finnci` - L be Surface
with Round Tubes
Finned-lute SurfoAc
with Flattened Tubes
and Extended Fins
-
Fig. 5 -17.
ha
xhnes/
/I
5-19
Hot?
inThe
SCold
Hot
out
Ccld
___(1)
.......
Counterftow Exchann'e
Hot
in
Hot
out
---------
out
4Natural
C~old
Lxhngr
Pot ollel -F low rchnesinstances
fie low
attrn 19-
.<~
Forced
*.
convection is
more apipicate to thls phase of cooling than natural methods particularly lifthe ultimate sink is
nearby air. he air should be properly directed
and distributed over the equipmenot. Forced convection at sma~ll florw rates can readily provide
~~n
;-ti
7i re-
ia
~
ZR
A
nntind
n;7_____i~~n
eerl
thera
freeisconvetion tnd oradiation,1n Ceperwa,
0Cprat
nh reo
reitre
square inch can be achieved with a reasonable
certain con-t
will,
under
airflow. Increased flo~w
ditlons, lead to smaller gains, and the point of
diminishing returns will be encountered.
indiErect Liqui
Wri
InI*~
a
os
Hot
B1EAT STINKS
5-2(
-.
xchager,
Mcrsslow
10Closures
Ultimate Sink
ultimate Sink is that body or medium Intowhich the local and Intermediate sinks tranlsfheire there for fonar udissiation For -- os ve-*
out icls thre re our ltiatesinks available:
the atmosphere surrounding the vehicle; (2)
fuel suppliud continuously o the power plant of
the vehicle; (3) liquid carried for heat absorption only, and discharged as vapor; and (4) space
receiv Ing heat from radiatie:x from the outer surface of the vehicli. /13/
The method-of transferring heat from an as-L
sembly or unit to the ultimate sink is dependent
upon the method of heat removal from within the
assembly or unit and the type of sink available.
Its location, and its temperature. The ultimate
sink must be considered, since Whe temperature
of local or int~rmediate sinKs may incre~Aie when
additional heat is akled./llI/
Cold
Cold
In
C
Inak DfUcr
Outlet N4ozzle
drn
h
naepoes
h
ytmI
ytmi
h
rces
gteitk
eZduid
an rr
sytmch,
ai
i ytm
abarctrdleccinyte.We
arasteuimefldisonyddrelyo
andpanse thrcaigh the equipment, the system is
classif ied as adirect system. When another iliald
o
iuedoaisrlatrmtheqape
component, which would be a ufi-It
xhneadtermarcosteecagr
theexctnem,
calledram inirc coolsn
txheasysemr,
The weight and volume of direct ram air systems a?re def ined by the weight and volume of the
diffueijr, nozzle and ducts connecting the heat
exchanger witl, the diffuser and nozzle, since the
equipment is not considered as a physical component proper of the heat removal system. Both
the weight and volume of ah.: system represent
penalties on the flying vehicle. In addition to
these penalties, the thrust generated during the
escape of the ram air Is generally not sufficient
to completely cancel the drag resulting when the
Sy S' CMS
1lhic advag.;oges and disadvantagtes of the various hept removal systems, together with a brief
description rf how they operiie art covered in
the
the follow iro, naragraphs. A dicsinof
dinscusstiongRhare
11 oni-Iraion ivoe
-no, al systom for a particular vehicle is alsoviven. A morethorough analysis of heat removal
Ssesis contained in refernc/,
.-.
bzc t'aaee
Uulirt:ci ISYMUem aLieartod
thnepenalty onthevehicle because of (1) then a. "d
weight and volume of the intrmediate heat exchanger and distribution fluid; and (2) the power
required to circulate the fluid, and the somcwhat
larker weight, volume, and drag of the ultimate
system, this is not j;lways true. In the installa-;A6
tion of complex -electronic systems involving a
number of equipments with varying temrequirements, the use of an indirect ram
air system may 6ave tipacne (because of reduced
ductlrg vilurue) reduce weight (because of reduced dkcting weight) andincrease reliability by
reduct-g dust, niaiaininming better temperature
control, and allowing simpler coolant duct connections. However, the temperature potential
available for the ram air in indirect systems cani
never be quite as large as with direct systems
for the same desired temperature level of tWe
equipment.
ILLIJUMUK1
______
Sstemlarge
10m Airnouting Sytmperature
--
5-21
7.7;.
Even Viough parts may not be desaigned spectfically for liquid coolin~g, suitable mo-ins can be
provdc'forondutintherhettolqui-coled
surfaces on whl.-h the': nre mounted. In this manner, the liquid may become the primary means
utimafconthe equimen foLrn
So~ferencatcthe
icrece
t theultiate
ink.in
Al riicophieric air taken on board a flight veh iue may b'e used fur cooling, without prior conLkitioioc is long as its total temperature is be1.)% the required tempgerature level of he equipr-'ii'cyitbim Served. Whom the itmospherit 4ir
i., u~wd as the ultimate fluid without any intermeidiate rof riperal ion equilrn-. o, and the source
1lressure for overcomnfime flow resistance of
t!c iiltinumtt4 coriponent inj total pressure recov-
'
dt'anta,es
me al :vaten s are:
1. Siniplcity.
2. Low penalty in subsontc flight region,
3. Ease of control.
f:cedom in location of ultimate
4. Possii'1
D1sadvantaeS
1. Relatively
--
_______________________________
-N,
Compressor
1urte
fled
5-21.
r:
Outlel
Nozzle
Duct
uc
n-all
Eechorger
Equipment
1,1
.1
creanedfueltoa
powerplant ofwhen
power
is
fluid
transfer
the shaft
for circulation
extracted
through the system.
The primary advantage of the expanded ramalrsystemisthegeneralpossibilityof using ram
airfor heat removal at higher fiight Mach numbern. A second advantage ci! the system is that
therainairiscondttionedwithout the system rein the vehicle.
lying on any of the powerpants
Thlsallowsfreedom of pcnaity directly imposed
on the powerplant. Disadvantages of the system
include the difficulty nI using the system for
grodccoIing, the added complexity of controlling the turbine-compressor combination, low
pressure levels in the heat exchanger of the ultimate system, and, in some instances, the fact
that effective use of the system dopends greatly
onprovidtngaveryefficientixttake diffusion proceas.
___________
Fileed
Air Cooling System
________________________
'
'
:
'*
SJ
m.
.. s.-.--'
..--.
-.----
--
''ens is lh
bleed air
mint. ofHowever,
Inpurposes
the air forin cooli
abUity
creased over that of the expaned ram-air syntems, sinceforanyflight speed it is possible for
the temperature of the air at the exit of the turbine to be lower than the corresponding temperalure hi an expanded rain -air system. This means
that bleed air systems may be used at higher
flight Mach numbers than either the expanded
ram-air or the straight ram-air cooling systems.
eu
sx5leni
'
5
-
S.
a'-.---
----.
"..
'w-.---.
-.
"'V
tctipl~rni~w urc at the exit of the ramn air inhn i; vi rttle of its higher total ternperaIt) th., riinp re~ssedai r imay Lte cooled and have
11t.1at I empezlaldre low ered by i-am air which
do "i [lot pa,;,;thirough the compressor. The c901liltj ;WoceCsScan taku place in a conventional airta-hcat cxchangevr, where, by using the high air
ci rectiveness of heat exchange on Ithe high-pressure sidc -r dicexchangcr, nearly all heat ener1,y added to the kar during r~aftsage through the
comopressor can be rejected to the rain air on
thei opposite side of the heat exchanger. Thus,
at tue exit of the heat exchanger t~he total pres-
Bleed
PowerAr
Plant
1I~:.
R~
Peolr
v
Omm
Coupling
Exchanger
RmAr
mAi
Compressor
Tbie
Eumnt
'
_>-.
Outlet
'.
*
ofthe air that flowved through the compresappr-Cciibly greater than the total
p~rcssure of the rarn air, whi~le its total temperat-arc wrould
beCthe~i
onily slightlyai.higherheair
thathtoa
temertur
can thenl
lie lnW2through a larger pressure ratio In
turbii-ine, so thiat with an ef ficiency of energy in
the turbine comparabule with that of an expanded
rmm-air system, tlie total temperature of theQ
air at the exit of the bleed-air turbine is lower,
,"d the system t:ooling potential is greater. Usin,, adlitional compression, a pre-cooling heat
~t~~I
BlwrCoigytes'
When items to be cooled ame located In corn-
echangiier,
partments that have a natural throughl-flow, of atcaused by a cooling system mayi be eliminated byi
providing a blower to overcome the flow restopesin
Arv~
stance of any heat exchangers associated with
traddfo
h
opesradt
the cooling system. The penalty of this type of
system results only from the blower and
the orecoolitiL heat exchanver, For tnis conveyedcooling
reason,
its O WCr Oupy
.-isclled
a bleed-air system. A bWock
th-sste
d-22.
ftebee-i
ytmIssonI
i
Blower systems, like ram-air systems, are
~severely
llmitcd in application by the flight speed
Ps-nnlties imposed on the vehicle by bleed-air
andaltitude. The limits imposed by flight speed
systemns are the resil"t of the weight and vc-lume
-are the same as discussed for ram air systems.
ex.terna~l anid nionicitumr drags, the etiuvalent
The size of the blower at high altitudes is quite
large. Also, control of blower systems over
drai, due to air, and shaft power extraction from
the ptr-ierplants in the vehijcle-. The weight and
-wide ranges of flight altitude and speed a~ppears
x-ouin%r-atesysem
oftheul
re hos ofthe
unduly complicated. Blower systems can Only be
ducts, peoertubncmrsoarIused advantageously with small heat dissipation
t
preandootlet,
turbinsem compreossor ahwirh n
at subsonic flight speeds and moderate altitudes.
etand
outleforte
and sytemuio
cotuls. Tnhea
weigh
Blowers des Iged for high- altitude operation uschar ->-~r niust be included with indirect systems.
ually can provide mnore than enough coaling on
A iaj~or poriion of tue sy:;tcax.'s drag is repreL--he ground.
:)
,-I
5-22.
.
ni
.
%
I
Thcn viisits
iiint-d
the bleed-air
abiility ndvanlatmze
tu pirovideofrelatively
high sysisystern tempe rature pitentials t-flight speeds in
the range between Mach I and 2. This makes it
tios~ihle to provide cooling of equipment items
llring temperature levels in the range from
about 130 to 250 F (55 to 120 C) wifthout the need
of e,,( ess ivi-ly hiigh ram and bleed air flow rateR.
1,, provide this primary advantage, several adilti, n il parts must be included: namely a precooler
:mc a secondary air flow circuit, each of which
imici 'ases the: weight and vjolume of the system
-
conhiAerable
thermal
Many arrangements andtypes
of fuel capacity.
cooling systems
are possible, such as: (1) heat transfer to fuel flow to
the powerplants, (2) steady-state operntional con_ditions, (3) indirect systems, and (4) no change1
in phase of the fuel.
77$~
5-23
4"-.
0M.Ad
"
STo Powerplonts
Oistribtion
Fluid -,
Exchonqer
quipri0menC
-Circulating
PUMPp
1i!:.
-- Power Supoly
5-")4
7!
'
4,
Ultimate
[liid lDischurge(
1
K.
j,
Dsrbto
UlimiCUIInot
hxipen
UltrnlcUlimleExhage
iLtd
Fui
-t
Fig.~~~~~~~~~~52.Jaiaraieetoanndrc
Bscln systnemen, fa Idrc
expedablyste.
coo~ng
"brak"bik
--
~-
system.
The
Oln
aaiy
2.Tmertrslvl
3. Weight.
4. Size.
*
eorscepnli.
-..-Rom Air
-Outlet
Distribution Fluid
"
Vapor CycleHetX
Refrigeration
Mochinei
Exchanger
Machine----,
Circulatiot
ng
up
Pm
Ram Ai7
Inlet
Fig. 5-25. Basic arrangement of a vapor
cycle cooling system.
5-25
-R.
sinre
lw
rrdi, ziiga heat pump, the temperature
Cife4Zti-'cneqrs, effiriency, or copefficient of utlill7ation is inmprovcd by sacrificing simplicity of
the System. ThS Overall Cooling Syb1u.m cculd
be a ram air syrleni, or an air system in which
tIbeth.rmal ztatc of the ultimate air is modified
prior to serving as a thermal sink for the heat
pump. Fuel may also be used 2.9 the ultimate
'
IThe
s tha th
i#!
timeof
,)li,; Esten,
timeof sy~e'~,
i~ cv~in s- tha th
for
driving
compressor of the refrigeration
machine
is the
provided
by the power sup! Ss.
temn. A block diagram oi such a systeni is
Equpmnt
li
"
%*
LOW_-TE~MPRr-ATU)RE PROTECTION
Because in-flight compartmernt temperatures
rarely stabilize at levels low enough to cause
seirious adverse effects on equipment operation,
I contactimiCareful
sel3ctlon of materials
;tiffenlng
Uspe greases compounded from sllicones, diesters or siliconedWcsters thickened with lithium stearate;
Stiffewnr;n
syc~tem-j
of hydr.atii
syctteirs
Use uf ,prcpA
Elhimination of moisture b:
~;terProvision
;l
.td
of vents;
ut
-rnpledraining facilities;
Eliminating moisture pockets;
Sultablo beating;
Seaingi
Destice-ation of air.
I )f-'r Ali~t,)t
(.1
1[,-
ai
oft
(I'ir
6.
fo
C' -ck
rd Vibratioin
-skin
-did
.1
The effects on ti vehicle's fatigue lifo of varfous methods of mounting the skin to the atructural members of the airframe are sihown in
Fig. 5-26. When mounted as shown in (A), failures In the skin-occur first near the bolt ',eads.
Mounting (B) Is the same as (A), except that a
laver of bonding mater~al is placed be-tween the
and the structure. With this mc~nzd, the
skin first peels awayfrom, the boridinv, ar~d thpr.
failure occurs near the bolt heads. Thinsoo~
ng tends to last about 50 percent longer than
mounting (A). To eliminate peeling, both sideb
of the skin should be bonded and clamped between two rigid surfaces, as shown in (C).' Failtwice as long as it would with thle (A) method.
ein
1
--
mrprasml
'
(A) ciI
Blonding
'
-2
(C)
RadiusB
-8
(D) f
'
.
L1
Difrnl?0
10
20
O 100
Pressure 6Gpsi Relotive Timne to Fniiure
Fig. 5-26. Rielative Skin fatigue life. Skinl
gage is 0.032 inch; linear dimensions are
5-27
-~~~~~
--
- - --
-ir--
iP
by
caused the
stressea
reducee- 6e but
to
ca.nfortunately,
envkronment;
the extrn'l
a'.is.
the hinge
ingbeabout
hydraulic
using
by pla.lng
prevented
can g dam
Buffeting
most
cause
stresses
intcrn.l0y
ti-,oble andgenerated
can be contero
led to
sometheextent,
of
wake
lie outside
they the
so thatwhich
lift. surfaces
other
parts from
air flowthemay
sep-
Vibration
Vibratisonant
dan noos-eeaigeupetcn
isegen"erai
ongI toqu iipmiena
!;; uring
by
l
c-pec1tal mounts to minimize
the tranBrn,-rlon of strcsses to the skin. This
is co%c:d laj.r in this section.
L2o j
rfirm
U IT Ip
(A)
Ft,
(cn,,r"
,41(,
Acc~rCoUC Constwoion
5 -21;
dnd
-U-
*ll-no*
k-
are mounted on short, thick supports. /8/ Wiping, or follow-through contacts, such as used In
a stepping rUlay, UIIUUld bUused wiheeale-v
possible. This contact arrangement will not bounce
open when subjected to shock and vibration.
Relays should be-used in the energized positiorn,
if possible, as the holding force Is greater, and
there is less danger of inadvertent opening.
Adequate current should be supplied to the coil
to obtain the moat armature attraction.
w;nd;rq
-J
u.
&AA~
___V
9(
-~
Rodial Krlurl'ng
Atten-.pis to Prevent
Turning of Terminal
Inserted in Proper
Size Hole,Knurled
Shonk Prevents
Turning of Te~rninol
U Il/
/nri
ntld
KnuringShank
Ru~
Radial
IKnurl~ng Grip
l Dependent on
1
KuldS~k
Grip Is Not
Oependent on
Tight Swoging
"t
'
-'.4
.,, A.
__X
gl
wogngWirine
J'i~ ~-9.
teminl
Kurld pots.cav.6.
Fig.5-2l. trmin
Kurld pots.and
~~
tL
'
Soft
inser
Inner Nut Slatted
above This Face
aP~l
Q'.
ti e
Metal
Standard
clinch nut
fllf 1i mcd mnwvtrlarly to igtrip screw thread tightly.
W0'.1itsv o)f il1astic Stop Nut Corp.)
-2
Nylon
Miniatuie
clinch nuts
7"
Stud
Slide
-_qar
-.
mcy
.sbi
-turhefaseneruthatlocks
Quart~
ortobjhtsgduringseparation
ofpcto
rotatin
acith
ineairasyequarter-tur n astener fctorsast ofptwoe
ofr CflcFsenrCr.
(Courtsy
piseced toth
f
onjet
partiabl, wndiohescnit ho
kindhave vaindouf
types ofaiheale for operation,
reqithsrewdrivners afoin ore&nthe fasngers Son
Fi. -3. uawrtun
asenr ha lck
faojeters havei de~rteontso.te
eie
olc
eleent
agains inadvertent losnig andtin
r!ethem
othrf
careo hasene
tobetaentoavi
turin
(Ctheme
tonyfarso that thyrlasteer
inadvertently
Moarst and othere
fastnerstnee snepieciall
Bohae
kindshavevariostbes of acstndfor soperalio
uihse
rwries
roun holes.ngrsSni
ali
hnaboth
artstorohrceistolk
holtenes
Fim gurin34strsnadvertenetht
oosnsists ofdan
samerfastener instalbedtketo
holvtoiparnelnto
gther isofa show ina Fig. re35.aTe studvsertn-y
F~~~~~~~~g.
~~~
5-f5 Qure-unhatnrintleeosl
Ms a
e fastailedrso thaeiei specalf-retaiping
nuldtwohcrhoreso
artst
iha iothmart rebed
to
fas thned, f.tseverais
Fig.
rclosing
qurtr-ur
--
F15-35.~
opend. Thebyad
receptacle.
a-ye
iatchdoiTshprt
saner havertene
tensale adtohoar strepaths tof
sthear stents
sown 300 and. 10350 posunds.
fastener
Eymybeit~ds
A frtiona-turn
htIuntle
sing a rubetaininvc
that sIde ofte
heoledin the. pa~nel and
theed
frhe
isc
ahown
inFigttached toitfastene
hasther
c01 wldevc ng The studs
portfn and1
fasc
iavturnted, thenspilang
sihea
ids then Msof
2(Jand
pulsth pounsee tighut. mt esle2
o
hur
tgetagainrst
wo pats
~i
~Y~nit
1-ig.
~
~ ~
of Gad-RbberCo.)
ru'al Trc
I z
of
1Y
c i
stregth
s. ofif~ir
h 30 np-ld
asn'er15 fastners.ow
g..- , istuseurn f asteneruing panrber lecoy
thres Texpanstencr areda diectione
toperitueez
oagaindt
rheplaemenof
thoequipmWentneandoie
hars inecam deviscond
Athe same
potioneanhey
r is turngd tenoughito carry airborei cIpnLi~teca
sha
Af
...-.-*-
rv-TtrllFasenes.
racionl-trn
~ 5e ~ narcreapia
'Ire~
~ ~~~~~I
idl
movl
eplcemntof
ad
I
i-wti)rm-Tur
racionl-tun
Fatenrs.
prtsin
afewsecnds.At
odesinendto~pemi r
quimet ad5ohe
he
ame
imethe
vibration. The first consideration is the location of a part with respect to the linear dimenslons of the structure or chassis on which it is
mounted; in other words, whether P. part is put
on the edge, the corner or in the center of U
structure." The second consideration is the
orientation of a part with respect to the direct..
ion of shock and vibration excitation. And the'
third consideration Is the manner of mounting
oni
the part.
Knurled
Outer
-Nut
*t
Parts Location
Three basic considerations are Involved in-protecting parts from Lhe ef ects oi shock and
Box
.,
Equipment
",,
.y'
'
The following is a list of parts-location techniques and considerations for designing equipment to be used in a shock and vibration environment:
1- Maximum support ahould be given to parts
of ,umximum weight,
egt
raiu
2.
Sufficient space
r:
andmounts.
equipment
of plane
parts of
gravity
3. Centers
to the
close
be kept of
should
4. Heavy parts should be located at the corners or sides of a chassis, and lighter items
should be centrally located.
Parts should be distributed about the
'Rack
/f_
C.--'d
j_
P-5.
(,Me
:hrPulld
Up
'
T4] irn.
#7.
mmeritand
Clan p Assembgy
Swurj L)Qr,
J'iit. 5-38.
-
'
I
sible,
iDr]u
plane
t.of unq
A
..
Serrated
.i
Aaced
l2
71MiiP
X.
bration frequencxes PMo ag tie axis, sornecCofltact chelter occurs but the degree of chatter
varies depending on the contact-tip pressure for
the particular relay design. Severe chatter occurs at or close to the resonant f requencies of
the relay's contact support members. Contact
chatter also occurs as a result of shock fnrces.
Axis 2 of the clapper-type relay appears least
sensitive to shock and vibration. Unless specialized clapper types are used, there its assurh ea
ac fotmmrlypromnei
Is oriented so that acceleration forces are diaxis 3, the
axis. isAlong
to thisrelay
rected
not considered
c~apper-type
averageparallel
An indication of the importaace of parts orientat ion as a protective measure against shock and
vthration can be gotten from the following diareTlays.
cub",ioI1
LAf
R~w rlctattn.
he elayrnn~ wih te
cfctror t .Tc as one of the major sources of
realfat..tion in airborne equipment. The operit ion 14 ;1 relay wider conditions of shock and
vibration is generally unpredictable. Typical
shock and vibration failures are: contact chattering, nrmnature binding armature jarring from
p-aditin, and mechanicai warping and breakage.
When cantilever mounted and vertically oriented, relays with long body dimensions cften ampiythe mechanical excitation appearing at
their mounting base. This undesirable cornhination is shown in Fig. 5-39. From the 10-g
motion of the base, successive amplifications
occur until a 30-g level is reached at the armatore.vironments.
___
t~:~e-~s~
Te clpper-ype
hea.y~.
caecoidrleotcthte.
Rotarv-Tvne Rela.
-~-*
At Lowvi
toibrtiu
sockLnd
alog ais . Atlowvi-
A3m0ur
--
TI/
-Flebe Ctassis
Motion atfStructureT
2/
1 ij 5-40.
('lapper-typr
rela1
sand axs
toshock
i-lnc vibratinalon
fastist wh.
Aiemby
-Conact
s~ert~yWhen
o fetdb
~nral
linear vibration- 11Is sensitive only to rotational vibration In a plane perpendiculaur to its
axsP
.
'
can be accomplished in tube mounting is to s-ubJect the entire tube to the vibration existing in
uother
Ttypkl
i
fleclamps
ieho
the
beynd
a~scbly
the , nvironmenvironmtingts,
yp .AP'
Fig.,-42
,' r
"
,,
notbut
only
mountin
ThemotJon
the c~hassis.
strict
the tube's
undermust
shock,
shoIre-
S-
,;
.I
largely
_ncrease tbe natural frequency
of"''--
Ircquencies,
Parts Mount;-.g,
Tie r,,sonant frequencies and behavior of any
part, fer csidering its shape, mass ditri-to
I-), the mounting
ethod used. The madting
r:pisthe
e aspect of design over
Sdemter hat, the r.reatest control
'.e.tirr:
methdds for
common eieb-ratin
troinsc
parts
are
t
escrily
d
in
tFlis
sectiop to
s
the wide Iatstude the designer has in so-
tgbeTyertsorampyif
);
"-,
:.,
"i
'I'-
,_
thebase mo
.. ,
..
.i
'rj
'- r_
"
soon tof,
a-',,
disi
cprotheitubelbctitsl
bsheldn
with
them-aa~
seuI
tonn
the chassis.y Howre bdse-gripped
fto the base-grippin. type. There
p
.inNto general types of envelope-gr ptphg tube clamps:
the
post"
ant the shield
The "hat
hat andher
part typeorampvailable
in bans type.
gular
T ube
lettes, size
Theglass
one envelope.
shtelds,
shown In Fig.
5-43
is for ina adred
ecri
ei
a
cmperature control give te rtd mechanical ty
protection and help hold It in its socket. Many vartthe tube e crael
etype
tubes is
5-44.
ietie ofofminiature
ttbe shels
r shown
aaiale inaig. crdeeeverkl
Transistor Mountin
Although inherently"
l, Oir,.: a mountigarme
ntFaeer
o
re-sistar t o shock and5 vibration, transistors
use in r"untiendg have tmen covered previously
can fall because
-g
improper mounting. Figuret
irc 4i' 5en.1,i'.
