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machines
A. Wa Ito n
Introduction
2. I Steady-state models
Representation of a perfectly cylindrical synchronous
machine in the steady state requires knowledge of only
the synchronous reactance (Xs), which is simply the
sum of the leakage reactance (Xa)and armature magnetising reactance (Xm). When the machine exhibits
saliency this model is extended with the introduction of
the two reaction theory in which the reactance is separated into components in the direct and quadrature
axes. The d and 4 axis synchronous reactances then
include Xmd and Xmq as the corresponding armature
magnetising reactances along with the leakage reactance Xa.
In this steady-state representation of the machine it is
not necessary to include the rotor circuit, the steadystate EMF induced in the armature winding by the
field flux being the only data required and this is
obtained from the open circuit characteristic.
2.2
During transients it is necessary for the equivalent circuit to include the effects of the rate of change of flux
linkages crossing the air gap. In the direct axis the field
winding must of course be represented along with
damper windings and also the effects of eddy currents
in the rotor body, slot wedges, end caps etc. which may
be present. Whilst there is no field winding in the quadrature axis, all of the other induced current effects need
to be modelled in a similar fashion to those in the
direct axis.
Such is the status of machine design that not every
machine type built and tested has a detailed predetermined model. Whilst all of the phenomena associated
with each aspect of the various models are well understood, it is not always possible to know in advance the
relative levels of each effect to enable an a priori model
to be assumed. It was with this background that the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) in America
initiated a number of contracts for the development of
methods for the determination of generator parameters
for stability studies which culminated in an EPRI
workshop on the subject [6,7].
3.7
Rf(La
+ s(Lm + L f )
(1)
I
0
IL _ _ _ _ _ rotor
_ _
stator
L
Fig. 1
_____
b
Equivalent circuits f o r synchronous machines
Ld(s) =
(1
+ sTd)(La + Lm)
1 + sTdo
where
Tdo =
Lm+Lf
Rf
(3)
Lam =
LaLm
La + L m
-v _s
Vf
1
sLm
1 + sTdo' R f
(4)
vs
If
-=
(1
(5)
In this simple case the parameters of the equivalent circuit are exactly related to the principal time constants
of the circuit, the values of the leakage and magnetising
inductances and the value of the field resistance. Rarely
in machine design does such a simple model hold; it is
therefore necessary to consider higher order models for
the representation of machine characteristics.
Ld(s) =
+ s{(Lk + Lam)/Rk + ( L f + L a m ) / R f }
+ s 2 ( L f+ Lam)(Lk+ L a m f ) / R f R k
1 + s { ( L f + L m ) / R f + (Lk + L m ) / R k }
+ s 2 ( L m + L f ) ( L k +L m f ) / R f R k
x ( L a + Lm)
1
1
(9)
Recognising that all of the terms have the dimension of
time and that some of the them are indeed the time
constants presented in the previous section, the equation can be further reduced to:
1 s(Td' T A ) + ~ ~ T ~ ' T ~ ' '
Ld(s) =
( L a + L m ) (10)
1+ s(Tdo' T~)+s2Tdo'Tdo''
where
TA =
Lk
+
+
+ Lam
and TB =
Rk
Llc + L m
Rk
S = -("do' + T B )
2Tdo'Tdo"
-J
1
4
Tdo' TB Tdo'Tdo"
Tdo'Tdo"
(1'4
+
+
+
+
Ld(s) =
+ L m ) ( R f+ s L f ) ( R k+ SLk)
+ sLaLm(Rf + s Lf + Rk + s L k )
( R f + s L f ) ( R k+ s L k )
+ s L m ( R f + s Lf + Rk + sLk)
(La
Vs
If
(15)
where
Lk
Tk= Rk
33
and
(17)
If 1 sTk
Lm
where TA and TB are the time constants defined in
eqn. 10 and the same roots again apply, i.e. T1 to T4.
As was the case