5-45
of
tran
tors
h
einrhotegets
oto,
tpeo shows
iitr feve types
ue
ssonI
tg that
~4aremps
mounted
Th various
ways,
The transistor
r
alr tp )n Tus Mountint.sLxcept forthespecial
In(A) Is screwed
to the
chassis.
The type shown
shown
(Ar:nOf.IenIT"
,
i
_h.
atta tus,
the btsa that.
in (oe) has a threaded stud that screws into a
net~c~dsforseveal
tr~~
... cmmondK,
urmnT,
ecix 7
=rt tinOr etont
";
..
"'i
,,
".
"
J.3
t4
(A) (B
(A)
(1
(C)
W
4i.
rvy
II
(Esistora
ftassos
hcait sink. From a shock and vibration standpoint, thiesc twc types are desirahlc because
(C), (D), and
thy [-te scrl.Tansistors
(E) do not fasten, as securely as the other two,
anjd other menics moust lbc used to insure their
loas,
maes hic
hemvulerale o s~ck
ype (D, i usall __
boads ith he o
sidchataganst
he oar, ad shuldbe eld
to~ihco.:1rtb:j soring clips or wire straps. The_
flat, hutton type, (E), roay be used without retauners, if mounted on a printed-wiring board
"-itli Lthe leads holding the base tight against theled.Both of these types are less susceptible
to iaiiurc if a coating is used to make the board
and ~l~r~-trigi
Th coting~,in mtakse,
te rwansli or 'adie're to th board.
and Te
ibrtjo.
lng
rined-wrin
WiO~t~dOIL
Transfornier Monig
In many cases, a
tr-)S o-rier istTihe hieaviest part on a chassis.
'Ile transfori.,cr should have strong brackets and
Ibc siicLurcly mounted with large bolts. Fre--.-.
cluunilty, the transformer is mounted on a re- lativviy flimsy chassis, which lowers the chas- z_
-is' resonant frequency to a point where It is in12cp
the. shock and vibration spectium. Thus, Input -int eurations are 4.roplified by the chassis, the
Ssor on the chassis itself. Careful attenlion to)inountivi will prevent the transformer
fromii llrvakintog loose.
(apaicitor and R-sietor Mounting.
Mounting
catu t aiJ~~iliF~W~~TrledsIsat
2 iJecnonnclinstall alion. Components
:onodI ry thinir leadt: are masses supported
The method of mounting capacitors and reby using short leads as their supports
may be acceptabla in conventional aircraft,
where the high-frequency excitation is of low
value. But, when this method of mounting is
used in a guided missile, where ehans.sla vih-;tions of appreciable magnitude may oxd.A or
long periods at frequencies coinciding with the
ntrlfeunyo
h edmutdpri
may be necessary to clamp or cement the capacitor or resistor to the chassis.I
Proper mounting techniques for both fastened
and lead-raounted capacitors and resistors Incorporate many minor but important considerato.Freamlsshw
Inig -7th
lead should be handled carefully with proper
tools to prevent nicking or scratching, and the
lead should be glven a slight bend to allow for
temperature contractions of the wire between
the component and the terminal.
Proper design of equipment structure can ml!
nimize the effects of shock and vibration, and
cgntrol the transmission of shock and vibration
excitation. The mounting structure generally
takes the form of a ractL. and chassis. Structu-i
ral
th
ak-may vary from a simpl~e mountLeth toaecmlxcntucinta
ne
ngratstoan
couimpentconstruct~io that vate
grome man
s
equipmenabxts; th chaplixmay in~
ar
a
hsi
ht omterc.o
Nomte
a
o hsi
httomterc
Nomte
the design of these structures is esseninaiLy a matter- of providing the best strengtn
and flexibility. A rack or chassis that is too
30
3C~
____________
-15cp
*20
~5-
57P
90P
1.2 2.4 36 6 12
Minutes
36 1
Time
4 6 8 12 20
Hours --
..
Halndling, Coonvenience---
Split P61thce
Terminal
Considerations./19/
Solidly
increase ti-c rcnanant frequency.
mountedi eouinment maust be inherently rugged
enough to ivithistand the shock and vibration environiment without the cushioning of isolators.
Ruggedization can be incorporated into the
equipment hby numerous conventional tinchniques,
as well an 'by special methods such as embed-I
ment and nifniaturization.
real hir
die parts
j
I
I
Rigidity Factors
TPhe response of a structure to shock and vibrat-ion excitation is determined largely by the
excitation frequency and resonance charakcteri:;tici3 of t'14 L,.ructure. The stress characteristics of the structure depend on the choice of
in:Lterialb. type of structure used, and stress
manufacturingtd.ilributioiis resulting Irom
O .iy stress distribution is covered here, sinc;
nmaterial and structure characteristics are part
oi inechanical engin erring. Isolation of the
stru('ure r.~quire9 the use of an auxiliary protccti-.c iysfe~m; this is covered later in a seiparatc suction.
(it
ri
n.
Cemet orCla
pi
`,
10.2 x 10~
Magnosiumn
6
6.1 x 10
Mteel
28-31 x 10~
Drass
13.4 x 106
Copper
14.5 x10
-6
-
at UIliure frequencies-
WS7.'#
I
I1
Send
Deg
must
round~rmina
mus
4PegArUsed tormandle
sen
5S-olid-Post
U dt
lerminal
..-
_split
rstthe
-..
~-
The response of a structure to shock and vibration excitation is determined largely by the
excitation free~uency and resonance cliaracteristics (if Ube ttucture. The stress characteri,-tics of the struciure depend on the choice of
materials, type of structure used, and stress
C.?iy stress distribution is covered here, stince
material and structure characteristics are part
inn atinqn ni th#3
enr'un.pring'
v!, ,prnec.n~ral
strurture -, quires the use of an auxiliary protective systemn; this is covered later in a separate section.
5.
Tenme
fsrcu
In the mounting sysTenme fsrcues
tem should be minimized. Making the remaining structures as rigid as possible will further
increase *the resonant Frequen cy. Solidly
mounted equipment must be inherently rugged
enough to withstand the shock and vibration enwih-u
Si'.mSS~.~
j.~,
xcttoni
'
If,-
~ J~ia-
au.
Terminal
ben ofalw
xiainI
vlue.-he
Cemen-SorlCla
Handling Coenveni~ce--.
low
of
end oadThe
Usedto
or Hndl
_$light Bend in Lead for.
Relief of Strain During
Tdepeatur Chenges
th
c~h=1i
o~
1=solatorn.
?
.
Rigidity Factors
E (lbs/in. 2)
Aluminum
10.2 x 1
Magnesium
0.1 X 10
steel
28-31 x 10~
Brims
13.4 x 10~
Copper
14.5 x 10
,___________-
-A(A)
Angle
1-3eom
Stondnrd
Wing
IChannel
Integral Stiffener
Channel
S if
,L
"-....L./
H- SoonFig. 5-48.
External Stiffener
Zee
Te-
Is)7,
shpes./ 9/
"
square
"if-beam
fullflls
!St
-thaBs
or-nt-t-
in
the vertical
e
F
,
30.6*1
axis,
-2 C,
9 0.4t
0.2
"i
.i
tOe
.
St iff ene rs. Stiflericrs increase the natural frequency andstrength of a structure.
,.1
Q8
0.8
,
,.0
these require-
the
V.
-
"
tica"!ly ns it iis horiznta!ly with equa-l deflectJons in each dirction, then it should be three
times as stilt in the vertical plane. This means
that the moment of inertia in the vertical plane
mosi*t be three times that In the horizontal plane.
"
.,
t-uu
Ou0
400
ness. ParomeferS
500
Fig. 5-50.
They can be
Integral stiffeners
ii0
.:Stiff
on box-type chasla./19/
oIi,
R*
-~il-'
-)~~Fiti*
--
..
-"...
j-
Tho-;tlflnoiispararneter S Is a dimensiontess -
and Is deteriniecd
(lumlily forniula.
Te formnulabyis:an euipirically
orff.od
d
T
d,, r I
S s (I + Ae2)
Db
wher'3:
*
,
tefore
fener, lb/in. 2
;'ti
'.
U
Bending
Z,
Formed Chassis
,-
in.2r--
cetroiofsiffeier
e frm
ditanc
stiffeaer-,
centroidof
from
e =distance
ncperly
width of chassis, in.
12 (1 -or2)
where
."
formed (2) providing bend-relief at corners, (3) fIlleting at all changes in cross section,
(4) avoiding sharp cornered cutouts and nutches,
and (5) planning hole shape and location with a'
view toward their effects on flexibility and,
strength.
--
of elasticity of chassiss
Ec = modulus
2
lb/in,
h = thickness of top of chasais, in.
a= Poisson's ratio for the chassis
material, dimenrionles6
ping.
'
:.
.
stiffening
.\
.
.
."
,.
.
.,
.
"
"
:
.
:'
This is
StzcsR Di~te'ijuttons
The stress distributions within structural materials have a decided effect on how much shock
and vibrationthe structures can take. In a plate
thathas no bends, cutouts, or sudden changes In
cross section, the stress is distributed along
many lines parallel to Oie dirccticn of stress.
If the plate is bent, perforated, or drawn when
Lbeing iormed, these stress distribution lines
have to pass through or arcound the deformation.
This results in stress concentrations, which tend
to increase the deleterious effects of shock and
vibration for chs.
Stress concentrations can he mlnimizedby (1)
nraking sheet mental bends goner(us and pro-
i
-
,
"
5-38.
.......................................
..............
..............................................-
Vise
Viscous Daminln.
frtvtn
Stretin
oveobetween
7
/f\
(A)
Stretin
urea
'
(B)Fd.
reaieeocybtwnly-S
isoften
cof
ercossn
M= proport ion osity)
fce
fvsoly
Damping
where:
iamsimiartgta.d
ap
Hysteresis damping I~sA,
theulgra~dual dissipation of energy
w_
______
Liquid
otlin
Temperature
F (C)
of viscosity
(dyne-seec/cm 2 )
68 (20)
0.01
1,14
0.34
Damnping
Water
60 (16)
100 (JE9)
60 (16)
100 (39)
6.6 1
1.27.'
60 (10)
100 (39)
3.62
0.69
Giycerine
68 (20)
8.60
Castom oil
68 (20)
9.80
_______
5-39
"P..
that occurs within a flexing body due to im1-rfnr'tinnn in the elastic properties of mater-
where:
~-
h
I h
_______static
--
-20ficiemfl
04
-Material
steel
Ruer30crmo
aom
Rbe.3
0friction.
~friction
rme
Rbe.6
Neorn
.6
.2
04
00
00
02
r'p
i
.
.m'
r0.3
~
v
*
j
r
iK.
!* r,
*
T1
of static friction:
5C
Fa- the force, applied in the dlrecof motion, just suff icient
to atart the object moving'
~Cs
C).-
0.01
0.05 010.5
1
Viscous Damping Ratio, C/Ce
1ig. 5-53. TransmissibilIty at resonance as
funcmtion (if dLamping rat io./W9
*here:
CC
;4~i
0.0005
.2
00
01
F5
5-40
0.01
.U4
.4
floerbr0.3.1
SlcnIubes.3
10
4tlion
7~
*dicous
ts do
ratio
211
Cc:
0
coefiie
(h)
T =trnsmssbiltycoefficient.
W,hile it is con-rnmonto express hysteresis damn-
______________
Hptemala
Cthetic,
ax=__
quvl
Euvl
~~for
2T
pigrtoTable
dapig
atofor
_d
Fe
sufazcea together
'
S inilairly, a force Fk, required to m ~ve an obiect with uniform speed arainst friction, is de-I
It-k~Ck~
,14
WO
12
C
Z~ K)
z
Witn coulomb damping the reduction in amplitude in successive cycies is a conntant quan-C
tity and is given by the equation:Or
E
4-N
6X= 4F/k
where: AX
F
k
th friction force
C.,
001 0.005 0.010 0.015
damping force
~cntn
irdi it.
The
ofnecssar
moni
dapingcan~
terinined using Fig. 5-54, and plotting the maximur pemisib~
trnsmssiiliy
dsird
against the spting constiant. For example, if the
equipment weighs 20 p.ounds and causes the isolato
itisenwhih
~uned o delec 1/ involved.
the spring constant, k, is 40 pckindt3 per inch. i
Lii.rrrximu
trnsmssiblit isto b 2,the
rati
orc to prig cnstat mst
ratioinofdampng
lie between 0.00875 and 0.01275. To provide
this ratio, tne damping force must be between
-cous
-alent
Mir Daz~
Air damping results from the
di~recttraiisi r of energy From a vibrating Bystern to air. In reality, air damping is a form of
viscouti dampinig. At room temperature, air has
bOumt I1/50th the viscosity of water and the dampin)(,
obtained Issmall compared io other forms
of viscous damping; thecrefore, aMr dampers are
preferred over f rid iou or viscous dampers only
for isuiatiirg iirlhtweight cmoetwalls
A vibrat ing obj ect surrounded by air has forces
iniposied on iI.
by the air mid these forces are in
a (iir2(tiolm oppUoed to the Velocity Of the ob~ject.
1,or f ree vibration, air dampngii
produces a loI'r ithillic decrement, as dto hysteresis and via-
damping. For forced vibration, the damping force is proportional to the square of the
velocity of the support. Air damping is usually
saefx
ovneci
em
fa qt
viscouc damping value. Ccxnputing the
equivalent damping of an air damper Is extreme ly difficult due to the number of variables InThe equivalent damping value Is ob
a
ined by measuring the maximum trantsmis
ibility at
ofThc
a vibratory system contheresonance
dampth.
thein
4
mpis
ing
ha dampintmus
Th
cm grete
retr
map
tann te
f--h thenamnissib tyo valiue i(konIheeuv
alent, damping valuje can be obtained iE-cm I, ig.
A useful type of air dlamping system Is the
or!ifced dashpot. Trhis type of air damping systern does not depend on air viscosity alone,
since adiabatic characteristics and turbulence
enter into its operation anid make It far superlon to free air dampirng. Such an air damping
system iIs shown in Fig. 5-55. Thc damper iG
componedof a piston that fits tightly against the
of a cylinder that has two holes InIts head.
When moved by vibration, the piston causes
pressure changes within the chamber that force
air through the holes.
Air damping is incorporated into isolation
mounts by means of a bellows tliat forces air
5-41
777',1-
'A
'
~at
pe,
Baic
Fig.5-55
ar dmpin
eytem.l9/of
eral movement of the mounted object, the bellows is elstorted, also resulting In pressure
di"Ierptalpandth move-mcnt of 2ir I-- and cu
.'-.d
core. vvI
Mea-pigIoaos
aosaehd
The volurle and the wall thickness of the bellows are critical1 In the design of an air damper.
ill
te wlls
bllow ar thn, tey
Iff te
wen presurebuldup.The
strech
hereIs
a-Imount that the bellows will distend determines
flie ability of the damper to absorb shock, The
hc-ta
tehghrte
misione thfacl.,
* mi5i~Y) ac~r.elements,
ar dmp n~ ormlly
b relizd
shoud tat
htardnpn
omly
it shudb-raie
hutde ad cnno ecuse at
has
imiatins
._.itremocIv highi altitudes or in outer spacE-, unless it is empnloyed within pressurized coinvart-
hold.'
ornruobrhat
ai
cofl
corilg
spriint' and woven metal mnenh. The constructinn of the Isolator will result in a certain spring
ratu that will largcly determine its performance.shorws
aricc.isolator
nag
Metal-spring isondiavntes
Measrng
7;: 7
'
'
il;
!KX,;
2i
'F
,~
Mn
aui
r~~
core.
I
,r
5-42
~~
~ 7. ~thyA,
4tL %=;7~i
'
.,
g devices,
Ericoatr liequisrelatxivery long
which may consist of vented air sacks, friction
or metai mesh. Metal mesh is a nonlinear apring- of knitted wire danped by the
riction between the interlocking wire loops. In
some applications, inesh is used simply as a
friction clcment and bears no load.__In oithers,
ruhlher.
VibraItion Isolators
euipentmay~
*jedforairxfre
Isoltor
cajegorized dccording to the construction and
lmn.Termate
ubr element.cnu
coil sring.
ae jlUClitereIlin
Aueintersilient
miitetle mesh
c-i
qupmn
coprdtrubriotrs
do not drift, are least affected by temperaturOB
found in flight vehicle environments, and their
Mtls rin
ieI
eaieyin.
sevc
~wflt5.the
*
j1
of the bellows.
'
Vol~*..~b
"~
L
(
CoreTable
-Moeta-ehFito
lmn
SnuberShock
-Load-8cearing Spring
Fi.5-56.Al metal, cup-tp e vibration
isolator with metal mesh as Iriction elenio./1n
sltosaplitude
17-25
Isolat.:irs
Vibration Isolattors
cppa natural
freqiuency.n~na
eeet
nonliniea.inrorolna.
Natural frequency
Natural frequency
changes with high
changes lI.ttle or not at
oun''
vibratloa.j
all with high amplitude'i:
vibratiofi.
,elln
-highly
/B
02-Isolator
0o.08
Shock
C
E
Shock lsoliatos .
ibation
t
Isolators. /20/
Vihlration isolal ors are ineffective against shock
00
-hic
huck isolatora do not protect equipment
.0
frorn vibration frequencies below[2-timerE the
ioa''sfundamental, which Is normal-ly the
nighcr frequencies. Consequently, the selection
0.02Fo1 the proper isolator depends on the frequencyI
and magilitude- of the mechanical excitation and
frequently rtcquires a compromise that will best
ol
satis4fy the conflicting requirements.
Neithier
0
ishi)'c
nor vitbrat~orl isolators are effectiveFrunccs1
waijiit Accustic nois~e excitation.
iyufat in
Sti ff
Fig. 5-57.
'
I
10
I
20
wi
30
40
50
60
of
isolators./20/
The nature ci shock can We visualized by considering that thesupport to which the equipment
Is attached suddenly acquirea a hig], velocity.
The mounted equipment' Ymust move with Uhe
support at substantially the same velocity anid
displacement. fly Interposing renillent shock
isol ators between the support and the equipmeeit, a longer period Is allowed for the accelerations and fortes on thet equipment 1trE reduced. knergy is transferred to the equipment
5-43
'i-I
ON
'.tlnr
a
0
Deflection,R
Mounting System. The tyeof inounting system useQ JLuences the isolator horizontal-tovertical stiffness ratio. For example in un-
50
9\\6
e\\
s0
.E 10
5-71j
'
ki
'\ON
0\~
9
AO q0
4.
0
-'3
20 30 50 70100
2 3 4 5 6 8 10
Noturol Freqtiency of System, cps
"'
0.
fA
12compress
,[qir~entF~ailiy
Lvelacting
wi/~vth
s-olo lurs)
,Lqu
met
aionf
isolator
tolotisifeso
hdsl
slw
aI
0nv200 300n4001600
Frequencyio
cpse~y
sinle-atieingmaevebratsuchoatosstarnedhoneardrgane-vertical
unorntelw
climbsa
roll
equipment,
~
~nxninlees
~
~taIth i-~
fih
d veh(i)leravit aststounmoawithrespc toth
bratgo at60 disceeofreunista
equip-en
fith uv
fro
a the thoulbi osla eread lodwhen boletting isoafovr tseletel iofaorthe mc
vibration
envrnment
(C,
The equipents ofhngnfo
thee manuer nt
nta
in()ad()
shown hr ssldc
vibration isolatorsIogar-eA
Fnigre 5-60 shWs
complish~~~~~~~~~~~~I
h
he
evl
hw
ttetfteve
lhsOjcie
sflbght
(And
the
isolators
arec
areth ve,fagliy
he evl i ibatone
ntM perotecting thdeuripma ent.rt
lmbo
nla h
gaiyacst
-g
of~vibrain reeah fi the()
,an thets
eqit metio
equipment
~ tleve
~~
touhtesoar.Sth
ro
tia p isoleatiorndu toamahuerbotto result
Wheip
vibrtio
eiscrcts onqunce
thoatrs
bro aitla
themons
acsrooum
Isn
ceeatgiong
hon
tti
eqipen
i hhghviomet that ~
tfrgiy
oflevel iba
abhe tqipe
''
, p ins sof icnetontac
na ve w ay d (rother
vbainIoator
belsown40 cpB.
fraunce
Fiues apt t 0 how howl
o
snb equipmandth Isolfor aed
the
teopullo ut
50
belown
ah thre levels
normaeyctie
Vopibrathion
ar Iensfand lity leveoi
al ur
thleve i vibr ato exnop
otingthe eqipconnct~o.
ubrit
ciain andaer
of vibration
are necesar
iechn
tohb
eqipe.Montinroghthee Ipmntonla
oltors. giveatictueertode.t
anuel
eut
his raisesr
confierabl
vibrationIsltr.Weohnevlo
thisi howver
where thel frgiit
nosin
aceesto
leT ohe equipmentfrgltle is highest
A tall pins,
equipment atrwtyfrom thporns stbiizr eponr-on
above 30 pt
csto tralsmiat
fedlece
ibralown4
frqecps
om
motn ucto
ntepoetv
cedtionor shock
system. Underpl-ot treso qipmnt
below
frqany and alsoe
Visbelton te natrmallya
cies.
c~ the
oontn
equipment.o islthes giequp
aouott 20y
frqunc
the fsystem. amehis, traiefos
dpror considerably.
alfeo~y
swayitd
thatra boto
Thee tope of thebquimenion
isbeo a w
e
aua
f I t requ
e
ny nd
a~ILa Vlsobelo
~
A ngthe drglifyI'
feretil
clas ification ofe equiy-1
p
te
uimountin sytsbotem. Th mounstrucio
m aswand
hies', ahrefogher, bhombderor
c argo,traier, he
countingal, attblzrI
hof o
how eqipmn
Fig t an
licopler~
~~~~~~~on
anfisl.Teeae
motn
iiesabizr
effe o trivelyhsnstiffness ionbter
oftesenigve h~ce, seofthehreuimn.Astblzrprvnsti
Fern si Co
tn h ditigns
hieprorigtifnto.
o clxblt
nex
ittions farom the sbpowerhppnn.
Each~~~~~llcec
tyeoOlgtfchcehsadi
n
onigsse.Tecntuto
h
ffih9e
re
ffpo
n te clsiiain
Amongth
licplat,
a~ndie m ansieuvTers, wreind pufftang adiTesalzrefctvyhsnotfnssnte
froduced bn the tyesg ofpower vehile
lnse
. soJ theL
F7
ferentrepnet
excitations
aro
proie
yrcpoawer
te
Ja~din,,shok.Further complications are Inrokets.
*.~-
While i,vlators are selected maintly for prot'uctieri against vibration, shock
must he gvnCnieaontoo,
environments
hfe most se-
()-
(B)
Level Flight
Near-Vertical
Climb or Dive
(C)
Slow Roll or
Slow Loop
5-45
,777M1
.r
--
excitation frequencies the stiffness of the supporting structure, and required stability of the
equipment are other factors that should be considered.
-"
ScG
Z
Fig. 5-63. Six degrees of freedom.
vertical direction throughout its operating range.
Horizontal stiffness is provided by a resilient
element, of predetermined stiffness, that buckles under a light horizontal load. It buckles
arain under increasing horizontal loads, and
then stiffens slowly in compression under nevere horizontal loads. The stabilizer is placed
between the equipment and a rigid overhead
supporting structure, as shown in Fig. 5-62.
lational modes will couple. When coupled, vibration cannot exist in one mode without existing In Its coAipled mode, or modes. Thus, a
horizontal force through the center of gravity
5-46
Iil
chie
fioltrMadte
sltin
ig"iVtR~
pe
oeo
oes
hs
0,'2 58
Mold
-0 58 -0- .5B
-..
isolators at
.r
.
l
IB
Load on Isolator 1 W AA2
B
(A
2
l+B2)
1
l
B2
A2
Lodo sltr2=W
on islao 2 -_ (Ald IA
l)
Lodnisltr3=w
(Al + A2, Bl + B2
Lodo soao
Loaons+r=W
A2
A
itBI
2l+ 1 l+ B2
.113/
4i.7vayB
A2
AA 2
2.0
-4
in
sytmas
iidAuble-level
ilt
g~
41
as shown in Fig. 5-70. When equipment In bottorn mounted, coupling occurs betweeri translationai modas becauso of the unsymmetrical
01171W
'
notitA
1pgcqi
nf
Equipment Equilibrium
oii
N,
rpniuirnmpn.
ELpu-eistant
ifghly putlifed
qitural rubber.991,%.
:
'
Materials
Material
vinyls sLnd silicones. Natural and synthiet ic ru bbers are sublect. to iungus attack; their sus.ceptib~lity, however, dependlson thle prednnmat.ing elastomer, the compounding materials, and
the method of processing. Tables 5-16 and 5.l7
indicate the-susceptibility of vnrirous types of
natural and synthetic rubberR to microorgn
however, conflicting data exIst, The con-
References
Attacked
24.25.26,
Attacked
27, 28
Atke
2429incorporation
27
As discussed. previously, fungus-resistant naterials should alwayls bye used. The types of
materials listed in Table 5-18 are generaly.i
considered fungus-Inert and should be used in
not vulcanized
Fungu
Natural rifbler
%iulcanizatc
Resistant
30
Hcvtf;
AU, &.ul.m
27
Guayule :atCx
Attacked
27
Crude sheet
Cree
Crel
rbbr
Attacked
27. 31
ttakedable
ruber
Ataced
27
Pale --rcup,
A
comis iund(ed
Attacked
24, 32
loine crepe,
IenIP-onde~ld
Resaistant
12
Attacked
24
Attcke
repe
27licylanuire
Attacked
24, 32
l'latnton
--
--
ucts.
conirxnutided
stt
compjitintled
Fln!e
eRiStant
n24.
Attacked
24
rbber
14-1-imd Attcke
33Aside
lkilr~ie
33are
24
Gutt.t -pe~rcha
Atackd
ruber
somre I.t
tack bth
ruberPaper
Clil(iriIIatcd rubber
Rr'alatant
27
--
coppei naphthenate,
na thran
Divsion.chlorinated
.-
--
2,2' methyl-
phenol).
Rubber -- nltrophenoi, zinc salicylate (1%),
zinc bcnzcmnate 14
Paints varnishes, enarnels and lacquers -
phenols, saalicylan~ide.
~~~
Ma1;teri;4
Nroprenc -Ilxlyehloroprnnot compounded
'4!io)[..ZlC. comipoonded*
Resstatnce
RflerencesMelsCllo
Resistant
Attacked
29,.32
26, 27
anLe-
24,28,211,
31.32
Atan.'l5Plastics
24. 25
Resistant
Resistanlt
(1tSbutadlefl-styFrflO,
Nylon
Mbica
Polyvinyl
chloride
~*
110t L"0llj(O1lll1led
Attacked
32
Resistaint
Atackd
28**,32
24 28as
Tetralluoroathylene (such
Teflon or oqulvalctut)I
Silicone
Resistant
25
Chlorotrifhajoroetbylene
(much as Kel-F or
-Polystyrene
equivalent)
Polyethylene
.41V
Attacked
27
Table 5-19. Fu~ngs-Nutrient Materials /35/
NKf
2enl.Ylned
conmpounded, acetcnc
cvctraictcd
Vin-ShutdlceRty relic, uncured
-*~
.
-- N
26,27,11
Attacked
32
-______________"".
Leather
Cottonl
ro-ipl-mflekd
15una N, huuidiche-
Resistant
Attackrd
I'd
32
31
Aittacked
29
Paeancxord$
Linen
Cork
Cellulose nitrate-
:leryloflit rile,
cfllldfdRegenerated
(;Rt-l OutylIIsobufitloneRslsranlt
take
isop~rene, unue
uncredAttckd
n-eslatailt
U-(i~utyi).lljOlautytflCAttacked
isoplrefe, cornflu'.c]ij
"rhiok'dl," organic
Attacked
j~~sifduncu red
24. Z5
Resiastant
27, 31
~,r~inr
Atacke
34onite,
lscmteil
d.
cotton, or wvood
flour filler
.-AI--
211, 3Z
24
26,27
4i
Wood preservatives-
28
1P %X
__
Ex)e rli
.--
Rosistant
;iliecin flllbbr
62.2with
2.2732wood
'
lsimaeas
It is15ifficult
26
lsprneAttacked
krrylonmri
Styn.
26resistant
26
261.
________-_____________-
Atce 26metals
tt~il~~
Attacked
ttaked
l~b'tyllc
Titanium.
Stainless steel.
-2.
'U
3. Molybdenum alloys.
4Pr
5.
lmnm
Cadmium.
6. Chromium.
7. 7-inc.
8. Nickel.
9. Tinl.r
vi
'
Copper alloys.
ion.10.
WrTA;
7
-.
"N7.
zinc,
Surface treatmenet Involves a chemical reactIon on a base~ metal, forming a surface oxide or
Other coating that Is resistant to corrosion.
Anodizing and alodizing are the two processes
Protective Coatings
Corrosion of materials, particularly metals,
can be prevented by the use of metallic coatingspit
or 1)y using organic coatings such as paints or
varnishes. Meta coatings may be app lied by a
number of methods, such as electroplating, metal spiiayin7. dipping, adhesion through a metallic p-*de!-forhnwiue, and metallurgical bonding thirough rolling,
prcse
losrea
itbe bustrpain.
Ths
jL
C
k
Finish
Remarks
"Airokanodize
"Airok"
Do not
.:,
Chemical-dip oxicie
in abrasion and corrosion resistance to the anodizing process, but applicable to assemblies of
aluminum and nonalurminun inaterinja.
Magnlesium alloy
Dic'hromate treatment
S;tainless steel
1Passivatlng
____ ___ ___
tr--.stmcnt
____
__
___
___
Yellow
____
___
___
____
___
___
__A
'
Cadmium
Ch'-ornium
.N
-1
~recesses.
A
-
5 -52
FUr'
*Mat-!rral
Finih
SLeul (cununued)
B~lueing
Silver plate
I.
Remark,;
Zincplae
Gonerally inferior to cadri~um plate. Pov- my.pearancte and weatr resistance. Electroplat,4 .
has better adherence to base metal Wisn hot--dip
coating.Foimrvncorso
eitu.
Nickel plate
.V
Phosphate treatment
*Iron
Ti~ p~tc
Drass plate
Coipper pilate
5 - 5
--
---
--r-.--.---A.W
--
--
O)rganic
coatings
are the
most versatile
waxes.*
r
wmt8,1,37/gold
COM2
Arrestors.
Lightnin
Antennas
strem me a reesd
PlOUlJIh
be located' withibi plastic domes or
avoid tl-e brcathing effect. Slot and
tennas may be hermeticatly sealed.
Base, Chassis
Caint sou
Antennas
nshud
covers to
cavity an-
e-i~ed~t_"ev- nw~ater
nn
erue o-lm,ic inaiki~
al
Systems Mhould be com~pletely drainable and have
ample self-locking drains at low pulints,
Cables. Precautions should be taken to protect tihe Insulation at the ends of cables from
moisture. Moistureproof Jacketiig, which will
withstand the required temperature range and_
mechanical abuse, should be-used.
__+392
bekep dr an PJOoilwirs
Cois. soul
Awith chernically inert,Ampervlous materbLed
mis with good electrical Insulating pr~oprties,
Euch as si1 Wont:.9. The inalerial bhould not vapOri7te at ilign temperatures, since the products
of vaporization may be deposited and cause
trouble in such parts as relays and switches,
hicrrnof:tical1ly-secaleduniits should be used whereever practical.
matAll
partsbeandcoated
and COUTpjing.
Connectors
should
,7ectois
iniH~UF5Y
CWrin.
Meta patfalM'
H n
H
Corningctor Mhtuldpart ofale M
iFansdeUH
curietushoud e ilerplated
wd
anid
out. Connectors should be denig-ned with Imprn)vcd couplifngs and longer creepage paths.
W~ienever possible, superior insulating materials, c() rroBionp roof piat~ings andI moistureproof
(wi:)ncutors should be used. Cables to connect0i-s Should be looped to allow rnois~ture runoff.
Whei, irmistureproluf (olunecto~,a cannot be usedI,
the coninector case sihoadd conitain a drain holU,
)Yjni
5-.54
Present phenolic and metal crystalholders a~re moistureproof. The better holder in made of metal, and is soldersealed with the leads brought out through glass
beads. The crystal laces should be plated with
and siver to improve toleranlces aid permit
direct attachment of leads.
'~
-'
I.
'
-higlFcbrrosion-r
-~or
Motors,
O~ven
MiiueFts-
iarts.
ant n'ia~teril
ih
necessary whenever paper or other fibrous material Js used.
r)
N.~T'
'
Senicu'iutc~.
senicnc~ctordevces
contains some free space will be susceptible to
Ser.1 Al
Al
cnlutc~.
senicndutordevces
breathing
and moisture will condense and acshoud h heretiallyseaed.cumulate in the air space. If the space Is small1,
2Ad rs. For opeOrat ion at high and low arnblen.t--uperatures, lead-silver solders should be
Used. Only resin, or resin and alcohol should
be us~ed as a flax on electronic equipment,
ipckers. Paper speaker cones are susceptible-toHii~isture aboorption and fungus growth
and should Lm-treated witli moisture- and funru's-re."zstatit comnpounids. Whenever possible,
Al aluminvincones should be used,
'AIIIpric%ct cor-rosion of netal parts and warpuinf of p1ia',tjc bodies and wafers auc to moisture
-b011)11 ion houwever, in cases where this 1s not
pramutim ,lcl
frorn the standpixnt of size and
avA aii
ihy,
surfaces shesmid be treated with
ftunimzicdal varnish. Bly means of accessories,
smch n-; tojgie i..uH, 0-strings, or diaphragmsl
idared over the n, itch opening, the entry ol
misujture can be reta~rded.
Tiammiforwers. Adeqjuate-termintal spachig,
?hicIi- t(2)1.po'a'ture wire coveringsi and tapes, as
wirll as p'xopoi 1 acq finis~hing should be.-used,
enilinment he,,.I,.-
'
placed.
If 11111919w
7*~4.Mffa
________--o~
%kwhe hermetic seal ing Is used, va-rious charof the method employed must be
takcn into consideration. The sealing technique
murt offfc~r proper mechanical rilgid'tv res~ist
temperature extremes, have good heat transfer
cfiarac':rlsticB, atd be easy to apply. In additlon, for electrcmnic equip ment, the dlielectric
constant,' high frequency losses sad magnetic
tihielding qualities ot the sealing matei-tal must
be conside;red. Geacrally, hermetic seal'ing can
be ar~comn lished by (1) embedment, (2) gas f~iliuid filling. A comparison of the
merits of some of these hermetic sealing techniqucs is given in Table 5-21. Tables 5-22 and
5-23 list 0-' detailed characteristics of many
emt~dr-atcomouns
ad alicne lui Wlrs.
cmi)n-r,1tcomouns
ad siicoe fci
illrs,
The dpcision to use an embedment, gas orliquid-filler type of hermetic seal depends on'
the specific application. Each method has nany
advantages and liisadvantages, some of which.
may be important in some applications butnotA
in others. The following is a list of the adviuntagesi anid disadvantages of each method.
Finbedment - - AdvanGAges
1. Provides a resilient mechanical support
and so also) helps in shock and vibration protection.
Gas-Filling
thtmyeusd
'7. Is relatively inexpenstve.
icteristlcs
--
,.
-
tFE
'I
Advantages
0-I It
atures.
'
[Mochanical
V 1enj~rture
hleat Lyesi tamee
Techrilpe
rigidity
te,~ ridbedinc-'t
transfer
1hiigh
z.O-w
Effective
dielectric
L.osses
at hIgh
constsant 0frequeney
Humidity I
Eas~e
protection
Ui use
p p
to F
2.11 to 4.0
IPto G
Foam frrbcdrnent
1.03 to 1.2
CverarinIt endibedment
10
F toO0
FI
P..-( F
P to F
P)
1.0
G to E
F LoG
FtoG
Pto F
Pto F
1.0
G toE
F to a
F to G
2.51 tG 3.11
Gto E
1.0
O toE
F to G
1;'L'ir. Coating
Silicone iiir
'IIvILC fluid filling
ak thig
(,)"d, Y'
FaIr, P
=Poor.
'
5. Prevents
oxidation
of lubricants,
corn-
serviced.
8. Provs
covectiua coolig of sealed
parts (cooling Is better than with embedment).
Gas-Fillinz -- Disaivantag.s
1. Proviies no support for sealed parts,
2. Requires a strong container to withstand
internal gas pressures, particularly at high altituies.
3. Requires svecial maintenance equipment4. Provides less heat removal thin liquid itled units.
5. Leakage is difficult to detect,
S!4,
id-FilliLng-- Advantages
I . Provides the best heat removal.
2. Reduces arcing tendencies.
3. Aliows the use of unprotected, uncased
components.
1-i u id-Filling -- Disadvantages
-rLavn e
1. Increases we:;ht.
2. Provides no mechanical support for the
sealed conmponents.
3. Requires the use of a pressure relief sys4. A leak
temperature,
Sc~rne
elSctric
C'(1:deratlwns/13/
. .
.'
i
'
,,
L
W
,_
mold bridging.
Condensation Control
--
"
INTERFERENCE PROTECTION/13,38/
(11
a. thu.
annio--
Interference can be either man-made or ra,tural. Generally, not much can be done about
natural interference; however the Interference
from atmosphcric electricity, Irnown most cornmonly as precipitation static, can be minimized
by dissipating the atmospheric charge. This Is
covered elsewhere in this chapter under "Atmospheric Electricity Protection."
For man-made interference, there are three
niio
Mr'~e u..lnteancc
iffiultinterference,
5. Mries i.!ntejanc
difficult.
G. lh.cant removal varies with
-of
,4
'I
!
.
.-d fh.
-units
of the equipment.
;:..
-.
J!
The best place to apply Interference suppression is at the source not at the transmission
medium, and then at the susceptible equipment.
Most often it has to be used In all three areas t.3
hbring about satisfactory performanc,, . Hlowever',
when Interference generation is kept to a ml,_nimum, Interference suppression In the other
---two areas becomes much easier to accomplish.
It mustalsobe remembered that many pieces of
equipment, especially electronic equipment, can.
--- be both a source of int.erfererce as well is a""
susceptible equipment.
-- 2 2
.....
.-.
Item
Arl~q Lahoratory
ARI-TEMP 201
StCefmc
Heat
distortion
point
Dieleetric
strenglth
gravity
(C)
(volts/ril)
MRbCo., Inc.
ARALDITE
1.1 to 2.2
CIBA 505
100 to 120
Ik)w Chemical
Co., inc.
STYROFOAM
Dow Corning
0.024 to
0.07Z
C o rp .
I'
1,TV5302/50.03
E. I. du Pont Co.
TE F LON
Emerson Plid
Cmiing, Inc
STYCAST 'I I'M
79
Dielectric
vs constant
froqioncy
(25 C unless noted)
Moisture
absorption
(%bvolumer'n
unless noted)
700
60 CpO
3.6
0.10
890
50 CPR 1 me
3.6
22 C 3.7
50 C 3.9
500
60 cps
3.8
0.10
60 cps to 3000 mc
1.03
0.03
(80 to 00%
rh, 15 days)
lr
1 to 0.14
(168 hr
-.
0.005
4 ,
'I
2.1 to 2.2
1.05
166
(useful at
25)
1.25
,.
L,*,
0...
, j '-
0.5
(25 C,24hr)
60 cps to 10,000 ma
2.36 to 2.38
, I. [
STYCAST
175
455
2P850 GT
S'FYCAIT
iCCO W
.5
2RG
hImprLriatmig
s;IYCAST
51.),u CM
5 --5i
1.05
85
1.22
approx.
200
1.7
170
600
(100 m!! sample)
412
(1 mil sample)
500
(100 mUl sample)
60 cps 1 kc
I mc 1000 nic
2.596
2.596
2.582
- 2.584
100cps to 10,000 mc
approx. 3.4
100 cps to 1 ma
4.3
0 .1
aa
0.2
(25 C, 24 hr)
"
0.1
(7 dayn)
0.10
(25 C. 24 hr)
1ower factor
P
vs
*(5frequency
50cps
25 C 0.007
IOiC 0.005
!.mc
IUnear
tLermal
Shrinkage
expansion
(parts per
on
L~oT temp.
polymerization
limit
7.2 x 10-5
-6-
2.5 to 6.0 x 10
0.5 to 2.3
-60
0.027
Volume
resitvt
For electron tube ampUifiera. Cures at 275 F.
1016 to
1017
0.027
1.5
-100
tranaferrmerq,
Cures r
300 F.
1 kc to 3000 nac
0.0002
_______
__________
lower than
-234
foams.
________der"ity
-600
5.5 x i0-5-
Sillcone rubber.
-268
1015
0.0005
CIO)
cps to 10,000 Inc
5.0 x 10-5
-70
i0l3
0.000,3
L0077 :ot.io100 m
-~
inserts.
1.5 x10-5
-/27525~C:
Good
high temfperatur~e
x, 1016
0.0
IX1013
eln
[blient of expansion
aluminum.
u0 Cp)s - 0.C.,098
100 cps - v.00602
10-5
10
5.0 X 10-5
0 .0,
r5.5 X 10-5
7.0o
Excnllent machinabillty.
1014
-20
I Tne
- 0.00084
1000 me - 0.000854
10 ')'.
100 ke
0.015
2x
2.
10 6
formners,*coils.*and
capacitors. Can be used,,
_65
2012
Blackopt-ire maerol
.0(
5-59
IN
r.
I Ale
",
I'
(ooatmued)
Dielectric oonstant
Heat
Dielectric
diitortion
Moisture
absorption
vs
Specffic
point
frequenoy
(%volume
gravity
(C)
(volts/mil)
unless noted)
If. I. Robertson
Company
STYPOL 107E
1.253
56
40 cps - 3.86
1 kO - 3.59
I me - 3.35
0.27
(24 Lr)
S'IYPOL 502E
1.540
60 cpa - 5.53
0.30
strength
336
378
55
-,
'
60cps -4.57
(solid
resin at
25
'I
I kc -5.10
Im - 4.23
"STYPOL507I
-4'
0_.-
lno-3.74
I me - 3.74
U)____
.. :
,.
Koppers Co.---DYLITE
Lockheed AJrCraft Corp.
Rigid 11ocyanate
LOCKFCAM
NO. 2075
M.W. Kellogg Co.
KEL-F
0.048
to
1.480
2.1
110 to 140
opproy.
200
doe, not
absorb or
transmit
moisture
in 5 rml
films or
greater
1 ko - 2.8
1 me - 2.5
100 me - 2.5
530
(short time
test on 1/8 in.
sample)
5000
(step-by-step
method, 6 rol
0.3 to 0.5%
by weight
(100% rh,
24 hr)
,
.
'*:
sample)
Melpar, Inc.
MAELPAK IV
1.275
170
450
4.7 at 8.4 me
200
500
3.6 at I we
1.480
300
475
M'L~~V1.292
NIELPAK V1
M.Iinne'sota Mining
*,nrl Mfg. C".
LXCi11 0--PC
Nitiunal Bureau of
t'Anidards, )ia-.
mond Ordnance
1. iboratorles
(24 hr)
0.034
0-30
3.4 at 80 to 120 mc
0u.27
*-/
A
"
'
1.22
68 to 70
'310 to 660
100 cpW
In kc 1 mo 100 mo
- 2,44
2.43
2.42
- 2.5
(24 hr)
0.01
NBS 111"SIN
I N-2.5
1.06
51
00 cps to l me
"CA:.'"IINC REIIKN
0.02
2.61
100 me - 2.60
_..
..
.7
. ,
'h
______
Power fartor
s
frequency
(5Curuteassntd
_____,LA'S.
_______
(parts per
Shrinkage
on
polymerization
LOW temp.
limit
Volume
resistivitye
deg C)
(C)
tohxn/cm;3)
thermal
Linear
expansion
60 cps - 0.0i3
I ke - 0.0079
1 mc - 0.024
60 cps'- 0.069
1 kc - 9.072
1 nc 0.04D
8.7
8.9
3 x 10-5
0.015 at 1 Inc
0.01t at 60 cps
100 Inc
0.0001 to 0.0008
P11
-80 to 020
4.5 x 1020 to 1507 x )0-`
Polystyrene foam,
negligible
0.005 to 0.010
per in.
3.0 x 10-5
2.5 x 10-
11 x 10
6 to 8
2 to
4 to 5
7.5
9.8
._
.. ,
be per
uontrolled
Density
cu ft.
40 lb
from I tomay
unaffected
at -73.5
~2.6.7
-201
1.2x10 1
(50% rh.
25 C)-
1015
-65
"
C.Qy
-35
1017
-65
1015
---65
io 1 7
-55
(cracks at
this temp.)
1017
- 0,0010
6.N.'-
_.wide
2.5 x 10-5
'.
0.62 at 34 roe
N,'
-55
8.4
kc1-0.UZ
I me- 0.006
100 mc - 0.000
(power facto- lower
at 200 C than at
25) C)
Remarks
50 cp -C.Iu29
II ke0. 2fi
rie - 0.013
9300 mc 5 x 10-<'
. .tt ." 0
:-r
Polysulfide elastomer.
t
,.
9..
.74,
.-
'
e,
"
"
.4'
K,
t
''.,'
4
.4,
"N
W,
'
,.1
-,
- .-
I' ,
L4
1--Item
Heat
"distortion
specific
gravity
N,:pco Chemical
Complpl
y
point
(C)
Dielectric
strength
(volts/mul)
-'i
Dielectric conatant
vs
frequency
(25 C unless noted)
Moisture
absorption
(% volume
unlesa noted)
LOCK FOAM
Scries A
Pittsburgh Plate
Glass C..
SEL-CTIloN
5000-5199
SEI.ECTRON
1.2 to 1.4
45to200
400 to 600
(ehorttirne
test,1/8 in.
specimen)
1.22
90
480
130 cps
3.55
(24 hr)
0.05 If 0,5
0.3
1 kc - 3.15
I mo - 3,08
5001
SLLECTION
5200
300 to 500
1.5
Pr-oducts--
.i
0.5 to 1.0
--
345
(100 riol
casting at
1.122
(Ot25 C)
25 C)
60cpstolkc-4.2
1 me - 4.0
10 me - 3.7
Sm - 3.4
(% wt, 24 hr,
25 C)
0.1
"
(% wt. 24 hr,
25 C)
2.0
PAflAPLI.X
P-43
.235
7V to 85
(2 C per
500
min at 264
psi)
60 cps - 3.3
lkcto 10 we-3.2
(% wt, 24 hr,
Z5 C)
30 inc - 3.1
10,000 'nc - 2.6
(% wt, 24 hr,
0.3
3.0
1'. S. Navy
I hrti tonics
I .di)rvltorirs
1. 177
5 - 02
'3 '
1.235
85
(passes
spec
16 E 4)
500
3.9 at 60 cps
0.10
700
100cps-3.20
0.23
(30 mil
sample,
60% rh.
22.2 C)
.J,
".
Jf
.
100 kc - 3.26
60 mc - 3.09
(62% rh, 23.3 C)
I.N
p'oAkcrfaitor
N
I recri e ncy
52C vnle-3s noted)
Linear thermal
Xpansiofl
(parts per
deg C)
Shrinkage
on
polymerization
%(c)
)
(1/8 In. Ppomev
60cl5 -0.016 to 0.02
I kc - M',,' t.- M,0
60 cpq
.1
1 mc -
41
to 9
o1
,.
Low temp.
limit
-55
--
0.013
-9.0
65
--
--
1 ine - 0.052
10 Mc - 080
-
IV.
Polyoulfide elaatoraer.
0. 105
60 pi to Ikc -0.006
3ire - 0.017
If) mc
Itocyarlate foam,.
30 mnc
)RemarksAA
'to
kc - 0.04 'o00
I rnc -0.0l5 to 0.05
60 "p'r - 0.005
I kc - 0.0 11
Volume
reaistivit~
(ohm/cm
-7.0
--
0.022
30 rnc - 0.034
10,000 nic - 0.043
200
*,I
)10727.
xp;.07
-80
P,.
%A~
transiio
gram-cal/eec/
cm 2 /deg C/cin
Silicone
fluids
Specific
gravity
Flash
point
(C)
Dielectric
strengh
(voltn/mil
Dielectric
constant
(at 25 C)
Power factor
0.8;6
107
250
(0.1 in.
sample)
0.00027
250
sample)
lO0 cp - 0.0001
100 m - 0.0006
0.00039
350
in.
sample)
ceni'tItoken
;it 25 C
'200 fluid;
stoke-3 at
0.972
315
250C
550
1Xi;
lO
)0-10
centist kes
it25 Cheat
(5 C)(0.1
315
---
Rumarks
Liquid meithyl
milicone. Volatile liquid. UseNonvolaale
from -40 C to
+ 200 C.
Liquid vhcnylil(uH
e
of exceka~orai
'
~
i
-,I
''
stability.
Useful from
-40 Cto +250 C.
200 fluid;
1000 cci'
tistoles at
250C
0.973
__
315
300
(0.1 In.
sample)
__
-__________
IG cps -2.7b
1 mc - 2.78
3000mic- 2.74
0.0038
Nonvolatile
fluid. Useful
from -40 C to
+ 200 C.
Dow Cornin~g Corporation. Other silicone fluids are obtainable from other manufacturers, but bocause o!
differer.1 methods and conditions of measurements their data are not presented here. The figures given above
are characteristic of the silicones as a group.
~tI.LW,
J1~~iipflI15not
nlace.
deignr shulduse
te posibe
Nklinevr
ii terferenc' -free components. For example, a
* ~ Lwcrequ
ana-cindutio
1 ,wdwit
!,:-,wrwiheuijpiai-c nchctin moor~
mtor
ShOUd
intea
b ~kd
ofa bowerwiti ad-c
commuiator-type motor and a carbon pile re-:_
gulator is better thian the vibrating reed type.
Additional information on component selection
isi Contained iin reference/,39/.
SuppressionTealniques
Stiielding. Shields are used on small assenihue, ucas chassis, as well1 as on equipments
5 -44
-Y
1;;
N
O
.At
'
,
1.
Thickness (nilla)
MtlAttenuation
Metailu
(dbfmill)
1.32
Silver
20
Blrass
Copper
Copper (annealed)
1.29
1.26
-~10
Magnesiurn
16.G
Slier10Aluminum
Steel
1.01
25 to55
Tin
26
Zinc
1.8.5
IB
0.79
Zinc
0.70
&il.
06
Nickel
0.58
Phosphor-bronze
0.55
Iron
16.9
Tin
0.50
12.9
1erytilum
04
Lead
0.36
ilypernik
vI
88.5
Mnl02
Mu-metal
Permailoy
a sufficientStilssel5.
Cadmium
"'
A
a
0.66
rasa
Metallic shafts that tend to radiate interferen~ce should be grounded by serrated metallic fingers or a gasket. If, for design reasons,
tinc shaft cannot be grounded, it should be made
of an inwilating material, and a wave-guide attenuator used aruund the shaft.
Magnesium
63.2
I.
63.2
'
~'
Harmonic Supipression Filters. Provided the
frquncls4ixd
or1 as e_9ss an a 2 to 1 tuning range, harmonic smippression filters may
be used at the output of transmitters to prevent
harmonics from reaching the transmission line
and antenna. These filters are usually bandpass or low-past; filters, because only the frequencies above the fundamental are to be attenuated. High-pass filters mnay be required
with equipments employing frequency multipliers. In designing bandpass or high-pass fi ters, use a cutoff frequency of 1.1 limes the fundamentpi frequency. The filter should be piacea
to prevent the unwanted frequenc-.-ts from leaving
the transmitter. A Faraday screen between the
output tank and the pickup coil will also aid in
preventing harmonic corupling to the transmission line.
5-65
.7
7=171,
TI
dip.-
inhes
tof
;<'-few
xto
wire
ntaieplii.Ee
lefit
orunfiltcedpit
w
radit
c
interference.
Fig.ide an
Froun can"~i
,,~~~TensiBodin
RJg~fh
Tcnso
F~g.5 7. Anula-rin
tye jontlength
Fki 5 7. Anula-rin
tye jont.width.
________________Arcing
Sprn- Seraedto
II
beca2. thein
isjhokioute.
umperisu reduseod th cnecllpet elerctrlly two rhyscald
sitho ate
bstrucfgtactio.
Th
juondr arpe ncequinreade asr texamlegthoath
o unitoehd.
stgrap in icrausede Alsoipet is shockp
14
generating them.
Fig.
Fi.57.Serrated spring joint.
I
.
and circuits.-
SN
N
UTPOETO/0
Proper chioice of abras ive -resistant materials
for exposed surfaces will give protection against
sand and dust. For example, stainless steel can
be used to protect the thin rubber stripping on
rubber propeller doicin4 btoots and Protective
covers may be provld for pfastIc surfaces,
such as windshields and radomes. Materials
chosenfor use In protective devices should also
be able to withstand other environments likely
to be encountered./41,42/
4.
-4oir
'A
%x
Y'_-___
-tic
method. Thje
flowing through the panes is one
of aktransparent electrical, conductiecot
ing between plies of glass and monolytic plaBwindshields is anilher efficient method. An
external jet air blast on the windshields i- PtWr
another methnd of anti-icing and defrooting, ad
well as an efficitent, SiM le and relka1;,e
U,'IJ..d
'hc most wiclely used type df thermal anti, mv '.ystr-rn nrovide~s spa-nwise air distribuition
i lwtruha""dc
n
mond
(lfr~~
thie %
infc s leading! edge, as snown In Fig 5-7
andI ,j~ ~ .6.ilmre
re ls may araneandrtF,f 5-6
hx
r
ls
ayarne
application to superisonic air'x,
,t'-ntial
cimt
Thcc( iticlude :-,)id arid liquid freezing[ponlt dclpressarms chemnical beat-release coat-~ Imdingedge,
idahi
ad deonatng
'-dii
Ant i-icing
srci.a-,
p 1iiaimu
5-77).
Schosen
r_
, 't
;.
'c
'
"
ue.Lriatac
terfudthtilno
diffuse andleak at~the expected pressures should
b
hsn
omnmz
h
ern
fcr
mutator brushes In motors and generators at
highier altitudes, cadmium iodide and lead chlc-ve
ride cau be incorporated Into the brush materal. This will supplement the lubr~icat-ing effects
of water and oxygen, so that f riction w LUbe kept
lorw at high altitudos./22,48/%
Insulation that Is made of uribonded or unsealed tape consirueiiuu tihuuld witUbeuedL
an environment of extreme or rapidly chanvginef
5-6
i'4
Al..
LI
*~
-:4
lo
Arcover Prevention
The actual potential at which arcaver takes
plac~e at. various altltudeB dqenerds greatly on
tie dilttance between the parts and the conlliguraUoun of the parts. The eff ective surface crec
page dIstance4 and actual air apacinK between,
terminals or parts should neit be leas than that
icfednTae5-6t
h
neddvo-P
as.The
confIguratlua of the partl3 Is Importwit to prevent corona, which woud ilonize the
airand csv'pse? =rcovcr even at the specified safe
aic tipacings. Sharp corners are most apt to
Causs co~rona, while rounded corners are Least
likely it; do so. The degree of roi,,ndnees however, is also an important factor at the higher
voltages. At. sea level pressurs, equipmoezt thal
(I
q;
-
P.'
.-
;A#
7'4
66
44
F~.5
7
s;tmlt
Vt-rn
wb,idhlld
000Vils
puentdr)f lss turjis i~tposibleR wAPIcorvx
11.1lmexom'
twed
sFLrlfshl-
egI
~orjerit
isepenot
I
lenIts, rcastoihy
oraldeaticna;vvensqurc
houll b
r~ttsica
tI~) 4000
rIaiCXi3
widres
o
000vin
qt~~~~~~~~~rud.~~~~~~~56
il
~~~ hv
ei
dvelped, afi
fitold
hil~ 0iuld
d.
nusildms
~rrund
lob
-VCR ho b
uidngarThcrvxsieduutAw
tth
~v
t ondcte
rk~e,-
-he
iel
d coZ'OJ' 5diOa
arcover
-- runded. Mai mu~' mSbE
d,5
rhusur Iwrountee
pjte aturs a The ~i~
chargqar
poor
of 1.uety, the densit
1 0 -5t
neesrfA i*
Ilthoug
elowtrod'sppr anucoroa 36char a opr.
i~s tri
nte~~
vn n i a~~uvlaegain
nt.atGo( kfets
tzon 1000f
l-ounded
colfr
use-
s2eronding wadsir.
ee
eup
pceti-dOlr oIles
sioui'epon
iiiitepo peria cortaivdratiuoiv;
(
spchd
0A
ni
eiiipnort,
th rundd
Maim~
arveran'
~ri~adis
ti,
.oevr
,00t
%,-..
of VNAriOgl
_______
"11
j
!iI
nir
--
Working
Workirig
vlae tvlaea
50,0)00 ft
70,000 ft
Min
n im
crtae
space
distance
de
ac
rma
-insulating
do
Re
rms
-______ -
-chargers,
75
70
50
1/16
i~O
190
125
125
90
~3/Gj4
5/64
210-
175
175
125
1/16
7/64
315
225
210
150
5/64
1/8
360
260
230
165
V,/32
5/32
420
2300
260
185
3/a
R/16
490
3%0
310
225
:3/16G
1/4
650
450
375
275
1/4
V/C'
700
500
455
U25
5/16
a/
810
575
500
355
3/64
1/1*
______
*1)artts
or
Attitudes /13/
--
Several protection systems haive bepn p~roposed and applied to existing fuel t~aijk' . 'ne
suchi system uses longitudinal riba tu divert
electrical discharges from the tank wall and
guide th dischargersas they are swept rearward
by the force of the wind~streamn. Insulation is
applied between the ribs to prevent discharges
being swept off the ribs Into the tank wall. This
protection system is schematically illuatrated
in Fig. 5-80./50/
Jj
'~
-EXPLOSIONPROOFflM
P rfessurizatiori
If, fte
cartulseletio
ofway
conponter carcduthseletoof
riaterilsd and
comonets
ndtheuseofpro)per desig~n techniquC~B, low atmospheric pressures wiLl still
have dtrimir'ta~l effectis on equipment, preasurization must be used. In a prussurized systern, either the equipment or compartment Irs
sckand acces.3ory pumping equipment is
iijscd to maintain a predetermined prcssure re"gardless ol altitude. The pressurization equipmerit mnust mnaintaic the pressure over extended
pe~riods,
'
prussure g radients. Generally, spherical containe~rs provide the most strenigth for a given
-xcivht, but a cylindrical shape is the tx-st comp~rj.misQ from) a space utilization standpoint
ti.5-78 axid Fig. 5-79).
AIMOiIIERiC ELICTRICITY
PROTECTON
4'.1/plosions
Gerieraily, discharge wicks are used on the
out.!r surfacet3 ot flight vehicles to dissipate
,rmy edct i i( il ('large thiat may bui-ld up during
Standard. measures for the prevention of ijgniting an explosive atmosphere Include using
sealed units to isolate the explosive atmosp~erO'
a possible Igniting arc and using proper'
design to eliminate arcing. 'the most practical
of achieving this io to use hermetically
sealed unrits, particularly for switches and. relays which have a rn 'ural tendency to arc. If
scaling is not possible', then ignition sources,
such as wafeor switches arid relays, should be isoWaed from accumulated eajilooive vapors./13.
40/
EXPlosrionproof equipment should be conatructedeso that if explosions occur within a certain part of the equipment, they will not Ignite
5-70
.a
Nt
41117w
i4
U.
T11,
-iAA
Fig.
j 2.Ta2ing
adwaeo hivresu
~~~ ~
RADUMON,
rsuiainaytmfrB4B
~
~
'
COSMC,
rdiaion.At
Theefoe,
cluibtvel
cosmi~c,
hefig
ad
&ar
w.nVprgah
wihic.
mayot
eto
n
radiatio
a
5-8""tiar
odtoigad
PROECdI
opnns
laahnlWin
Flifit
~
~
tonucearehiles
reset
codital
ay
3.
epose imiingWe
epoeareUme
an- dprsur
eaposdtonuclearan
n.A
peenn
iation
o th
3esriiton
radiatio for
n.
thibe
se veuralo
t t
r~ly
it-in
he. mtost
Protection
hagrmful effeation coar roeadiatUgaist aditio
l'roecton
p)Ircd al bofthe
anyor
Ca
OeftCODI
Selection of MsiterlaAs
--
olloing
The most preferable met-hod ot 7:diation protection Is to design equiprnalt using rnater-'ilu'
5-71
2.
;:~7
~
4t
77
".0
ItFronti
n
system for'
pressriztion
Fig. 5-49. Air-bn1inn
!1
-72
F-flA.yful
ak.5(
Metals
-~~
__________
~~Ceramics
Plastics
7_______________
Elautomers
________
7'"~77 _
Glass
~~
Serniconductors
-~~
-X1~~;-~
102
~
1
1 d2
*14
Neutrons/cm
1S 8~ N~~o
&t'
,'
Radiation
So rce
Area 4A
-~
-t~
dm1lft.jr;
Area A
T(
source, the intensity of the radiation will be redklced. 'For example, by moving a component to
a location 100feet f rom the source, the Intensity
is re6.xced to onec hundredth of what It was at 10
f eet.
Shielding
Exposure Time
t'tTnsi.jff#en
avid thei
aho,.gcterIaice d
thei
,adiit~onn'21
'-
I
*
5-73
T"Irl,
un,
71'h
*1
-~lip
17
500
-
G 100.50-
charge
nucleus of charge Ze on an electron of
ze and mass m Is proporticnal to Zze 2 m. The
intensity, whIch is porportioinal to the square of
theamplitude will vary as Z z 2 m. An electron
In the coulomb field of a nucleus can experienco
a large acceleration because of its small mass,
the acceleration being proportional to the nu-,
clear charge
-.
to'
__
103
102
Rangecm
10 1
le
9.67 x 10
28
velocity, cm/sec
shielding problems.
0'
par
&al
trea,
utap
omnh
pirticlei
RT,I.
,-'/
"
f.
Beta particles are slowed down by their in.tcracti( n with orbital electrons. Thus, the
hc.,,
.'ar weight -materials and those
with ciosely packed electrons are most effective
fo)r :Ahielding purposes. However, classical
cIC'( !r,,magnetic theorypredicts that as a charge
undergoes an acceleration, it emits radiant
whosr, amplitude Is proportional to thecnelr
a( vIc mation. The acceleration produced by a
'
,
.
rr
,,
tror.,i idemtical-ly.
duction.
R- range, cm
wh~e
in
*Bela
,,
As
.
: .00
Aluminum"
'
"i
1!
ro
Ptons
Aluminumin
S/e
.000o5
_o0D
I
0
1
6
Energy, met
Fig. 5-85. Penetration depth of beta particles
and protons irialuminum as function of particle
energy.
;
"
-----
ProIton Shifelding. Protons undergo two Lntr:1 ctiw)t 7~_-T1c~v- traverse material- nuclear
S( atteritkg and/or ionization and excitation. The
jinjyoz~tiun cjiused by protons is so intense that
t1w) ranges of these particles In air are normally
only a few centimeters (Fig. 5-86).
The stnpping power of matex~als is sometimes
expr'essed in the number of milligram~s per
square centimeter required to stop the Inciferit
particles. The densities of aome materials are
listod in Table 5-27. Since the stopping of pro
.Oils is largely an electronic process, and since
the number of electrons per gram of a material
does not differ greatly between elemnentb, it
inight be ex~ecied that the shielding power of
varil.us cienieflts is constant. In actual cases,
huoAevor, It takes a much greater amount of
lead, in terms of grams per square centimeter,
tit sop protons than it does aluminum. For
example, it takes over one thousand milligra~ms
per square centimeter of lead to stop 20 mev
protons, but a little over half this amount of
-i!,ininurn produces the same effect. The reason
the inner orhital shells or the heavier elements
are not as easily dispLaced and are therefore
less effective in the .3topping process. Figure
5 -87 indicates the advantage of using low Z materials for shielding against protons.
Neutron Shif.din . Neutrons a-re uncharged
and are carav.-zbe
penetrating materials to
great depths. They affect matter either bry, entoning tlic nucleus or by being sufficiently close
to it for nuclear forces to act. Nleutrons may be
encountered with energies as high as 14 rnev.
Gcnerally, neutrons are attenuated and finally
slepped In 2 mrn-crial by the following process:
inelastic collison, elastic collision, and then
ab~sorption or capture. Fast neutrons interact
iby ini,astic collision with the, medium weiglit
2
-of
nuclei. When the neutron collidus with the fluclef of the shield material, It is absorbed, eausing the nucleus to recoil and emit gainia, ra
diation and a neutron of less energy This slow
neutron interacts by e)astic coUis ion with ligh~t
weight nuclei, such as those of hydrogenous Materials, causing the nucleus to recoil as a proton. The neutron may then be captured. General
practice is to use some light material, such as
ahydrocarbon polyethylene, beryllium, or carbon, to slow 11he fast. neutrons by elastic scattering, in order that they may be readily abaorbed
by mnaterialn with high capture cz-Oss sGcitions,
sc-sbrncdimo
itim
nsm
Irb
nl
cnsis
sauch as beuron, shdield wouldtim
a laminated structure, such as a hydrocarbon
to slow the neutrons; then cadwiun li: borozi to
N'
5~2.Densitien of at Few
Selected Elements
-Table
silver
-"
Atomic
616
Dens it~
47
10.53
82
11.34
26
7.86
16
I)i,
-
.~ad
Iron
Boron
Aluminumn
3.3
13
2.7
Io
700-
13~
Proton~~3ic Er0ymvAoi
ubr
100'
40
"060 7
--
*:3'0
8,0i
9' 0
1'heavy
6radiation.
ahn'.n a Shield-In
shielding aterals
aganst
gamm .For
raiaT[iifi
mot efectve
ganniarada
mst ffetiv
o',
maerals
are those consisting of elements having high
nto.-.wetitsanddensitites, such an lead
atornten, thoriumaeti
In cases weecosts
wherirn
aye ue,
ounotten, athoriumpet
orfacltors
otqireert
prdointe iron maybe used.,
i~ut. tile arnomt miust bc increased accordingly.
Wieewigtisapobemboonor lithitum may
sed Th ofgama rdiaion
beprbablit
being absorbed by the nuclei of atoms is very
slight for low energy gamma photons. The
shield therefore reducesi the intensity of the radiation t-: aote factor. The thickness of a materi4 rcquired to redu-ce the intensity of gamma
radiation by one half is called the half thickness.
The use of additional layers will reduce the radiatlon intensity by one half again. For exampie, two half thicknesses will reduce the radiation intensity to one fourth, and three layers
will reduce the Intensity to one eighth. The half
thicknesses of various material are listed in
Table
5-28.of
HUMN
ROTCTONequipment
~~roucln
nvlrnn~ets/5/
Natral
j hickeamcrease
iiall
Il'hoton
energy
Haftikesnative
Material -
Tsule-like
1.40
_______-
1.0
ea
j
[ron2.49
Concrtteol.1
1.44 x 0
Air
2.0ea
3.61
Concrmte
13.4
A] r
2.37 x 14liance
Load
.5.0
10
215For
iron
Concrete
_
anld functlona1a
requirements.
Imoac
n~b
"i3
'
.
.
kY
1iI
'
d,
waste products.
1.76
Irn .7
___
17.3
Air
3.8 X
A
5-7C
Fucioa Reo
s.7 Recent developML~rlmndttechniques mnake it
possible to supply the vehicle's crew with cornpact or Integrated Instruments for communiorientation and comnput"ig purposes. For
cation,
space flights, eachi crew member will require
approximately 350 cubic feet of working npace.
Ih
WXK
Ilmtnan Tolerances
Pcssrizaion/54,5/
'U
ince inmanyins
-~vapor.
SneinmnIn-
____rztin/515
osmlt
epatia
itia- o
lanes,
mnants natiral environinent-precfsfoly, the orn-vironment withiin a vehicle may be controlled
only within a certain range that approximates
m~an's nal.,_ral environmO'rt. This will often al-low
simnpler denign, lower cost and less weight.
However, the extreme ranges of these eaviron-
h etmto
ihrliycnrlI
sb ycn
Th etmthd6hmdiycir'
densatlon of the water vaipor generated by crew
s
rn
ua
iet
soehapalnt
ac
Oture
an hmdiy
t
apofr1thutmpean
a
sho stheu
The
curves
Fig. 5-88 are the tranra
ewe inaeadimaeann
eto hatchedi
'1u
Indiidul
cmparmen orcapsle.The
normal o~r ideal pressure Is 760 mw of Hg, and
lowest t.%ornetrlc pressure that a human
cantou..~ witliout decompression sickness Is
approximately 380 rmm of Hg. The pressure
should be 6omnewhere between these limits, with
the minimum prtssure not lower than 500 min of
11Hg.A secondary pressurization system should
al~so be provided In case an emergency develops
during the flight.
,
:,
:T
'-
Ilthe
*a
"r
-Ventilation
.-
-a
rn~umputrion. /5 Ofl like average guvurau I!lurnUna~ticxa _shoulA be approximately 50 footcandies, with wavelengths -between 440 and 680
rnlimicrons. The daily cycle should be maintained in a space flight vehicle. To simulate
man's natural environment, the level of Illumninationi should be reduced at nigt and at noon.-
One
*~V
2%~
mL.120
R~ 100
50% RH
80-
~~ 60 ~
Soie Area10%R
S401
E
/
0
Low'/
Unsafe Area
-40
S-60
4 80
10 M'
I Hr
Tim
ay
1 ay
100
) Days I Year
as function of
)o
*5
mote control mechanisms and prtective structtires for- crew memibers; wid F :Mdy, Lizs of ear
plugs. Vibration will present no problem to the
vehiclie crew if it does not exceei 0.16-inch
double amplitude at a frequency under 23 cps.
41'
J.,-
'
However
flights.
e
0 onso -t
wtr
satm,10t
man w LIibe adequate for Uic 11ongest space
flights.
W
1/Frsotfihsh
jpsl
'
blg~
%f
ercylnofiqdwztpo-
anresd
liqid
ducts may be5 accomplished thoug
chemical process and sublimation,
ste prto-
RFERNCESL~~o
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6i.
7.
_troM
-4
8.HneielCrgWahadHry
M.lea Ey-letroni Corai
9.
----
~
11.
or
B3.
andofN.Air
C. JohnsonQqXud
W. LH.
resoa,Jr.,
Engi cz
Wright,
j-7A-i
Load Requirenientsilo
Conditiont
Wi~ADCT.
A=
5--2
Tn
95
Gr~ou~nd Ei,-ctroi5-niL
jnnn 11AI58-12
.,fLSTTA-c
wenfto1J48907 U. S.
Air Force, H.ADC Griffin" Air 'orce
Base, N. Y. , June 1li59.
-7A
W-M--
ii7I1.4
N
,7
H
fo~r 50_0_C OiPerat ion, Part]. WADC TR
57-362# ALSTLA Document No. AD 142350,
AF 33(616)-3549 Project Ne. 4155,
*.
"'Y
-,.
1.
.'
REFERENCL9S (continuecO~'
*
12.
I22.
13.
4
14.
15.
16.
4Lakyrator--,
17.
18.
1I
20.MakwtJ
,.hcorVbti
htr7',-Pouc
niljJ~
1953.
21
GrerAnetR."FgireYu
21
GadnroblemdR," "ug
18 January 1960.
IO
orl
ls
30.
31.
-g
'
-.
32.
33..
34.
Allen, Fraser H., -no 113ioloaical Deterion of Thiokol Lining for Gso intovajge TI
U.1S. Naval RlesearchLa-.
boratory Reprt P-2902, 1940.
5-79
I~wL
Lrvn
REFERENCES (continued)
S35.
36.
37.
46.
47
47.
M s__yz, temy~s,
B AF TR
5, 1 June
Allen Aand
p endixnlton
124
38.
48.
40.
Riley, F. C_ Jr and P.
dont~minant,
mospiacric
fr i
moe-ct rict. Coriter
WCriterTior
ka_.
ment- an -d Metha*n
. bi-vn
'
Nes
75.000 Feet, WADC TR 57-456 ASTIA
Docunsf4tN. AD 142002, Radio GorporaCUtlo
o.America, Contract AF 33(616)_
3915, U. S. Air Y-orce, ASD, Wright-PatASD,
rita 1057
.
orce,
35r
S Air
Dae, Ohdo, July 1957.
ters4'
Air rarce
Aircraft
I, I ;VAJ
T ....
_........
Document No. AD 1G472, ConAF 33(616)-3280, Project No.
Air Force, ASD, Wright-PatForce Base, Ohio, September-
1957.
1H3icnhoizer, R.
E. Wateman and
tlivfz-Fnergy-Air
kf[glm'R(tsFc1.
ation,
o.
Illinois
5-1RO
,
.
'
'
Atmospheric,
_i9
A ir c r a ft , P r ote c t o n f r o m A tmqE
_he r_
Lightning and Transients Research Institute, Contract No. AF 33(616)-3991, ProjectNo.8(77-4357) U.S.AirForce-ASD,
Wright-Patterson Ir Force Base, Ohio,
iF
e
,
o
October
51.
52.
53.
Dole
"
106 A, 18 March,
A., I. B. Fieldhouse, T.
O
J. Yampolsky,
Anti-Icing Systems for
WADC TR 54-35. ASTIA
Institute of Technology,
........
'
.....
4-
Knoernschild, E. M. and L. V.
Performance
erxfrosting of I.ft'
tTATf-'1.AST6
i-Dc1i
.Air
AD 9U759, U. S. Air Force, ASD,
1. terson Air Force Base, Ohio,
hl["b 1'50.
Larson,
Fighter
ntNo.
WrightDecem-
S H Environmental Reouirements
from
tics,
4.
Protection
June 1955.
Speciiication
43.
49
49.
:I,
556ASiA
tract No.
1111,
.
terson
1956. Air
42.
--a
F. Walker, AtRadiation
andAr
rcraft
t
Jirc
Air
11mmn
39.
5 9. -
41.
dInfrared Defrosting
rrtbrand, H.
ou met
Deicing. AF Th 587C rl
No.---f 47410.9 epuaic Aviation Corpotract No. AF 33(038)-1291'1
ratIon,
. S. Air Force, ASD, Wright-Patterson
Air Force Bae, Ohio, January 1953.
A F,1
Basinger, S. H. pind L. V. ha-racm, Infra-
54.
55.
,1.
'
IULFERENCES (ccnUtnued(pQ,~
116.
'.1ru,hcid
S7,
~di(:,,j
58.
59,
i
A.T., P"cupllbu
acp- ehI0 eDesal mnlt As
colter=
. aper Numbe 5Q-A-13, presentda
Aviatici Conference Los Angeles, California, 6-12 March 1659-
Calliopo
BIBLTOGRAP~iY
P MissionOriented AinLiysis of Aircraft Tciln.
Thw Americzcan P5_zwcr Jet -o-m-pa-ny-,-WX_5CTf
55-263, U.S. Ali- Forice ASD Wright-Patterson
Ibsy155.
Air Force Base, Oh1io,-.
AMission Oriented Analysis of Ali-craft Icing M hdoT~eAmeia
entioi
iNoYu TR57 -60, U. S.
Poty r Jet Compiny,
WrgtPatterson Air Force
Air Ju~,AD
B~ase, Ohio, I June 1959.
APrnosi-dRe!!ri'erationUnit for pciei
desTPr_(grc-;ss Ieport No_ lEffVIoiRdfNo.
Aviatf'on Corporation, System ReIleij'iwirij
February 1959.
quiremeiAt I,
~Benjamin,
A Stds o IncPczrmane
Rl i_0fle iLgratir'n Unite with -Inter-naLly Con:
trolledi Turbouinach'ne
COonefltprs
WADC TR
1iorce,.
ASD Wrigt-atro
-7U!?Airatrsn
Air Ircf' laseOhio.MedlcinL-andSur
rsueo
Ao,)tr:,ct of ElfecLN of Ataigpei
SjjystemnsAppendix C, BRoc.
GuidedM
"ndHamlton AFTR -53-124 U. S. Aiir
Atle
'orce, ASYJ, Wright-Pattcrson Air Fcr~ce Base,
OiJune 1953.
an____;er
AdaiuL
___cuso~er1.47
LZI
0IAU
C., ELOAA,"Niri.l
Qt)j,
Air Coniditicwnitnjrof__Aircri.af~t at HI~iy
.,Ai IAe--oimauincA h~uri~nativii Report No. 33A.
MaKterlpal,"
~
1
-
jLAVA
fC.~
,-
5 2 ue
fl~noval, AF' TH 5887.
Cabin Air Moisture
Conner, J. C., "AF Pusheo Beryllium Stud-les,"
Aviation Age. September 1958.
5-81
TWO
:.
rTinga a,
A 'rplane Air Crn~ditioning, EnL,
~i.-ir
uii o'1ytiam hAr
)r utiriEormation
o H10h TelnBrad1cj). 0.U., E*igytep
P-port,No. 25).
PLrCAircrI
GCnraUiri, kaper No. C13
~
~
~~~prtr
iinAlrCniinnngncigatjet
A
~
~
~
~
~
~
'Ita
,
_
59-865, rcecnte atAlEE Summer aMb Pacl(ic
General WAeting -and Air T -an portation Con,
n~orl~aif~nI~j~fL
-Icrunutial
ferinco, Seattle, Washington, 21-26 June 1959.
atri
Aio. 24.
EnEuijpmont
A ipnriIiatmgapd 'Icntiiating
biitz, 3. S., "IfyJpersonic Aircraft Will Face
FbI] T)rrirics SAE-- eroIrr'1);it'
Vol. 70,
Tech'nical Problems," Ava
T(ii rTo
oiuln
rjzflih oii
AInivican
1-c.
#A
BIBLIOGRaPH'N (continued)
-~
Aircraft, AF
TiLterferrericc-Free
fcir
WTW~i_
ot
Dixr,
"
~-
Goldberg K-E
1 G. Hamnre and II. D. Noble
Elertronn'c
.onahitairta
Research oijU
'__._
AL)
Oreat Cj.nxPart
riouPjs6rhJoundation,
F18
Coutract
No. AP 13(616)-3549, U. S. Air Force~ ASP,-
o AD
Human Centrifuge A'IA. ouii
8hool of Aviation, Naval Au'r
SodnS
1
39:3
h
ATeU.S
GodoS.A,
ethigcl
Memorial ihlueClmh
ption, of MHe
L brtifif.'
,Ohio,
'
Vprc
"
-.
a for
ASTIA.
''i
Force
~ May5
~ ~ 195 ~
~
~
~~ocmn
BNoe OADo
August 1aa~nCllonaDcme955:
~
~,*mf,
'
G.and
R.J
ollber
,qttMtDakie, JrI,-,X--.
of~ Fluriantedr, p c(ra
-Hlii
Ink
ter iatiand
archwi 1955 . 2,'W'
n, M.
Grin7epr,L.
i
1959.k
TWA
in tc.,~
ny,_Fcr-Dta from
lelt,.
L., Ai le~da I!n Cofj
on Firejpm,
-to~pec
Effctsof abi
Pattersor.
Airt~le
Forc~
oi
-ae
1hio ,rT~c _pKIT_V7,
'
DocumentTNh).Ant
157.4524,6Mollial
-' m.XSLa
Z
E.lS. iron Fontrfece, A nal zer-Atserieso
,
f
Iortkory,56
Dirctiora712te o
Adncdtiir
.
Forc
i
Ohio,
Airo
ASDc WriatPsteo
Mayc 15e,
balli'tirA-am
paaevR
Aprfe 1951.
Californiaerl~gieein
Ht.
Drusel
*opA
V.
AirF.o H.
a~vlmnd
etr RoberM.Dak.
,
llctur&T iait)Transc,
Mic~rawFVi.
Trn
~-Bouk
toiuticallnforTD617naniint
.P.
e
n~aii~nrl
C19e0e,
nortati0
EffercrtsfCabianiAtmoperta
for Aircraft WADC
He~lat
3UPA17 S.. Fcre, ASDP Wright-,
Eaatosf
tiSfArFoe
asOi.Patterson Air Force Base, Oh~io.
in~
NoN
~~
~~~~~~~ML
uto
o.4
o0
1958.c
oofma
nA Coated
i!~rrvIlnterernc AnFu~ialyzer
Cotirin~~~AS
~x i
~
~
Al)e~ yj8j
Lowellr~
TEcnoloicali
(;fu; '3U-T
Nd 32
..
Ai
c,
Rome
tttP Air
tero
etre Foeopet
Rome, GIT.o,
EtaiHCi;
No
n,.FScvleCrnnn
at
etn Buatee
n ArTas
Sh1Whnton.
u
March' !95b5.6SWC19g
Diociles,
~re
boatory,
Ter~i4D
W~
ol.A018,N.96,
SMpteriblra
,t.71,U
S
i
oc
#crc.
aeil
Corpors'tonAir.Foc Base Ohio
Apruc 19158.
Jl
Hannr, J.
T. J.F
Orin n cvfeCm
at
fiAsora60d
iF~ Arcrft
of CJor
r
aComm'
Jr W W.Kc1Ii~
nd E IIPVepere
MUIC 15"9-906 present~ued
utIESm
ented
Gre oreal Meeting of Americans
mepri
152015,
No.
L
Ali
Gfuttir 1_ i~v ' Iruvirrns ut,
itp :y
ia inomto
.ALtei-jKrtNo. , 110 Mibrtrnuia
oieyi
e;or,3
aur
Sir'~~~~~~~~~~~Jn
nI a
aiori,7Juy18.
I~
1t95R.
Juli'tatI
U.~
.S-irF
,tW7
7
""
(.mar
]BIBLIOGRAPHY (eontinu&')
'
er
oeti.
ivlvretSu"o
_'41
liumAirto.*Atr H eatrkchhmw r, WIRKLB 5443AS11cm~N
51.156, Surface
CrwwOuation Corpuration, Contact. No.
3Y-33..
1T7.
________iP51PRf&
Isliznler, J1. S,1 Fngireergi'weali
laminated Alr--~ TtWF11Wq tFil
Factors For
ifartT1
o
-AAli-
ivie IJ5
B3ix%
4l_
...
Institute, Februar
WK-
1951.
-Maecdoald.
**-'Ib
'unwr.
K",-'
rep N. Hf amd F.1 It. iddJell Het Transfer
.....................................
hi Safeliir.
te-eritrixWUT7Thi!U
ehues
plleC,.I~lY.
w!2earC
){efxrt N.,A'L
TS&?%cufmcrwt No. A!) 150540 Avc., Rcscarclj Laloratory, Contract No. AtP 04(f,45) -.18, Air2 Resvarch and Deveinprornt Cornroar-a, October
19%
KliriL,
RIP-.-
4ltniU
i l
. atnCi.
"-pj.
rp!U.iT5.2YS7,
for 5,:rmgvrn.
pany, Conlract No, AP 2334116)-26461 U. S. Air
eiii7ETl6Jrai?
M
hi3Ei-i
Fox ccAI) Wrlglat--Pattersoo Air Force Base,
ovt 4. E.v
jjiY4}
*i1-T
11F Trtn
Javitar an
'A,
eem and.G.
W.
CurH
f17
Wil~le1 1e
Air Force
..
'
ovetWJ)155
a
tensLbrtrPrjc
o 32
. 3.Air
Force, ASD, Wrirght-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio0, A.ugust 1(s5i.
U. S. Air
31AlT
~t., cm,
o-6100a
.4
R tkTeurmictNo.TAD31601, Armorn
search Foundation, Ilitnols Institute. ol TeLh
vology Contract No. AF 33(038)-6429, E. 0. No.
664-7M' U. S. Air Force, ASP, Wright-Pattursoi 4{!r 1-orce Batic, Ohio, Aprvil 1954.
No. AD 80238
.t
U.P. ad J. A. Walker,
It.~ It.,1.I.
top,;t
53- 38,
-~~-
14Aw.h
Suzra ar.d
77~
U11.W
LQln&uAtrSaaf,
2rrcl
WU
STIA Docurnrszt No. AD 62583, "'1.-
-escarcb
m!qpntcor~si'A
-nonee-i
---H~ C.'dI
2~ieW3()Gf
tIVr
.PTU
1,J-A
Ji~i~l'-----u~
-ax oy
leea
h
Mrch i751
F
vea
-.
Chiv
a
Lane,, Arthux I
cidv Uffllpl' Performan-c
;
bin Cooti
Unit, WC iiU W
A9YA
nCuaircliild
JO
oI
%.9
Y
4n'ginc &
A irphiaueCorrynration, Cfmtract. No. AF 33f(600)-.
2'8,U. S. Air Force, AS!), WrilgIt-Pattoxson
Ali- Furuv Dase, (Y'u(ig, OcLot~cr lU51
Ana-yr- s of
iao,
M-
..--.....
~yt
TTA
3A7)05
dical
_Tr1
'
.-
Ur.11 einVd
SWflnnI
.
.-..-
io
I
'
'
13~IJ3LIWRjAk'Hk
-U
~u re withIi-jpclArrl
CookElectric
ltude ASTJ.A
V-ibraztor-vyA
No. ADDocument Company.
TR s&-55.
SWAU
(ContisiUOei)
foj
Study of Supersoni_ Radii. Co.
fa'
rtM,
RerigeAl
i Force, ASD, WrightWAD--R15
Patterson Air Force Bane, Ohio.
.prebso
'.
____________
'
p-ort---No
-c-7,
ASTA ocument 1o. AD T12815,
Air University School of Aviation U. S. Air
Force, Randolph Air Force Base, Texa, November 1957.
Penn, WV,B., R. L. Balke and F. M. Precopio,
Generator !nulation Systems Devetopment for
4vners-.nic AircrzLt Paper No. 59-864 present-ed--t
i-- -mmer and Pacific Generals
Meeting and Air Transportalion Conference,
Seattle, Wasnington, 21-26 June 1958.
Pierro, John J., Pesign aid Dey__openLot
!n Airborne Alternating Current Generation and
L'istriL-ution Sytern for Use in 6 F Akmbientz,
of Space
Force
Sludyly
'
.
'
1956.
,o
.helpaphiflAIse
'M
5-
*,t'
'
Ct'?m*'''''
'.
T
s-Pro erty-Dest;m Crlaf-- W'
TRI
3}Il2 F_a
ASTIA Document No. AD 90286, The Battelle
Memorial Institute. Contract No:. AF 32(6R1)
2303, Project No. 1T360, U. S. Air Force, ASD,
..
Shlnn, D. A.,
,po
M.AW
"
"-'-I,
'
BIBLIOGR.APHY (conJliuied)
o Crtain
ndElii'ratio
~i'~ej~e~rtiw1
&.(trical JntcrfnrenCces in Missiles,
1.lcct-ric Conipaiy Report No. It 53A0511,
,'-chnnec lady, N.Y.
Tu rtomaxhar _ynarnics
U. S.. Air- Force, AS65
Force IBase, Ohio.
WADC TR 57-611,
Ih-atr~lAr
Ohio.
Jee
56
YaeC
.adJ
.CaiDwlp~n
N. nd J. c. Chayinati Develop730
o Metv
Materials WADCT
Form~lla-Urms for__ _ottn
58-303 ASIA Document No. AD 203525, The
-scierAtIlc 0Oi1 Comlpounding Cc. Materials Laboratory Project No. 7312, 13. 8. Air Force,
ASD, 'Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,
-October 1958.
fSN1._
5-855-8
-7,
MEW~~~l
ff`V7I-
%:
N,.
CHAPTER 6
ENVIRONMENTAL TESTING
1
s'
.4!1
.<
V-
,~.
;4~
I
-
Lm0
iKV
W
llam~lit,
a-(T
&-W
I'f
the
HEQLJ i. FM ENTS
.that
the test requirement:; differ from tlip dosign roquirdbients, and to t'A~t towardil the dosign recrA~rements Instead of the tefit requirements often results in overtesting of the equipenorcnpet.Materials are tosted to
Depending
iat is tested vinler different environments, provided that there in nio genoral test requ~trement
specification aialalable. Components are eenerally tested to teas tq peidf led by MIL-STD.
202, -rest Methods for Electronic and Elsectrical Component Parts." Aeronautical equipment is tested to a nuamber of different spacif ications, includInK some that. are contractorprepared. Specification MEL-T-5422 -r.-,ir~n_
mAtlTsig icatlcr...Eup'n
4i
4
~
r.
c, t'
rh:
4
i
~~
fl
'-t
't
"A'"-'
'VMlo thou~i
faction Vf the p.ocuz'ing.4ec'
dbes not obviata thes equipmedj. envirolnmental
testing required during devrlopment. Thje fligbt
to
test program affords the first ooitot
'
tapn
equilpment.
tesla use.d during the various stages of developnit-10 o! a particiular wearirm system arn evolved
Iromi the 'riviorenientai c~riteria sot for thc
Eya;twl. Thecse enivitonniieutal criteria, in turn
;trc arriven al. by carrying out. env~ixoiment'j.
nr3 opcratimm: anamlyses (Chapter 4). awce thte
tnvxr'nrnmsltal vriteria are ddterwined Huitable
tc.-tri .1rc it-hiished, in miany caces using, thc
c:xistirirg miiliary ai~wcuiiv-ttotionas gutdee3. Whern
usin~;- nmiffiiry epe,eclfiatjuns, it utiould b~e noteci
FillTM,
here
refers
0~ all
the
....
instrumentation is used to measure all environ;rt fin'r~trr , p~vrticularly those which the
environmental analysis determined to be critical,
The complexity of the Instrumentation equipinent. varies considerably, depending on the systern aria typo of tczt. A relatively simple systern m~ght requ're only Lraiiaducers and indicators that personnel can observe. In a complex
system, where great numbers of environments
are almost continuously monitored, dat~a Btorage
latecr evaluation.
the radio telemeter were (1) to transmit Wnormation ats to the state of flight of the iurcraft
(slowly varying data), and (2) to txrans~int the
more rapidil yvrIg
data, such an flutter,
which the test flght was set up to obtzLn.
--
3-cerhaips the muost important part In any Inslerientatipon3isena ;toa oe rmof mery ht cansn
1w~
~mii H~ownse
knr
aE- rndmasredi,,r muht
device;
prid
maaent
e-nvtr.ninetoalfr
rweerence/iil.,poesdadmauems
-~
ofnin
denie ergtyinoftedl
be he ostaccrat
pa t l te U~tmenttio
were recorded on an oscillograph. more recantly due to th. need for raiIdata reduction,
auo
tidtaruconmtoshvebn
itoune dat
Ar~rcrdiagao
e tpcalyo
atapeawie
U-n
that
haecan~iatInomto
and reuir
o
arefinement. dietyoraewa
Inflihe esalsinnent
,
c tilmeecodo
to thegon
P~yte. hePosig
evcema povdea lfo reoding
icandresomear onde01itr
ered
ectly
Fore andca.Uviing
a smpltrd4nng vehiis,
ter
an
oon thegrudThceta
data procsigssem.
in
erest
electrical Pirbcornes foccrdarto provoide a m~ean
dater are ducesiall of the recesary corretom th
of (uamanytcpsci
agans
ngen
theloso dslornie fo
mand sourlefcos. ahre appred thoectionstou
this
antu evn
ent of apicalrash. A widevaitypia one
_sytem
pOc
e syledsn
the is vialeoik"Isectgon,
ic
th~i maynti ae
foeten variousenvifor reoria
rerd uces teAt
otefr
Aoclorpi
arlsted ha
iirangef
t- e pajd62 Vandprio
to
plts Taulahted atap iaformIn
uitraclesfor dislulyrationapickus systems.
n
ownever, aemphasin
rnecteion rep.Inortsawitout as nee or firather
wIn;hs 3-laced he2,respetii
mlhasf For urhero
odri
corretd
t
utnscribing.
etfyths
sc
;'r~~~~phican
and thneramieitpe.e
requirerap
coder,
~~~ r~runnsar
~ sicess Th
.Pitaplotshmn Of
athie
corrtdo
dathea.
t
tcniACvei Tin cI~N.T~MTTO
racordwn tthhqus
gnetictapint
si
borionar forbe suitoableo
Fleoroso h
epoed
alely adnihihand
e
ir:..~~gh
(tent zdarag
eil
bhedt
es
feoriegs
it
Wldco
iI aevice~r to ai
T~~
provieam
a
oif uratrcing
rncord of the loss o infoiastuie
Lbflijottet datacl.
w;ill
ULf
plcdherle
;uahlc
the
infurmatic
"
'
Typir'al SensingInstruments
va ei,
'of
eriviro
-.t.
Ai.
K'r
ATh
isl-montisioti ofteheiqtest
no
dt
comute.
onthicgital
fror furterstyst
ramed
digitizdand the4!nputer.
H
tic. ere dhe3
crec
en
fditleerisacnpehglypci-
rif
iedtn oerj trnscitbing,.adol
fromtihae, vehicle
andlthed
tas rre-tdhee descriptio
2.Poit plts f te coreced ata
ex
usdi~trment
curdr, incar thee
ontheoe?
tcriivul
tchniues inr.-i~dci.
mordbg
oe
ap3. iagetc
bnar frmsutalefo
~
use~~~
~~
byahg-peddgtl:optr
A* I
K
0IP~HM
-~.
W
I-I
EJl~onq j.%P,jI
'M!
'
W,__
e
>
t411;Q~!
-~c
)utm
-1
p
a, te
dwoJ
tLL..W
L
tZ
(-4o
Q w_
OOL
Id
Q91
1,
"--. "-..---
--
'--
"elniig
Device
r
I'l'hermnu,;.;.
_-1rnre4iicti1VO
Temp.
Acceleration
device
______
Bi mtafllic
elemeiit
r
OW
JC.I
ly
pyrome-te
X-_X
tr--
w'n
f A~i-_-
...
-X
"It
-____'
. ....
_,.
X
X
-.
I_
ntItenna
meter
__--____
_______8
adetectors
V
hattoaensitiVe
'n~u1MJons5
t,
ference
A-_
I, ,iti
intna
inter-
MICim ,-
i'ld
Radio
"-_-
_%--=751
~i ion eter
Nuclear
radlatlon
---
%17lch',nicTIoalLIP
;prn
-masHs acceler.
Zero
gravity
___
orme""..
;,ooa(tlr.
" 1
77*'
erX
-t
accelcrumeter
AcoustlO
vibration
_______
l'i
Mech.
shock
_____
______
T-ThreaT"ir
Mech.
vibration
_____
--
_____
_-.
, ,
x
:X'i
v.
V"ll_'
-
"_.
.'_
__
i:
,.
some
of transmitting
beveral channels
on one method
link is required.
This tecdmique
ia caller,
Smultiplexing.
'
=:
rig
~~tiplexing
~~divis~ion.
geemral division
methodsand
of mtuin u~seThe
aretwo
frequency
titne
'
ftrato
and
tranomatted.
The receiving
equtpmezit
sep..-.i
a~~9rates
ths suabca-rrier
!requencies,
alemrhoates
-- '.
"
'
,,:..
The vibratian,
'.
Airborne Recording
7"
I;::
to hia leg.
La~t,
4..
* =
"." =
' -. ..11 . . . r. ",. .. ' -= - ."_ -' ' ...
. ..
. .
..
'
t1. - .
Fig.~~
aclroees
~ ~
6-2
Tyia
Am t
Txt~t
Data
R- din
LRecordin
Oupu
Processin
Output
System
Sled
Trackin
Radar
aoto
Test
D010
Fig. ro-3.
Ar
Sub-Cor'~r
R~d~
Antennas
Rdi
Transmitter
Trn~duer
Receiver
FeqModulatorcto
NNo.1
Odultor
De
Rod1
Freqencrery
No.
FCrequnc
Transducer
_
tr railD
requency spetru
erfecthm
netiied.
Fig.
mirro reflectslihfrequnc aiiin
flgto
on
ul qantte suhotosenaitiv
obatne ay phonsato
fil
oreepaper whtichdiserie
gratein
atriht ayw
to inthueplnets whith thve
light~
~
~ light
~ beam
~~~~~efeto
bea
swnsasam
cmrasul
If ordteo
tof thorte
gavmoree racoidl,
Thsarringen iatashwnscemticaanlrcrigocllyFgrah hae-eetwe.
The
mosrecordersvmayas9lman
have
asedfsiftychannels Gavaometer
empovem'Aentsare
galvailabetrwith
natu
freqoral nciesi
tho neih
borhoo ofied
3to miro rcect
torh
is Amplifer-t
api
the Im reorig
ap.Wt
grewthe data
Th5
Ing
W usedt
recordr
coe
lariou
simbers
acofd
the
dewsvriredat sgaplcation.
They
. maygb
sdfrtepoes
a eowgpoesi
In ol edLited laboratory
daas
rodeia, icmput~er
mobnd rcanrderusda shinIpboardrevcrd
oupu
rsadeavrice recodInernlstoaefr.gi
Tampuers
Playcbandbnlysise beatteemetysse
oetacmbnsoto
th
-'-
et
ASV.
ivso
educeio
Anothertioner onethed
tAp
rpciucly cnietvarying
daai
h
mediumduing
thmoe
iiin
ngneigTs
iet
teapiateon of maTate rsordirs
Fore Ins haros sicenslaccordn'ticratecr;Iongt ttaehintosan ectrical
e
ina
Inl
the
plctin
hymyb
deie
cohle itop
tansport
rmre
druvm
thfoparos th e
aplaybsikied an alysisor rysemcrdbers porlL
manetiwherds
r teaconeystanpolear Tpeed basic
anyrdesi, mobie freom ayrechpoarder. crd
A anettrcie etr
of
e magnetic
tih tp
recorder
axe______________
_iYmna
for othitmume
recording, prddoede
c-r':rnnuizat, irmn
onutetpe mdiumac
areoplay-
Saeltsnduarposhvemlyd
durnd
ditale
thprces. trns-
recodin
maytpsontuensadmauig
Duingplabac,
raeIDeuyfo
he __
sa__
__
osatln _
oal the
sgna tap
The
cros
__
tpe
__ a _
ape
__
pe
. in
an R
layb
ranportdric~q
tk
_ .lngaysz
__
__
cka
Bas
alvo
ha
recntl
ste
cap
he
__
Spc-e~ac
Wih-7
n SpotAD
es
Pattrso~ir
orc
Diect
EnbieeingTes
iviion
virnmetal
mg
rcnerste
due
aypgsatso
aefo
Intrmnttt
eodr
acqire
ble
of
ind
ducc;
5
aNo.
~
'r ans-
[~1-------to
,Antennas_
/Roatoo
derTrons-
RecesvW
Low - ;
Fitter
No. 4
Recorder
-
~~
ducer
Ciz
Fig. 6-5.
tnpu.iRcr
Reprodluce Out
Suspeirs~lopead
paz-atus to further 1knowic-.d4,2 of the space envir~jrnment and its3 effects on vehicles and equip-.
mne-it.
Thtse instrumnerd..
Iupl~o
Ii,
trzn;;uer
thir zoiiitors to more comiplicatedt GeigerMueller counters. In the future, complex television camcraia, which already have bi.en used
su.A e,-.fiLdly to transi tit picuures of the Earth'iT'
cioudcover fromn satf _1ltus, will be used t4 ) take
close-uT, pictures (if the M~oon and planuts. Tile
iiiatrurnentation ubed ill space vehicles muuit be
compact, efficient, reljablt. ana compatible with thfe tev'rrietry system used with the vehicle. The
sl)'2,ci1t(: linstrumecnts contianed in a space vehicde v-ry widely, depending~ ona fi ctors auch "n
the nduisionii (fthe vehido, itt size, and the
lx,wt~r sources available for the Instrumentation.
Addutiouiai Iiu-m~ ori on pace-vehicle instrumiuntat~onr, containud in reference /2/.
j4
C;
9--m
IM
I-
Corn i"'
TranAuCt'S
~k
9.
Ocommutotor
N0.1
0 Nc
i ItoN
Recordter Not
Trc
~No.1
IFr~uenc
12]-Sub-Catr nr
T3
jT.
TiOscillator
Rr
MIxng
N etIo,
Sub -corrier
R
AI
o.
o r[i
31t
Cornnu to toe
_lon
Re cerdeF Nan
RF C
FrequtCicy)'
ISelector
___No
j7
MI
or
I_
Trrrr
er[I du
NonN.
I~o
tto
Decommultator
n
INo
Ground
Station
Fig. 6-8. Combination frequency and time division multiplex telemetry system.
Ij
odtinfrtipse
yteml
ri
'
/
I
nl
6-9
1t.
AW-WU
*WR;
W~~
. .-
"H4vlm
nsn
components,
-toHti
"a
ra
l
bori
broarty
prototype
Subsystem
System
and
--
success,
By using laboratory simulation, the time necessayforthe re'earch and development of mllitary systems has been reduced to the point
where it is now almost compatible with military
requirements. The use of the laboratory to
prove the success of a design prior to field testIng has resulted in considerable cost savings.
A relatively smali number of systems can -)e
used continuooualy In the laboratory to prove designfeasibility, but for the same amount of data
to be obtained in the field, a great number of
systems would be required, particularly In
(he case of noi-recoverable missiles. The
simulation canabilities used during the devehopment program can also be used to evaluate the product during the production phase of
the nregram to assure the military that quality
levels are being maintained.
xmpe
equipment isntoperating
during
normal
transportatIon.
Therefore,
equipment
would
be non-operating
during the
the
simulated test -under the shock and vibration
levels normally encountered in transportation
and handling. Another example of non-operative
testing is "temperature soak." This is one of
the environments encountered during storage of
the equipment. Conversely, if the equipment is
normally operating in service under a ceitaln
environment, the equipment should be operating
whenthis environment is reproduced in the laboratory.
-A
.
.
:1
.
Reproduction of an environment in the laboratory is accomplished through the use of spetaily designed equipment, generally referred
toas environmental facilities. These faciles,
are covered later.
.4J
O
Block Box
I Subjectd to
EFiiVCXwft
Outputs
An accelerometer
.,
Is
.So_.
uj
icontrolling
.
_ t
__..__
,
t'%. G-9.
..are
.R
nd
iA
SLevels of
inusInput
Tesnt
Vibration Leveil
D~q
ke
Control
Shnke]r
Amnpliert
Otus
Outputs
SbSse
isuSujecte
niomn
ITest
ISinl
Equipment Inputs IComputerPoe
,~i
.~ -
I-
lj
-N
4V~
Ii
Antenna
R~cr-
{Z]+65
Raar
Rdar
Simulated
Taget
To
I
FCS
1-CS
FCS
I
-
Bore
Sight
--
---
Hydrwlicstrumentation
i
/
".uirotimennnt Testing
,-12
t*W
4'i
,
.;
'~
4,
'
-1~ J."
"
Si ni'i
ovalpolm
Many combined test facilities have been built,
but very little
the confidence
testing. The
has, however,
Lnvirofimrcnt Testing
rto
osdrda
hudb
ti
i
f ui" f
,"'
-1
various method~sof simulating dLff crent eniviron merits, both In the field and te laboratory.
ite5uI.
1
u
t~ub
UL-liujtd
la
determi
JUI'
ned
to a gr-a* extent by how the environment is 91niulatcd. The following paragraphs describe
Missile
Strucuraltest
*Sfructuroiproblems
Ring
Main
'tus
Restraining
...-
'v'~..a
Domoinq of
Restraining
System
Field Methods
.4
~ ~
2
bLe test.
'
'-
Diring
such
'E-M-&4
I~
&I*.-l
0-14
-~~N
.~
t
-
______
N..
-,
j
9
'
'-
7,
.- "
--
`K*r-%'_
'\
121
A~
'
allow duplication of the freeflight vibration environrncnt abovt- 6 cps. Below 6 cps, the error
Is In the direction of undertesting the vehicle,
an isolation systerri. With this recent developmeut, the value of the eled test has been extended to Include a reasonable simulation of the
u,:6
,~?
*Rocket-Sled
Tept
The basic rocket-sled
tesrt fa-cili-ty consist-6 o' a rocket driven sled that
"rides" on precision rails. This arrangement
Ns 9hown
ini Fig. 6-15. Sled test-track facilities
up to 7 mi1e6 hmi are zivaliable, anddre capabl.e
of attaining spceeds up to Mach 4. Programming
of the acceleration profie of the sied Is acconiplished by ihe use of fuel-pr ramming for
liquid propellant rockets, shaped charges for
Isolid propeilant rockets, and aerodynammic and
water-braking techniques. The sled facilities
are equipped wlit count-dorwn checkout circuitry
telemetry, on-board test equipment, high epeeA
cameras, and h;&h speed computing and recording equip.ment,
---
Engin
__________
rimuatin,
a wel asin ll ohertypes, is
lack of correlation factors. Present techniqueR limit the simulation of flight canditiolns to firing the propulsion system and
jimited e'loscd loop maneuvers.
--
~'i
~
~
heave *8 feet
"I
.P''
er"1
designed and fabricated for use with the
X2 7 ram jet wissile, whichisaiLir-iaunchedfror
-..
I
'i~
71~
'
-72
in,
15.
Woshbooid
Road
VhiceGronillow,
Prvin
G rond
Grond
ehile rovn~ roua,. The Ordnance Automotive Testing Center at Aberdeen
Proving Ground, Maryland, Is available for
perform ing complete ground-vehicle fileld tests.
Spec ially .anottrurted roads conlalfllng such, hazardb uzr etnbedded rock, staggered bumps, corrugations and vertical wr'ls are provided for
evaluation of a complete ground vehicle under a
shock and vibration Gervice environiment. There
is also a 'Wrame twister" road that Imparts severe torstical stresses to the ve~hicle structure.
One uchspecall
costrutedroa of ~teest
isnte suchspeiallycoasrse
e odofbtrs
road
isteb~-nh orewashboard. This
consists of 6-inch waves 72 inches apart. A
diagram of the road is shown in Fig. 6-16. The
frequency of the vibration imparted to a vehicle
may he varied by varying the speed of the vehidcl. For example, a vehicle travelling at 5 mph
will be subjected to a vibration frequency of
1.22 cps.
in additiorn to~ the rough roads, there are crosscountry courses embodying hills, mud and seyore terrain. Fording and swimming tests are
conducted in special "bath tubs."
1-17a .2i4
C)
are
4-
.5
nomal.JA..e
Laboramtory Methods
Ir the !!hv-'ratory, environments are generally
in chambern or oit cx,-ited platforms.
Tvpk al techniquin sa-nd faciliti'es for reproducing
11-e vk;ri-ius envtronments-are covered in the
These techniques and
!oiowi~rparagraphs.
SiTPUlfltd
fan iliits are covered in the following catego-.1. Comnponeiit, equipment and subsystem test
far iiitles lor single environment testing.
'
Temperature Shock. Most often, the tempera~ture shock env4iroimeint is produced by mroving
the equipment from a hot chamber to a cold one,
~Ur
and vice versa. Temperature mdiui.. ca, UABa
simuldted !n one chamber by combining refrigeration and oven devices, or by releasing cornpressed gas into the chamuber. Thermnal shockful,
liquid-handling equipment (pumps, etc.) can be
accomplished by transfer to pump at drasticall,
different temperatures than those in use.
*i
cne
Hgheprtr
rtre
Tr
Hi
onetive orih
teberab
prighced na~tuest ciha
s
hc
ineants. chabrb onvective over
prodiat
elnectient tovhenst thie airise
electria reians.
elcralebsneeemtsohatheirn
a chamber, are inexpensilre and easy to control.
With radiant-ty e ovens, the walls of the chainbraehat
earhat
~to
not lefsiueon
ei
yofw.techniques,
Thcpessur withn a iveretea can be reapproximately 1 x 10-i2 'rorr by the employmetnsuccession, of several devices. These
dvcsanrt their ranges are listed below. A
bifdescription of each is also included.
Devicedopet
ag
pump760Torr
1 xl0~
To
Mech anical
(displacement)
urr
Oil diffusion
pump
Oil diii usion
I x 10-3
1 x 10- Torr
'vi"~has
cold trap
8xl~Tr
I x 10-6 Tor
Tore I x 1r"o
techniquie or
Ci ypurnping
sy~eibelow
1
4
1 x 10
Torr
00
."a
4
1
-",J
'-
h
pndt
ste
rsur
eue
iea
area to be exhausted, and upon equalization of
is then simul-
Alt,
eetd
teamshrteccei
an&~V
Um.cA1
ihrough a ceniiiai tu~be,
shaped baffle, and is channeled by the conf Iguraeevi
ak noteoi
h bfl
itoheolrsvi.
knothbafeac
prsuei
pnsae
Adwndrftc
______ane___e
From
cmsicotcwthheuppe-r
Effective
or techiniqnue
f.It
.4.
7"7v
part of the
cooler oil vapor and
to~ue
created around the central tube,
traps air or other gas molecules from the area
dcawn to be
vcaeadcristhem
ben
exhausted through a line near the pump bose.4
pump that serves as a fore pump in the system.
Oil Diffusion Pump With Cold Traj!. A diffun Ion pump operating atlower pressure rangesa certain amount ci "back diffusion" off varvacuum,
thebyultimate
To Improve
s
Ion
a coldvapors.
trap, usually
cooled
liquid nitrogen,
area bert evacuated (Fig. 6-19). Volatile vapore conclense on the surf ace of the trap, and
thus do not diff use tock into the area. Also,
6-17
Vocuumsoevral
ThiikM
vironment
:t..Coils
Hoilt
Ho
Oil
Pmpcps.
himpcited
~l
Sbock Mechanical shock Is normally slmulaitht y a f ree-f al]-type shock testing machine
congisting essentially oi a guided dro carriage
that Impacts against a base In a controlled decel
eratlon manner (Figy. 6-20). The deceleration
shock Is controlled by the impact of a calibrated
plate spring against an anvil, by rubber pads,
or by lead pellets. One type of shock inachine:1-
rM.1,1I
mstpoulr'etodhaustjt~
sn
usoidel vibration utilizes an electrodyaine
hstker (Fla. 6-21) which operates an the same
-vs-Heater
Difusin
Diffusin
V
,
800 cps.
/Th
.
Coldnnca Coldtype
VAC
:Baff le :Cooling
"~j
;,,
eetnQfteseiccmpetsil
~ icilities
e~iainrI
deisigned
rai nec~neo
necangeusti
input sljp~haare and
some for
proie
for interchange
dnvbain
chambef;rs. (YIgttre 0-25) Is a block diagram
Compexeuipent
s rquird t prouce
;aW~mvibaton
n rde t copesat for
WeC various responses of the holding fixture and
to assure a proper input to the test specimens
(Fig. 6-22). To operate inside a temperature
and altitudc chaiube-r, the st.;ndard shaker must
bc mt.,uied.
f"
'?Ttris
o.
F ig. 6-24.
;-4
'
j-~
Signol
;Accelerom~ter
if~ P0ower
Ij
Shoke
Con'.rol
Accelerwrmter
Plotter
Shaker
Signa
Me
M ete
Equalizer
-Audio
Loudspeaker
7Randomn
Noise
r~eEuizr
otrAmplifier
PowerSpdI
men
Tope
Lraphi
Level Recorder
Su~
Lvl
Mete
Speclrum
Analyzer
pho"
in accorda
4 nce with the specifications of MU,_.C,8811 (AS6), Chamber, Rain-Testing, is deThe
i a hamer
w-c
ame,
Wand
insulated, well-lighted Internal test space. It
has a large observation window (one third the
area of tUe wall on which it is located) equipped
with a wiper to keep the glass clear for obsnrvationpurposcs. Provision is made for con trolling the water temperature and rate of flow.
Tsig
ndsrbdblw
The chamaber (Fig. 6-n7 is a self-contained
uwilt consisting primarily of a dust-tight charnber a dust supply, a blower and necessayT
dueling for produicing the desired conditions. A
scribed
belcrw:-
C-20
-7rp-1
-4
,.
I-
'j ![
,--
Inlet to Fan
Sound Absorbing
Material
,SirPn
*
.,
Hoppers
Electric
Ar
Oriven
SpecinSeen
i-Vib
Microphone
"
o
I Sound
Level
`-Rcorderl
-octu ....u-:
dr
I
lAnot teriLm
Mete rI
AI
Fan
Dust Vatves
.m
Test
Comportment
h,,
XV
Dust Supply,
L)ucling-
V
FastenersIb
Explosive
At_nosTphere.
Explosive atmos-cdude-d-r--explosion
chambers
tI ig. 6-29 and 6-30) by simulating the various
uarameters involvedin an explosive atmosphere,
'lhe more important of thiese parameters are:
d rcr!If a rs
1. Air/fuel ratios.
2. Temperature.
-
3. Altitude,
4.
5. !umidity.
iI
'4
f."
%
.*
C -21,
, V.rq
--
fl~tt-l-r
.-
-,lf~S
. .-. . . . . . -. . .-. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .
.I.
%I
make "walk-in" chambers commerciRlly available. Such chamnbcrs may be designed for ternpcraturcs up to 450 F (32 C) and altitudes up
to 80,000 feet, and bN adaptable for ne-w, high-
energy fuels.
Df-Il1 spec ifi;,-atinns for the design and consti-c lion of c;lusion chambers are contained in
,Cobalt-60.
17eaiutora, ot
a r
U~.LdUyiat
_ho_
Fi.Persoceannnrenlt
Airi
/Plug
et
auly
Loc
usun.L&y
-I
arle Pot
Viewing~*
F, 7S
E*vleF~en,
AI
SaltSpray. Salt spray to simulated 1"i at chain:,v exposing the test specirnen to a fine
Viorouglily dispersed mist . The mi1st Is derlveA
from, a ~-tsolution whose concentration, pH
hf-rc
-I-Pover
Reactr__
Location
Argonne Regearch
Iteactur cr-s1
Argonne National
Battelie Research
Re-actor
Battelle Memorial
Institute
Neutron flux
level'
(rnegawatl8)
Fmat
Thermal
Laboratory
2
CoMMentS
1013 rn/em !
2 z 1013 ov
Available to
oft (max)
(max)
outside or-4
1013 m/cm 2 /
Boo (&%Z)
101S Dv (&vg)
AveIiijh.: to
any organi1zatlon sponBoring re-
lzwr
A
Y
";J
search at
Battelle
Memorial
F~n~ineering Test.
Natl9onPl Pnsetor
Rleactor
Testing Station
Gun-ral Electric
Valleitoo Atomnic
Test Reactor
Laboratory,
Ple9asaton, Calif,
Mlatcri-'ls Testing
Rteactor
1715
1.5 X 101-6
m/cm 2/meo
4 X 101
so
10 15 m/cm2
2.4 z 1014 nv
-Avaellable for
ame (Max)
(max)
customner
iiv
i.U
National Reactor
2.5 x 1014
mlcrn2/sec
40
Te~qting Station
5 X 1014 Irv
Avallable to
(fax)
caiteide
IAlgonne
Max intetinity
(ergs/gm(C)/hr)
Lo>cation
ilivi, Level
GamaIraintion
Ilattelic Gammna
Irradiation
Facility
rokaveni Gamnma
Ii r:idi.'ition
A-rgonne National
aoaoy
-
-nie
Sourcre
environment
Ielements
1.7 X10
liattelic Memorial
ilns t;tu te
1.3 X 1
lirookhaven National
6.7 X iO0
Latioratoriee
MTR fuel
Water
Ac
Cobalit-6
Watter
Ccbalt-60
Water or air
.f
.'
Fadility
~oihcs
iesarh
Southwest Rtesearch
lluMi~tutt' Gamma
Institute
WADDi
Wright-P1alterson
GamTMA
f acilitict]
2.6 a1
_________
____
:r
-,Gobalt--60
Air
Cobalt-60
A.ir
(ubmait-60
Air
6-23
"""4
".
(i
,...
issAcceleratioan.
ed
In
the lap
centrieues
(Fig. accelerationa
6-32) or by
ty 3.
dr
roratory,
'..
'1
"-!
:
Temperature-altitude chiambers
Temperature-humidity
14
arambers
.,i
Iwo,
-X
qk
*-4-
lk
L'.
f~ik:
7
M.
-vision
ICL112/
18
1615e
0000
ndS
r Environmunt Facilities
A
1
tu .'r"~
D~escription
C
-
..---."1
Radiation baffle.
Terrrinal strips.
10
Vacuum
11
19
''-
.*
pump.
Mercury manometer.
Amphenol connectors.
crmotat
(tepertureandrig.
13
13
14 and 15
Ff.
Termotat
(tepertureandaltitude
humidi ty).
16
fan).
________-Inot
--
y~cr. It uonibines both the ciPerational environmerito and functional evaluation parameters into
onge facility. It has as its primary purpose the
evaluation of reconnaissance equipment, but It
also has capz-bility for testing under comb~ined
em, iiroll ile tis any type of systemI subsystem, or
equipment that Can he accoinodated in the cap:rule. This facilitywill Lbe co'mpleted early in
1')62. The IDynamic Analyzer Is shown in Fig,
63-43. Its capabillties are I'sted In TaL-e 8-10.
6-2r,
--
---
Jib
--
-.
44
'4,
3
B
rjto
6or
2
7
10
(
.1
12
12
~sitrzted ;evironment
13
---
I.
2Optical
Windows
Cambr
~ ~~
-*-*w
rPUu4'M
arc maintenance, Ohe use ci special instrumientatiu)n, and tUe rathier high cost per test.
ySN.cmens or Fltli-Scale Environmental Test Fa___This
16
$_i
yment
Remroval of 11o
Exchanger and Drip Pnr)
*less;
adjacent to or in equipment and foubsystome within the alrrame even mom, nebulous,
,Accelerating the test required, particularly for
long flight-time satellites and spacievehicles,
poses even greater problems.L
8Windw ad SoltPreliminary
study ci a systems test facility
ces.Do
for space vehicles has been carried out by
Anl~gneigDvlpetCneTia
9. Solid Particle Accelerator
10. Radiation Lamps
homa, Tennessee. This study has resulted in a
11. Chamfber Shelf
proposed military space systems test lactlity,
called Mark U1.TIls proposed facility is shown
12. Specimen
in Fig. 6-45 and its capab~iltea are listed in
13. Electra- HydreuliC
Table 6-11. An interim facility. called Mark
14A,,
JtILLYO-
Lu
UIV p)ULLU&AzMAz
OLM6VO.
L
&D
LFA
6-2
4.
1. Reverberunt Cell
2. Electra44ydroulic Exciters
3. Radiatiun Lamps
j,
',4'
j~9
1.Vacuum Line
2. Instrurn nto Iiun
Cables
3. Specimen
4. Cryogenic Injectors
5. Radiation -Lamps
6- TV Camera
7. Vertical Roil
6.
adenro
lipRigsFig.
Hu
Fig. ~ ynmcsfayty
~
~
'Fig 6-4.dynmicsfaciity.liquid
Inrtia
In the left chamber, the low radiative temiperature of outer opace of almost absolute zero is
simuutlated by cooling the black inner chamber
wails with liquid or cold gases such as helium,
6-28
8. Power Roil
9. Instrumentation
Boaom
.
,
'
rable
T.'
9~
6 4,Environment
FRteility cArAhility
-tlow
prrcasure
109nm of Hg (corresponds to
1.600.000 feet &,cording to
1959 Model Atmosphere).
10
/
Electromagnetic
12radiation
7be
from
~0 klmtr ~
60t
5ciubiatedtmeer
thCotl Hw
I~~ntr~~~n~an
a
curn
Priledniis
0t 4002 kilometers
fo
Dissociated
ibtionizd
os
Oxygend
ditomcprtce
ad
Pmp
RaitinLap
4~~~a
Helicities
SoarLap
2,iffsin
old patrtigen
i3ac
Pump~
ieofnparticle
ttome
the4':!
p Artn
ih~ls
(1 per
Fro 0Spec0perenn
wl
ScdayXrdiation
From
particlespfrome10to
inn dime.
250hin
oftj1000
20,00
at
HyruicEctr
5n thew
u
80 pecet.
Fr'opmn0 Xeto
Oxyge~n
er
atattues
per seond
iu~ation
paric
berni-lnateda
~.tm.
wislld
patiloctesfron1 tohe
raditio
isomltelyrflcosardpricl
solar~
meterite ins (35,000rtod
nic
raitr2rrne50a
h~
~igo
infrared
~~
225,000 feet per second) Rat e
dire
o
fereitint nuom,
wtchine
flo.
Inhrgltchamber
ne
atcl qcinI
aisphere the
til
sn
s imlated andth upperrhem
timmlated
soat raditio catbime._____
jto
th
ithe
fe iriaeerb
Spcerserh ailtot b
byt allowsbiniation of
trilatiori
1 et nlea
evicicuty vapris planes
raiaripsn lev,-pel in
biuatkerobn oeflethesbackprilevlctisIh
Sola low-atioiup*tr
meert age(50t
lrin raitonthe
th
inrae radiator airuatged in
peerocirlg~llreefltYca b
feetyu~mi
2,0
.m
chamnber byor cyswingtchin upperfheripeent
thea~o
sola rabei
cnaobe
simulated
sola
cmbrwlswud
oln,
thi
Withousty
damtrrng
byaci
brsue
to
fesiredy
reateanyh
sactuSlachbe
the
rhe tiont above rloom temulrature aod
oy
betlmlarunchkrety steia
d ofg
I'lluldj~tiOIiperaulde dastorted
6-29
6.n''I
"rabvle
'a
Acoustic
I)ynamic Faoillty
Facility capability
Environmnet
Low preasurt
Vlbr: tion
facility capability
10-4 mm of Hg (oorresponds to
650.000 feet according to 1959
Model Atmoaphere).
be achieved if desired.
Solar heating
Aerodynamli
Vibration
heating
shock
rwrdom.
Jperiod.j
Altitude
Programmed
Fy
Facility capability
foot on oneperimeter.
heating
to 2000
Environment
Z,
3-
Shock
Table 6-.
'
Vibration Facility
Envi ronment
I
-
."*
vehirle flight-profile.
A,.-rdvnyanl
heating
Vibration
,
.
Programmed
:,hock
Acce'lration
FPg.
6-43.
Dynamic Analyzer.
"
Environ nient
or eperational
paranicter
Facility capability
1'kcsare
'lenrwrstutA
(high)
(232 C) in 45 minutes,
Temperature
(cobied
"Irei lu%)
surfaces,
Frequency from 2 to at loust
800 cps. Lew-frequency
dlouble amplitude will not be
grcater than 0.5 inch, with
Vibration
tnaximum acceleration of
5 g available from crossovt polat t to ond of hilgh-
frequency spectrumn.
Will provide 15 pounds of
temperatures from -40 to
Mo~dular packag-
200 F (-40 to 93 C) at
equipent.At
*20degres font 0
~should
Ya,,
S17C
of work- snace
_______
second.ber
secondcan
Seven feet in diameter by
eight feet in lengih.
X
-
_I
2. Instrunientatiou.
3. Safety features.
4. Economic consideratons.
Medhanical Features
instrumentation
the time a testing facility is being built or
purchased, the Instrumentation requirements
be reviewed, not oni In tie lIght of immediate need, but also With respect to future
and flexibility. Percentagewise, instrucost relative to facility cost is ususilly small. However', in terms of potential savings In man-hours and elapsed-time, a jud~clous
selection ca instrumentaiUim ear, hakv a cnld
erable effect during the u eful life of the test
facility. As an example, for certair *Pst chamistrum'intatlo
applications
and mWeffect savingsprogrammed
In elapsed-tirue
hours, while at the same time providing a permanent record of the cycle produced.
T,I
'1
:
ft
''Its!
hoffdnvrb
peron~iisanimoran
cnsdeatonan
opoie
orraoso
econ~my.Appicabe
mlitay
3 I te
am
rdcin~oie8a
secifcatons
tsteqipen t b uedAo
ala
o
rttp
ork
automaticHadrainsEreliFielvlFesretc
Figntr-44.
"personel is
"ihamder-d
T.es
it,a
Proot Tsi.
Attitude
eecqu
reIL--43A
ui
p C
hctapacit
requoire-
Exnoli Cnsdeatonagtue
2.
futuren
capacity require-
c
f20,000 feet
first built.
owen
ora mty
The
qips
ad
sat
9!
ik
E~tnlCarbon Steel
Vocum
Ctrapumping surface*
Shll
Chunnhl% for
100ok Refrige'ani
i
KSolIar, R-od-1a"t'
(Mdounted an Tjeck)
25____
______
200'
top's
OW
imbel
A
*5
(Track
ConCrete Radiation
supports)
111ikR~Sidng
Do
1rc 5
OTnCoe
TotrVsr
Ku~orle ClmdehFr
ups
at
e
Saii)RnsOtt~o
lo
Cartk
upr
co
-0#
up
onoOterehel
t.A
Foo~rS
but Vesse-l. Cp
iltie
1.nvroomnt
%fProoe
F
cilt
on
Log"
Fltearaooibainretx,
ite
Milataryis
ca* upabilatylity_
Ringenrao
apbiltir
Trpoe
k;-
thactopratems
nl
'ptA
o Outdr Shetll
Fi. -5.Prpse
mlterystac
ibe 6-1.
(tM
eqip
systemstverstatility.sol
ewihd
,
te ntand
humidity
comin~alt ion the arera Of vbaltitud
ftcilit came bpeconictaioned iequone hmersts
it50
o100tarK.,
Test Faall t
a~nd60
cpst,~ it
is
ofenavantagginjeous to
btin-I4
.\tnospheric
~ adH-tycambe
~
-.
in.l4
-t
The' l~n3.Vbayotiof n.
gibalmout.4.
Powr-dive
AC elmatic.
evrnetlaoaoyt
J
6-33
'jN
;_4
M
- I -
Description
Item no.
12
Description
I1mer wn.1 of "jgy radiatio
frert
ori
.
veicl
nltrog'en.
14
15
:z
16
infrared radiators.
17
20
Vacuum pump.
21
23
in
II
elmcolntrp
Vacuum pump.
~sa~t
.~
,.
Li'
CatibrathInn Rest
Area /Area
pi'nChrlr
'l.!A n13
and equipmenrt
MaKlattais]
Personnel
Climatic Arso
1~~
0
Dvaid nuism. maLrial and vmi~tht.
Area
instrumentation Area
Vibration
reaAcceleration
npptcaton.
Specil "footings" for some equipment, such as
colnjiressors. shock machtines. etc.
Area4
.X
~~.
U_____
-1"F
Layout
~,
laboratory.
hock. Examples- of equipment to this cat~egory are the Navy medium- and high-impact
machines, sand drop tmachines, and lead pellet
-miachines, which produce shock pulses to va~rybLg
magnitudes and durations. This type of equipw'~nt is often noisy and Is sometimes hazardous
--since parts may fly-off the equipment during the
test cycle. For these reasons, as well as from
cuac)
-n
:!
cuay.
It
rnia
ho
iaau~
ccurey).1xiil&a
(nubertypeand
Recoder,
.~
ltcordcntye (umbe,
an acCirac).-to
typu of licaters.
laboratory.
______________Section_______the
~olmel
safety devices.
t~qi'nen
dvice.Satty
EqupT~entalty
evies.--Andthtrd,
__________________________________
(Iiniatic,
First
te
equipment
Acceleration
While it Is no. essential to
giui dIfl'rA types of centrifuges, from a
functional and work flow standpoint it Is a natural segregationr.
6-35V
- --
.---
L-~-
Ito
II
.
'
.4
,g
.
sulynieidbtof
i~i:
:.
4..
TIT,
aormpt'
V
TY(;i' !!RQCEDURES
ii
The remaining paragraphs of this charter dis( us, [thc philosophy of developing test proceduruesundiervarious ci rcumnstances. The factors
irevoived in developing! test procedures Include:
2. ,i rhc
~.iTie
Ist Mln
n
w~if
i.,ndlithe envi.-onmental stress, haVO a con-
1,iue sequence of environmental testing pro;-edure ,-.v kiand-ln-fli"nd wit-h engineering doveloinient. Ordt-r-of-rnag'iitude results that are
usab~le in the initial stages of research and develordment are followed by engineering develop-IW
mental testing, in which the complete missiou
envolope is explored for critical areas and a
precise delineation of limits. Thn h eonstration testing of the prototype Is carried
* out, in wnitch the object Is to-establish the sueceSS of the r;serch and development. Finally,
thlere j,- ,-oducltlori testing, which demonstrates
that the production items perform within the
required limits.
*
2. The value of increased accuracy and reof knowledge in the specific case.
The applicability and responsiveness Of
and combined environmentlaltests.
The environmegtt
grouping.
In planning evrnetltsgruisIis
n dfn th m terias
parts, comnponenta, equipmonut, subsystems
niecessary t--oelg
.4'X
4.
4. 'SuiSYSic'm8.
yses
:-
'A
sys tems
are metals, their aloy
Materials. Materials
andnonmetls.Theproertes f mterals
and Te
on-etal.
poperies(A mterals
ih
imiatins f te
estalla
r'rfornacc
itrnis which they cutistitute. The following major
classifications may 1b2 considered:
I1. M.elal. and alloys.
An equipnment Is an assembly of
Tilt has a specific function Ir. a
ij'1nitt.
on 1 "oII
'If
suhvY.unm.
S8itesvsttvIn
A subsystem is an assembly of
a sperdic function In a sysiiiu.:
ssential for functional completeness
Lxamples of Susui Stems are:
ot thI systeml.
(jiJ~tiE~athas
!'imtn
oU
, (flume,, fuel subsystem
gfUafs
pL1'JLfleI14
a5.Z
is
-not
UdetLeLL1L
bIombing and
6-37
1
*
w$#m~~
-~~~pt
poll
The validity of the test procedure, and Its results, is purely operational; that Is, It must be
Judged solely In terms o( its contribution to the
success of the program. The succeeding seections of hils chapter discuss the Steps required_
for and considerations pertinent to th developnient of a test procedure, as well as the ImPIcremeaLat!,?n of the Key concepts of single and
corr~thled environinenth, u4Ii~form duplication of
results, and selection of the number of test
itern s*
ecutrdi
pcfcmsinpoieo
3. A combtined erivir-onmen-tal tleA lt Fm nacceeae4etwihcmbnsal7iloaet
that may be encoutitered over manyv iri~' 'Insm
adfr~ea
aeoiso
lsc.
j.ie
and types Uf equipment. The environmental
magnitudes and durations do not however, reie-ebeteata
derflsm
iso
veloped on the basis of4 effect.
TuMLSadr21Awientaes
Thseiiain
M
oul ptan vide for ahilenot
tsla
seliainof the environment.
ol
rvd"This
o standard
resml imdi
ctstepoal
xrm lmtccniin
i ve(lpclrrnriharr e-stc
oter ayaM ence, hat
fiitanabe
iv~
i an
ta
oeaigIrealt~ime
may readily becomeo'comparable with thre service life o( the weapon system. The accelerated
polation or extrirpolation.
-rvte
folirmel t
I eaqt rqiefiAsre
approached either by
siiiatmte
cireme
rnntt4xatyo b sn
epredefo
test period necessarily involves a critical examinatIon of the underlying physical phenomena
to assure that the law and scaling factors used
are applicable. Th1us, In dtynaMIC teRtllng, '.1 lt
can be shown that Uatgue theory applies to comnponent life, and that acceleration is proportional
to stiress, the SIN curve may b, applied by usingg
rsay,
V 13
)wer
_w-
Is the relative
lmtccniin
xrm
ctstepoal
arciihiing.normal
(-onroeraiiors duating, with test chamber
avalibliy,
wllas i ics r~dnmerof pecThi's
gnord i thoare rewienly
lcs.j,--foi
*~
iish:
exposure in the devIce versus that in the laboratory, and where the stress ratios aro meaniureri by the accelerations. The exponent 11 de-.
pendsr on the most cridcal material or assembly.
The preceding approach provider~ a basis for
efitablishing the necessity for tests of single
eriviron mi'nts, as well as tests of combined envlnimonmrita, and within each grouping, thb soquenchig required.
It. it belteved that if the dpv"Thopment of tebt
procedure3 Ur to become sceierj.Ic rather than
-these
usefulness of
COMBINED
ENVIRONMENTAL
envlrezUaentall
then
eeipetpaeIn-
Volvirig Pinre
thevtestpoceduent
i,d
phaeg
with tests intended to screen desirable mater-
ial,, tstsIn
:gi,.ingwiti
ou intrac bi en
liienumlterlals,
testbbeginIneerest.urn
wi Vcf esgndaa.Usfunes
ecrig
(11a vindsonth
sundArliatin f he
ielfi
jffAInldngte s f otrl,
csapesize and sound statilticalprocedre. n hedevelopmendt phane, e lpment
1iL;11-Unggiven in references 11l and
enough to be neglected, or (3) the single environment test Is of such a nature (accelerated
or hurdle) that It furnishes a reliable prediction
of the equipment performance in the range of
Interaction that may be encountered.
rm
criteria Ut will be seen that the priloary
single environmental tests Is,
Sige
nion
7T
etr
ntesApcfcalsae
aeial
~t tnadere
crIteria for both
provide
and
of publications
ceeae
n
omlevrnetlts
Singltitests may be applied to investncr
glseci
poetaadpror
utilized for a-When
on~
vrcll
as set
may be
In MII.,-E-5272.
such aI~a-an,,
courite
in
forth
to establish the test
elected, It Is necessary
laso qimet eca
stqepfrec
stqepfo
ea cutalas
elasftnt; hnce austb
and secondl the sequence and its
exetosms
e etbih
ecpin
utbetb'~hd
inceIndividual sIngle tests are takenano-'A
Interacting, and sInce the sample must last
through as many test prockdures aso possible
It Is ervIdent that the tests be arranged so t~
those with the minimum tendency to damage or*'
destroy the specimen are performed first, and
those wilth the greater damage potential last.
D~amage potentials may be considered In nc-I
-establislhed,
_________9
High
owtemperature
Temperature shock
Altitude
Temperature -altitude
Sunshine
ML-522MLE47
Low temperature
Low pressure
Sunshinei
Imerio
Rain
Rain
Humidity
Fungus
Salt Spray
Sand and dust
Humidity
Fungus
Salt Spray
Sand and dust
I--22MLE47
8-39
4nteAT~-n
,
q
U
'4S12w
"
'
Pw*_
ML-Ei2MTL-E-4970
Mechanilral Pffects
Acceleration
Explonion
Shock
Vibration
Sai;.z ?nd dust
,,me
ExplosionletiiSsquc.
Shock
Vibration
Sand and dust
*U
'r
-I
.i
1asis.that
Environmental
'
alpptroci
40
4.
Chaptert.
in Chspter 4.uipent
Combinedtostas tend to simulate nature better,
Wut single environment tests pinpoint the cause
of degradation of materials arid equipment, thun
i
.
cordinndy ombdinedforndirec rmenta atest Are
acroe usccordevrenmediesal
poiding formdirect
evaluating combinedeffects during the researcli
anid development phoze as well as for quail!Lcation and reliability testing.
Combine(; environmental encounters occur at
each stage of the life history of the equipment.
A usfulapproach Is to distinguish encounters
connected with the storage, logistic-Lransportation and maintenance phase on tWe one hanld,
and those encountered In the "use"l phase of the
rairsion oxi the other hand. This conception
implies that the natural environment doininat e93
1
p
4",
A
V
4.
'
%~
Table 6-14.
a7aess
SCommunica~iousand
(per MIL-E-4970)
Aircraft-and
missile support
electronios
Geaeral base
2
1
43
1lgh temperature
I.ow :'.,,mperature
Sunsrhine
Co r rosion
et
S'and and dust
10
4.
17,
5--
6
7
8
,-:
73'
III'Sre
10
10
11
'
12
12
13
Fungus
.2
"-5',t
Ran
S~luiunldity
satlt spray
M.e chaiw-!
Sand and dust.
Explosion
tolgs"710
Vibration
Sok(to
15 gs
shock (ovi-r 15 gts)*
--
8J
6
8
7
9
If shock testa up to 15 g's can be nne on tLb same machine and with the same set up as shock tests over
15 g's, all shock tebst should be run consecxutvely in order of Incerasing smarity as) the list tests In the-:,"
0 0
lcrTI1V4OtuI
n'JI
Pressure
Hligh temperature
Low teniperat~ire
T'nmperaturo ;',ock
2
1
5
AlivI"1(I
"I
_r.npvriture-al th:de
Co r uIon
1. ,.
c"
s~
hRai
,n
111iniwty
Sidt spray
12
13
14
1
2
5
1
3
2
4
5
1
2
4
1
3
5
1
2
3
4
5
-1I-e
6
7
8
7
8
9
8
9
10
11
-6
7
8
9
1
3
5
2
4
9
6
7
a
-
3
1.
5
2
1
4
3
"
.Y
11
-"
'
6
7
8
1
3
5
2
4
8
9
10
a
9
10
7
8
9
--
10
12
11
12
13
14
15
11
".1,'hInical
SmI and dust
A' (u--ration
7
8
9
.I.0
11
10
I xKilsIon'
Shocil. (,o 15 g'a)*
Vihr;atj,.)n
khk(ovwr 15 g's)*
't
11
12
13
14
10
11
12
13
14
10
10
12
13
14
11
12
13
14
15
10
11
12
13
14
11
12
13
14
15
k,
13
14
15
12
13
14
6-41
,1/
"
High temperature
Low temperature
Moisture
Temperature-condesatlon
Tropical
Moisture
Temperature-condensaton
Temt spratyu
:?l
Ice c.
IArctki.
3. Maritlzmce.
4.
"altsra
....
and duet
ut,
'
Contrve,".!.
Acceleration
Explosion
Pressurizatiodi,i
.5w,
",
7. :-~hiand.
Data regarding combined environments for the
exosphere space, the Moon and planets are,
given in hsipter 2 o this handbook. Such datae
should be usodwith caution since they contain
a considerable speculative element.
'
I.rutic
Driven
i._.iemprtr bnow
Winds
tI',,'--'rt1ItP
nsatlon
NIPritie
m
Moisture
Sunshine
:dt. npray
Iligh temperature
T. tMpe rnture- condensation
I' ongus
--
1'emper~t..-.
,,
:.
'-.icc
perature-condeneation
and possibly
sandtommad
- uzl, Ltouiz}Fta.WU~,
noiujeure
dust and sunshine, The environmental test proreflect the opercedure
be selected
and
and thetotransportation
conditions
ationa) must
lligli temperature
I .ow emnperature
Molsture
S-,r,d
andsynow
dust
IDi imcn
I t.nijlrature-(.otdenriation
V'u,-,i,
(1-42
Co.ne.,
lrt a~l
"
.,.
A
MC
45
7-
300
0
1.
I~
50- 2
16 15
'4
5 -0T
45
Land
Ms
ipheI
Fig648
Wol
A)A
AI
1*.
01---M
VI
459
'
-I
T-
Fu. -4.Woldwii
casLfctin
T-4
f lmaes /T
sonin
--
---
'
4W
iof
o
I
Lo
Low t.wOu'e
Encovntiv
15.7%
9.3%
TAoletwe-do
'
"
r
0.9%
9.9%
Tewqwo.we
52,
Vibfotffe
C*
5.2%
52%
5.2%
5.2%
r
.ot=o
4.1%
Ozone
4.1%
?.9%
2 ._
21%
No.,"
"
21%
S. Way
so
M81
VWi
Encounters during ground standby are obviously a fuiction of the location as modified by
local measures. Realistic combinations tpical
of ground standby in each climate are as follow.z:
.. %
rt
t"
2.9%
'I
Desert
P.rcent.
To,
30 of
ocoECM.4f
r.
15 go
I I
shock
Al
tounfort
Et
-*
*.
hour duration).
Tropic
Continental
75 to 95 F (24 to 35 C)
OAT, plus 4 Inches of
rain per hour (2-hour
duration).
75 to 95 F (24 to 35 C)
OAT, plus salt spray
(4-hour duration)
tion).
Maritime
The mission profile encounters are also determinedby..operaUonal analysis. Typical cornindicaUve of the factors to be
binations /11/
Standby conditions to
vibration (to 290 cps)
plus 1013 mb to 572 mb
(at 15 000 feet), plus to
10 F (-12 C) ram air
temperature.
I.
"".---
hilti.d cruise,
340 miniutes
Descent, 30
minutes
Standby conditions In
various -climates.
Take-off and climb, Unload conditions to
vibration (to 2000 cps)r
30 minutes
plus 1013 mb to 301
at 30.000 feet), plus to
-24F t-31 C) ram air
Unload, 60
niniutes
temperature.
i'"v,:
be reproducible with the difference6 in .s. reuits due only to random causes of vvriati'n,
the.
Imall
in comparison
which must be
results measured. /14, 15/
To touchdown,
30 minutes
To standby conditions,
plus to 1013 mb, plus
plus 30 g's
cps,second.
to 500
for
0.012
The goal of standardized testing in not neceessarily that tests and test procedures be uniform,
is,
they be tostandardized;
but rather
results
translate 'lie that
be possible
that
it sal~l that
Ground-standby conditions at
tako-off and at touchdown for all
long-range aircraft may reflect
a change from one climate to another,
Missile
Launch
Climb
h,,tial cruise
Final crise,
5 minutcS
I
effects
niair temperature
and/or refrigerated
insulated
to this temperature.
In terwinal dive, the mnssile is a true bailistic proji. tile and warhead function is the sole
Cl iticl tLoIIsidcration.
",0
PIT'
M_
"
'.
Final cruise,
490 minutes
NOTE
N,
",1': '
*.,
.
.,
4.
A.
'Si
";.-
'
1!: :e
-
,.
'
.
6-45
. -
... .
'
. ...
'
'e
Tn order to Insure uniform duplicat;,)n of resuilts,' it is generally advisable :or Lhe specification writer to discuss the desired seqiencing
of tests In the specIfication. If his previous experience Indicates that a spcific sequence of
tests is desirable, he shoId specify such a soqucncc. If he feels that only one or two testa
should be dcr-e in a specific sequence with the
rCL~ai!nder of the aequencing optinlh sol
so state. Eiven if It Is felt that no specific sequence should bc required, a comment to this
effect should be made in the specification. Iti
only in this manner that the test engineer will
will allow
be roide wththe
wi-heed. that
be poviddguidance
him to conduct a properly dostgned enrirontet
pogrm.1.
niinta
Shou!- thc specification writer desire cornLii.d environment testing, he must spell out in
rteat detail exactly how the tests shall be co.Al
Titwhat-e limpts orceqditmontshall be,anedho
efequpmet shll e ued,
u e hattyps
the tests shall be interpreted. In any case,
whether combined environment testing or single
environment testing is used, standards for the
interpretation of test results must be supplied
th tetlloeginer o dterine
in oderto
whet-her hie equipment, passes or falls the test.
.
-'
0.
-i
4h(\
nlomnaprmtrnt
l te
b
juthoendreshaculifuncte
results of the test must be specified and con.
trlec ow tvrexetsnesaytop-
24'
'
______
-
-.-
~-
.~%
alit
__
operation that obtaining compliance with specif icationn9 is often difficult, if not impossIbla.
-where
*...
-accomplished.
REFERENCES
1.
9.
celrion.
f195 8,
2.
3.
iems, WDC
bT~c~
Y.om
10.
Browni, C. D et al,
GeealTstqhio
iimieno
~ArV..
5.
~*Faiiiyo
E. Kircher, J. F., Suvyof Irradiation Facilities, IIEIC Report No. 11, The Radiation Efire(ts Information Center, Battelle
Memnorial Institlite. Columbus 1, Ohio,
30 Aorril 1960.
7.
Diiectorate, Air orce Camnbri (ie Researrh C-ter, Air Research and
N
ceBase,
ArFoc
obndEvrnet*~*
ea
Force,
30 $rteA
U.
.
R6410U.SAiFocGDU
Air Force: Wright -Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, July 1960.
13.
14.
15
Englehardt,
R.E., Dev l men oAir
E~c Eniometl
ri&Sid
Rue
WADC TR 57-286, ASTIA Document No.
AD 118296, U. S. Air Force, ASD, WrightPatterson Air Force Bane, 0ho Jul
1957.
ho
l
Demin W. E., and Birge, R. T., Quk
Statistical Theory of Errors. Cra uate
TChool6, U. 5. Department of tAgriculturc~,
Washington, D. C., 1934.
Schueller, Otto, S c
nionetFlt
lily fcr Life Support SystemI, Arospace
ination of a
Ilo,,dtch
8.
Air
~~
"-
IT. S
July 1957.
Tha rlp-
!?1
W-VU
&R 9-490,Ohio,
16.
autigM
ho
~~ot
ntnD
Sa Dprteto
.
99
6-47
BIBL~IOGRAPHY
DiTaranto, R. A. andiJ. J. Lamb, Preltimnary
o Environmn~iahhh
Inesti atin
Hyper~iioasWlSimuposed
DCT 57-456, ASTIA
Djocument No. AD) 14389 U. S. Air 1'orceASD,
WrlO.I.-Patterson Air rForce Base, Ohio.
i
.t
Ahoirnvxthy A. H., Cobre
I ax~e Test dhamberi~ px-escatedatthelnsitute
thIEnineers Annual Meeting
uivhironm
Chicago, Apri1 1959.
Anderd~on
F. G.
"AN/AKT-14
Telemetry
'iaC-2, Marc1Tirf5___
Anderson, Merwin T and Leonard L. Robinsonr, "Laboratory Similation of Rocket Engine
Noise,' Environmental QuartEly, 4th Quarter,
Ankeney, D. 1P. R. W. IMiirph and D. M. Nel--"The NOTS Controlled Vibration Track
T- nI-e"Shock and Vibrat!! Buletin
Part rHI, No. 27, June 1959.
"Atmosphere Simulator," Fqttuin , April 1959.
son1,
Electrical
Me~rn Sytm:se4naah
_L__L
o.A
Dcmn
udmnaso
uddisl
i
495
'caig
Ahp~7'lK3uin
00AI~W.
IEquiprn-nt,"
Atr
1960.
Manufacturing,
Y'me
~, Repor, No.
AtcatcDvso
Cn
Gnrl
ofenealbinaniics Corporation, 30 August
fnlio
8
5aeVehicle Temperature Hle~to
uin 'T6--
'
M?'J 1,157.~
4of
Aosia
asHJ
ouesaAnl~A
on
e~
T~
HackW'rnD,"nFitVbaio
WADC'
n(,.Ljj.
Handbok of &coustILc NoIR
TR 52-204, Volume 4 "Physicrl Acoustics," by
Lukaslc and Noble, June 1953 and Volume' V14,
".Ticleand Man," by Walter A. haultKen-
tru!mI
IDav-s
1o,-kvt
jwri
'eu
f
tteMasured
menrol
Environ-
Sleds a~t the Air Forc e'MlIssSilt -LM' etupTwent Center," Shock and VibrationBulletin,
Part 111, No. 27, Ju-ne 1959.
n of Failure Rate
Sprague Technical
T~tChanjbars.
0-48
".p
-__ - .
.r.
BIBLIOGRAPHIY (continued)
Morro&. C. T., "Shoock Spoctrunm as a Cri.v.2 April
1959.
Climatic
Installation for
asturnentatmon
T-t
m Tes
for
of--h
-er-M--P~
-l'f6lI
Lk
5289I's(ASG) Navy Bureau of Aeronautics.
ed M uesuring
Present Methodd
mings of Vibrational
Jo-and
s-mulating
of Applied Mechanicsl
22Envrrmnments,"
Selptember 1959-.--
the High
i
Kptaipo.man, George W., D_
Intensity Noise Test Facility, ASTIA-ociument
TeleB
Nichols, M. H. and L L. Rauch RAIC
metry. 2nd Edition, John Wiley WA sm-h-5
Noise Measurement Technique&, National
P h;
Laborory,
144133.
[F,ductiorj
~M
Iaunching ofDocument
Free Flight
at HikhVlct,-7.SItA
No. Models
ADlq
1461i.
Linschitz
Venry, 4-El
Indicating 6yt4ems,
rnc
ASTIA
Document No. AD
41f 1-0.
LUJI.ULZUL
Mills. mn
Charles,
Environmental
ulaition
Systern "Value
Testing ofP rog~ram,"
Tes Sirmt
inm, July 1(59.
Iu
3t'L
br
198..
lba I1-3ulle-
..
ANV.
AM"J
A.VUL
t-A
62.
Schauch, Wm.-J. and W. J. Bell, Hi. Temprature Recirculating Air Oven (1300 F) for
Sy
Structral Comnonent
ASADcument N. AYWN,2L
Ii,L- io0j.
.
.
DtA.
nralt Discsieo o
Memhos t Chrltes Wr
c..ytnilrOnjment for Test Purposes, ASTIA
Prmrli
ts~
1--i
'1'
101010.
...
Monroe,
."~ A
Dose .R
t",.T
7AST
A Document No. AD
'
Schnee, M.
and t. Wohl
Study Tuh._,Re
of F
e
Prceedurem
for ffle~tRt
search and L cvelopment Report taterlalLaboratory, N. Y._Naval Shipyar,
13 February
1956.
" 'gi
'.
-.
Selff Alvin,
bted Models
!or Experimient
eerc
Ipyooronu
,
;,p;m
"'80
(continued)
;j !BIBLIOGRAPHY
"Space
Technology Laboratories,"
Aviation
..
E`nvironmental Testin
~March
i
e
S
rtG'2ower, E. ,J . nd R.W. Perry,
nary Plapninm ora ypr VelociltyAero
let
ga--aT-AEDC, ASTIA Document No. AD
157144.
"i4
Yarcho, Wayne B. E.
neLee.Ea
X,
cdUties of Wri'i
ASAT1 Docuent No. AD 1In10.
-
"__
e
N e.
A5TXA Document
.IS.
7, .fl
".,.
-- _:
~ J:...
~. ,.
~.
aa
r/I
-IS.
tAPEKDML
EQUIPMENT CLANSDE
A
IOl AND EXAMPLES
it
rlegmph.13.
U.
e.
2.SUPORT
GOUND
QUIMNT
AI
CRFT AND MISSILE SUPPORT
Equnipment used outdoors _n airfields and
rmisslt2 launching pads for servicing, malnteelance, ch~ckoiu., miup4port, etc.. El ectronic equip menet is not included.
und'loing
ir heaingandvenilaingmitters.
I .
1. ir ondtinin,
hatig nd entlatng
I c:st aniJ chriecout equipment (exrept e-lectroil).8.
3. Crash, fire and other emergency equi-
4. AIRCRAP'T
-4.
1. Control assemblies.
2. Pressure gages.
Sl. Pressure regulators.
Servos.
5. Hydraulic sumps.
6. Speed control valves.
'.
A-i
d, Signal assemblies.
f. Pitot-stittic tubes.
Gn~age rs.
gVenturi tube..
i. Warning signal assemblies.
7. Hydraulic regulators._
9, Gyroscepos.
S 8le oi o.E.
equipment.Idcaos
10. oNavigation
a. AptraI.
b. Ineftial.
~a otrle.3
-
AUl aircraft and missile power plant accessoriet, -kd auxUlary power plants. Does not
lii dude primary 1xowecr plant.
1.
2.
4.
3.
5.
4h
Icioees
Nlavigation Instruments.
a, Compass caging units.
b. Chrooomet-irs and clocks.
C. Compasses.
d. Kavigational and guidance system comnputers (except electronic).
e. uriftmete~rs.A
7
I. NavigatmionsItrument transmittz".
s~-g
extants.
4. Electricall meters.
p
a, Carurel ntionrs.
a. Cabureors.All
poer
~3.Mi~a~t
ian acessrie.a.
C. I16.31c
accssob.
pwerpian
a. En-Inc~ controls.
b, Electrical components.
(I~ Generators.
( Ignition systems.
assemblies.
l3Primer
4Regulators.
1
,
T.~,
1. Mechanical equipment.
Gun adapters.
Bombsights.
c. Gun charges.
d. Aircraftgus
0. Gun and bobight mounts.
f. Bomb, rocket, flare and torpedo racksi.
g. Bomb shackles.
2. Electrical eqipment.
a. Gun charges.
d. Pump assemblies.
b. Gun heaters.
e. Fuel regulator assemblies.
c. Bomb gun and rocket solenoids.
f. Starters.
dZ Bomrnin, navigational aid fixed fire
g. Valve assemblies.
control comrtero koxcept eiectronicj.
e. Intervalometers.
f. Servos.
7. ATRCPiFT AND MISSILE EQUIPMENT,
turret.
~.Solenoids,
lNsTHUMENT1> AND SENSORS
'
4
1
s nF;inf, uniVr and Fignal assemblies that transmit iaform ition to other unilts. Electronic
equipment i9 not included.
1.
owr
lat.d.
2. Flighit instruments.
a.A2~rmtr.classes.
1). Altimeters (extCFA electronic).
c.
A-2
b
b.
rigdvcs
ue adn Iviciaor.
ntaos
Fuesy
8 eif-destruction units.
9. AIRCRAFT
AND
MDWILE
EQUIPMENT,
All airborne and missile-borne still and motion pincture cemera and other optical equipment
not part oi specific lunctJioral equipment in other
1. Cameras. -.
2. Mechanical camera accessories.
7
r
"IVr
4-1
, ., f.I, "itq
"APPENDIX A (continued)
3. Electrical camera accessories.
4. Other optical devices and accessories.
10. AIRCRAFT
LIQUIDANDCRAFLI
tdPLiquid-carrying or hydraidie-actuated
inooe stlie
ment that cannot readily be placed
functional categories. I system has both major
electrical and liquid components, it should be
classed with electrical Bystems.
1. Hydraulic struts aid actuating cylinders.
12. AIRCRAFT
ELECTRICAL
;1'
5"
3.
7.
- r-
5.
Cmpre;E.!rs.8.
5. Comore,.rs.
7. Coolers.
7. Dehyd-ators-..
"" and
nd
8. striners,12.
Flters
strainers.
8. Filters
9. Fire extinguishers (liquid-filled).
rfueingequpmet.13.
10.In-ligt equipment.
10. In-flight refueling
11.
Pumps.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Coolant radiators.
Valves.
14.~~~~~'idhedwpi
windshield
w5pe
hhydraulic).18Tmes
Vents.
EQULJ.MhIN.VTO
All
Generators.
"
-.
Electric beaters.
9. lnverters.
10. Light assemblies.
I l.. Electric motors.
Electric control panels..
ptnels.
12. Electricrol
ElectricEd fire fightirg and detecting system parta.
14. Voltage regulators.
jacks.
_5,
.
Scre rs
-15 . Screw
17.
-18.
19.
zu.
-21.
.,-
U
,,
Induction vibrators.
Food warmers.
Electric winduhield wipers.
Lxt-rnal power receptacles.
Power converters.
EQUIPMENT,
P.
--
ir
7.
S.
9.
10.
11.
12.
.Y
Junction boxes.
1.5-.
2. Hydraulic brakes.
Accumuft
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
7.
8.
9.
13.
11.
12.
-H..
A- 3/A-4
Vj2
.A
APPEN(D!X-B
raRatio of abrorbed
diant energy to incirdiant
dent
nergy.as
Nhoorp0ll'tY
Acceleration
clue to gravity
unit or ter
en
O-
trm or
Unit~
980.665 cm ePlane
32.17 ft/secl (sea
level value at 45.544latitude).
(Earth'/
of
AlvoRatio
Ecliptic
-i
.
light.
Ang-t!om
A
or A
comet's) orbit
distant from Sun.
of satellite's
inost distant
from Earth.
ApgePoint
Apogceorbit
AU
unit.
Atomic nurn
ber
-g
(or
point of planet's
most
Aphelion
ARtronomiC ii
10 cm; 3.94 x 10
ienc.
citepae
Kntcee~o
Electrostatic
unit
ty
sinm~1iss
Erg
Number of protfons in
nucleouB oi atom
elect:rons). (thu, f alo
Gamaoersted.
nuber
Erg
Owi
Charge of electron~;
1.603 x 10-19 coulomb.
tance of an actual body
0 radiant emittance
of back body' at same
tepeatre
3P3..
.7.,'
Gauss
D~issociated
attdskn
D~yne
t
elttuusaltud expressedin
potential energy based
on sea level vidue.
Bucomets numericaLly
force,
Z_
withe
liar
x !0-6 Tba
Btu..
Mass 1 CM/spC ; I
gin - cnh/Bec'; 2.248
hnprticleofectni
chrei
hnasfallen free through
01
31t: 1.602 x 0119
_10X
ergs, 1,602
volt
reflected
ApparentV*t, or
on ce lkn
greastcirie
~
Ulshro
seen from Earhx.
of Earth's orbit
is coeincien
Eetu
symlbol
-10.
-~.
-.-- -
ApPEN4DIX B (continued)
Unit or term
Symbol
______
Gram calorie
Ionized atom
Joule
Light year
Lummi
Mean free
path
M FP
4-4
10
cm; 3.94 x 103A Inchos.
MicronJ
10~angstroms,
Millibar
10~ dynes/crn2
0.0145 psi.
S~bo
Number
a~
density
NTP
Number of particles
(atoms, electrons,
etc.) per cubic
centimeter.
*
Perigee
Point of satellite's
orbit closest to Earth.
vw
Radimnt
emittance
ds
i.
ic
,.
.ue
Radiantpwepr
unit areae tedro
Rt
ftanfro
er..
1400 watta/um2 ; 2.00
mfrp 130
cal/cmil2
; 443 Ltu/t2 hr.
hr.
6.61 x 1 - 8 dyne
Universal
cm /m
gravitational
Weber
Solar constant at
astronomical
Wilt uattt/t
Velocity of
light (ina vacwim)
O-27'
34
664
-V'~
asurface(watsc
(flux)
RefLectivity
7.
Absolute temnperatare
ostt6.4
scale; zero Kequals
-273.16 C or -459.69662X10
F.
Kelvin, degrees K
Masr number
UA or term
see_
*q
..
,.,'.
Antennas,~~,
proe,'.
coroio 'P
damping, 5-41
flow, temperature control, 5-12
pressure, 3-25
effect on heat removal, 3-26
effect on lubricants, 3-25
temperature, 2-9
ambient, 3-2
trarr' ortat")n data, shock andvlbration, 3-12
Aircraft, jet noise, 3-14
manned, 2-27
temperature
,
fects, 3-8
skin vibration, 3-18
turbojet, shock and vibration, 3-13
Alpha particles, 5-74
Altitude, .srmulation, 6-17
vs. atmospheric density, 2-8
vs. atmospheric density vs. climate, 2-9
vs. atmospheric pressure, 2-8
vs. heat absorption of air, 3-8
vs. pressure vs. cLimate, 2-11
vs. stagnation temperature, 3-10
vs. temperature, 2- 13
v liiids, 2-14
Aluminum, 5-3
Ambient air temperature, 3-2
Aralysis, environmental, 4-1, 4-6
nnipc, 4-11
eperations, 4-1, 4-12
solar heat, 4-10
tests,, 4-7
1thration, 4-10
wave propagation, 4-12
..
."-
'-
.54
41
.h&:
,
,,.(
%
.
",:
ionization, 3-29
ligitning, 2-5
2-22
---
..''
iIv(
ri
Mercury, 2-20
'
Moon, 2-19
pollution, 3-24potential gradient, 2-7
pressure, 2-8
combined effects, 3-49
protection, 5-67
vs. altitude, 2-8
vs. altitude vs. climate, 2-li
soiar intensity madriution, z-4
Sun, 2-3
temperature, 2-9
extremes 2-11
contrul of vehicle, 5-12
Venus, 2-21
Axial-flow fans, blowers. 5-16
k
"Mars,
'
-43
"
,
: "'
,
.,
..
.
..
',
_
',.
B
" ",
Ballistic missiles, 2-30
reentry trajectory and temperature, 3- 10
Batteries, corrslonprotection, 5-54
Bends, sheet metal, 5-38
BerylUlum, 5-5
Beta partcler., 5-74
Bleed air cooling system, 5-22
Blower, cooling systems, 5-23
centrifugal, 5-17
.,
CaBonaiylaZo
er
noests 411oi
Capacitors,~drec
reco,
croin
5-35in
radiationlrec
357
shock ~ ~
~
~
Cathode-wlraymue damage, 3-18
Centrifugal
~~~
Ceramic ecrrsioanpoetio, 5~
Ceres,
2-2
CanalZoers enirne
ntts-1
Chapssanacito
1:
n sirty, efet-9
-5
t~~~~~em
2-14
vstpestsu,
CetVe. (saltitud
~~~1 ~Coerafic
N-chfssis
coniduration(se 25tals
empedablre,
51
feliqi
5-17
dointint
-1
liquctd,
nefrne
Csiray
Coulom dapig,5213
Cooiltuge
afecs
apr I
Cuptyp
3-t
if~~~~~Csi
2-18332
aeiasde oCuleting
33
tempratue,
vircuingeevrnet
bekr
tmp atueal,63
Communiatr
n intrfrece 2-6-1-3r2
o,55
,-3
5--7
reefcsc-1Dnmtors,
Humdit
mui6tins 3-29
minar,54
rito,54
Ea trth, s 5--4
atosphedvire, 2-49 on
ts,3-21ti
rodand
l
~tio
afets, 3vislctusit
toldpwratuereteffetsng 1-2
Combned envaincuronmientas,
Mis-t ure),7
Cnducedon
i
cooing
ateriales, ucerradiationefct,3
Diet
Crstal, crroswx potecion,5-5
effects,
ids 3-36u-ye
aito
sltr,54
Durag tparamtaer,
~j
ahne -82-3
Dor
cating,
5-52
l
,54
rictionc, 5-405.
ytrs,
rsist ant mbateials, 5-51
5-39
andin
s 36-1 9
5 -39
Dcleration, 2-35
oardintensitydctibuton
5-67
Deser tompsito, 1-3
D-14magetic ared,inuain-17
ias
oiodes caone
corrosion protection,
ommctoa42
fcs,33
eolator,
5-42 ton
in
odwetetetn,12Dclradition,
Chambieds
environmentsl,3-42
prteton--5
a-d
appliecaion, 5ugu-32
Cefcienutiofepnin
20e
aled
~ vWrto,52
orlto
sstm
-,
51-22
poeto,55
5-123poetiecaigs
~~~blowers,
-2-reisace
5
resIdtn
aerials, 5-251
C1mI raediatb , 2-184 32
nhetical
cnitos
ffrctso
,2-5
21
etprL
6
5-55ete
Id
Electroclnsularticls, 5- ditio
3-ters
Electrinituye,
atmospheic, 53-27trig
oroinprotection, 5
-5
Feti-a
4
ation,
3-37h
vhce3-7Fnucea
effte-yn~mctsha,
E(tomperature waves prpgto
nlss
Electromichaia
component(Belso teperature
efet seas
pcfcomponents)Fertmaril5.
radiction efrticls, 5-74
Ffe9
10,
Fiabshcs, 3-52
raxia-iow, 5-16
36
-3
Flatpanpellheat
5-1
&
-1
Flisttenest, Cractioal tun5
Fainuetdamaentto, 5-27
Fightvehicl,
jelecbrtrionication 3-27
Fleing,
meteoite
Elrtoisturesmonig 5-3
Jovbaindt
dmg,
hydraslic, 3-5
cornprosin roteectio, 5-5
Embedmeflnt 5-56b 337ncla
radiation effects, 3-3
2
temperature effects, 3-58ltpnlha ehugz,51
ncpuatcrmc5
Intumnaio,_
nts
Ecapsulati
dato
Flsoinamted orimers nudR
Enviromen~d
nah'91, 4-1,4-6, 48
ae,31
effects, 3-361
Endirtonmetlcabr,81
- -lliuy
Envcronrncnts, c-Environmeatint 5-ce aemeraor
ers
cnionmbened, 3-42
eniom-t)
hyper, 1-9i
Induced, 3-45
natural, 3-42
effects, 3-1
3-50
Summiai-', 3-52
Ihumians,
exotic, 3-41
facilities, 6-9
hlyper, 1-8
3-41
-.
interacting, 1-7
natural, 2-31, 3-1
r~atural and induced, 2-25 -nutr~ent
combined, 3-45
natural, interacting, 3-43
natural, sensing de~viceFs, 6-4
nula,18Fuses
satiellite, launching, 2-34
reentry, 2-34single testing, 6-12
testing, 6-I
qimnl
ac'j -~cl
ct~mbined,
1-7, 6-13, 6-24
hiyper, 6-25
nuc~e~hGamma
space, -22;Gsfle
trends, 1-1i
ILAtipinent, tet.liperatur-e effects, 3-7
Ltvaluaiion andi qualification, equipment, 1-10
Exotic environments, 3-41
Ex~pansion, coefficient, 3-3, 5-7
11xixfldal~le cooling system, 5-24
I xJ111"orl proofing, 5-70Grae3Exph'.Sivc atmosphere, 3-26
t urnhined effects, 3-49
tef;tUng, 6-21
~eramc
radvirationefct, 3-37852
epecctic
F8,2
Flornaed
ponvecton,-1, 5-20k rdato
Frct-nl-r efaets 331 nr,
Frame and cabinet damage, 3-18
Friction damping, 5-40
Frost, 3-22
Fuel, cooling systems, 5-23
hydrocarbon, radiation effects, 3-38
systems, temperature effects, 3-8
sand and dust effects, 3-25
Fungicides, 5-50
~
t
Fungus, 3- 19
-~tenting,
5-51
prudiing, 5-50
resistant materials, 5-50
6-23
and holdera, corrosion protection, 5-54
Gaais 21
-I
Gas
ula
I'
aito
'
'
fet,33
Gredatie, 3
fecs43
Ground Vehicle proving grouands, 6-16
Grounding, 5-66
1-3
H
Ici
ot~,
2-25
-5-c
hyper, 3-41
ensintr devices 6-5
flight test,-6-3
sensing, 6-3
apc-eerh
tme~u@efcs
test 6-2
effcta, 3-41
meerfte, 23-2
5'ty,32
stetc eeti:t,32
"as, 5-64i
n techn
T-internAl hean, 4-1
vehicles, 2-35
atmospheric, 3-29
Ionospheric effects, commnitications
Ionospherc
selinfprot5etion
~paglo
protection, 5j-2
simulation, 6-16
Hoses at.,~ couplings, radiation effects, 3-37
Hot and cold aimospheres 1-7
Human, acceleration, 3-56
6-7
(se
Hligh temperature, effects on materiasi
ad Hat),3-4Interpianetary
alsoTempratre
uberatr a-4 Heaon-4zation,
also, Ten
r-bbr,2
effetseni.
interference, 3-41
Isolation, shock and v.4bration, 6-39
cuIp-type, 5-42
~Isolao,
*-
1-4
effects, 3 -2
Hermeic
C3-2e,345&
w.
shpeZ-36,
fseadn,5-b6
Hasei
qu-id-f~ied,-557
~3-22
Uets, 3-23
Indicatling insrments, temperatureoeff ecta, 3-7
10
* Hail,2dlaiag,
2-22
Handbooks, ARDC, 4-5
Harrnortic suppression, 5-65
heat(seeals
Temer~tr6)Induced
absorption of air vo, altitude, 3-8
~54
irto
'
os,31
JtarrfvbainadPte31
je Lrn)mbers, vibration data, 3-U9
Je fighters, v ibrton data, 3-67
Jupiter, 2-23
K
Kelvin, degrees, B-2
L
Laxnit -dse, p.dastie, 5-2
Latitude vs. kizons, 2-6
ILaboratormorulation, 6-Va
N1,
r
t environment,
~~~La:unch I ..
""L,,ahei..3-4
s it'te, 23-,4
off"t.
i2-5
arrestors, corroion profAilon, 5-54
tstrike, 3-27
Liquid cooling. !trect, 5-17
V.""
on materials, 3-20
protection, 5-49
LIiii tit,,
Moon, 2-19
..
at..tcphere, 2-1
ra.4i".Jo; 2-20
temperature -2-19
'
" "elI, 2Motors and dynamotnrs, ,umperaturebffects,
34*f
effects, 3-21
moisture
Motors
nd generators,
5-55
protec'lon,
Motors, corrosion
indirect, 5-i,
:'
"
ot(cent.)
,4.
-'
Lubricants, 3-4
air pressure effects, 3-25
corrosion protection 5-54
radiation effects, 3-37
sand and dust effects, 3-25
".'
.r
,.
nviroament, 2-.,
..
combined, 3-42
I
M
Magnesium, 5-4
"Magnetic field,
Earth, 2-17
Sun, 2-3
Venus, 2-21
effectr, 3-1
..
hyper, 3-41
sensing devices, 6-4
..
"'
'
materials, 5-6
Magnetic
V
corrosion protection, 5-54
nuclear radiatic,n effects, 3-34
Manned aircraft, 2-27
temperature effects, 3-8
Mars, 2-22
atmosphere, 2-22
radiation, 2-23
temperature, 2-22
Materials, evaluation, 1-10
high ternptrature, 5-2
nuclear radiation effects, 3-30
temperatute effects, 3-4
Mechanical. eftects, 3-1
Mercury, 2-20
at mosphere, 2-20
teroperat"-e, 2-20
Mcsosphere, 2-5
Metal spring isolators, 5-42
nuclear radiation
compounds,
Metallo-organic
31
LIItOCLS, 3-
Noise 3-11
analyais, 4-11
bouidary layer, 4-11
effects on humans, 3-50
jet aircraft, 3-14
rocket, Z1-14
testing, 6- 19
jv.
.
R' I
'1
0
Open-type isolator, 5-42
Operational effect&, 3-1
Operations analysis, 4-1, 4-12
Orbit, meteor, 3-2
.-
I-st
Radiration (cont.)
Venus 2-21
stmospheric, 2-8
combined effects,. 3-49
protection, 5-67
vs. altitude, 2-8
-vs. altitude vs. climate, 2-11
Pressurization, 5-70
Printed circuits, moisture effects, 3-21
Printed wiring, temperature Pifects, 5-10
-8'
Production P.ampl'nU tests, 1-12
Propeller fans, 5-16
Prutoktive coatings, corrosion, 5-52
-Samplig
fungus-proof, 5-50
Proton shielding, o-75
Pumps. te~rncrature effects. 3-7
Q
Qualii:c-.:,a and evaluation, equipmcat, I-10
Qua. ' cCAt'-ol, 1-12
R
Hadiant heat tr-nawfer, 5-14
Radiation, 2-17, 2-28
cosmic, 2-18
heat removal.rfferts, 5-17
Mars, 2-23
Moon, 2-20
nuclear (see Nu,'trAr.ra-iation)
protection 5-71
t'i'-ling (see also A.'icldirij, 5-73
8,,,a', 2-3, 3-2, 3-9S.
conblned effects, ;-49
i!tensity distribut.on, 2-4
Rpace, 2-3
1-6
.,
1"
-,
Rigidity, 5-36
44
.1 "
.
"
1
P-
,
,
tesr*-, 6-20
Satellites, 2-30
and space vehicles, shick and vibration, 3-16
data, 2.33
launching environments 2-34
reentry environments 1-34
temperature effects, 3-9
thermal shock, 3-9
Satallolds, 2-30
Saturn, 2-2:"
Seals, gaskets, and sealants, radiation
o'
effects,
3-37
Sealing, hermetic, 5-55
gas-filled, 5-56
liquid-filled, 5-57
SEaon vs. orone, 2-6
.,
Self-locking nuts, 5-30
Semiconductor materials, effect of nuclear
radiation, 3-35
*r
-44%
'TnmipC I&Wtur
(Cont.)
~ ~~- s coo.)
i trii:.-o-ts, 3-7
'iti
ij. aterials, 5-
~ ~3-8low
-
sk ul~onductor~,
st~esan vbrtin is 4
3tr,3-7
3-9
sn- .i sivehicles,
. ~ia
mteils
-A
swi..-ua mateials 3-61
ternii ~~~
ternxnti boards5
31r
tralve 2-7-e 3vehicle w;riace and comrpa.-.ient, 3-2ve
wire 3.7.6 ('able, 5-10
extrctnes, atmosphk:.,,c 2-11
high, materia!s, 5simub'.~on 6-16
lo~vnatriai,
34Thermnal
-26
prteton
protection, 5-1
.*,
a'
bors
:,Z
igevs. combined, 6-39
space and hyper environment, 6-25
aecIieiations, 6-45
techniques,
6-10
trpia,2trpcln'3
vibratlon 6-11
~
sinuso~da, 6-18
static (captive), 6-14
(see also Temperatture)
crdu~ctiv":, material, 5-14
shock, 3-4
snteilte 3-9
ft
Thermosphr,
2-5
5-5
oin
Transorer,
3- 18itaie,5
roio
moisturAe, 3-18to 32
iet,32
mitr
mounting, 5-35
Theanimshr,
5-5I
-Titaniuomrs
stagnation, 3-9
vs. altitude, 3-10
Sun, 2-3
Veno.
..
effects, 3-36
eitnc,55
'
V-5
-Troposphere,
*.Truck
analysis, 4-7
Caral Zone, 1-3
cold weather, 1-2
conibined environment. 1-7, 6-13, 6-24
crzieria, 4-6
desert, 1-2al hylwr and space, 6-25
c:(plusive atmosphere, 6-21
facility s-"ivction, 6-31
fiv;d, 0- 14
t~ewlontnient, 8-12
guided aifiniii,
,
vas. ~
vs. speea,
S-36
producii-Da sampling, 1- 12
m-,6-'rin
6-19
~.
seqmiaces 6-41
testing, 1-i
Mars, 2-22sytm,93
Mercury, 2-20
miss"-e compartments, 3-8
Mnoor, 2 -19
physical effects on materials, 3-3
problems, miniaturization, 3-.7
protection, 5-2
ram-.air, 3-8
reentry, 3-radiation
reeuirements 1-7
rc istant metals, 5-4
shock, simulation, 6-16
skin, 2-30, 3-9, 4-10
Solar corona, 2-2
temperature, I- I
-9a
environr.Aents, 16-22
*.
,
'
Uau,22
Urns,22
V%
Valven temperature effects, 3-7
""A
4
darnage, 3-17
and shock, capacitor, b-28
'
3-18
j10
1.
.
P.
x
,
X rays, 5-74
,,
"
.
"
test, 6-11
testinig, random, 6-19.
sinusoid,%, 6-18
Viscous damping, 5.39,
gravlty,1 3-39
.--
"
"
2*
p',.9
'
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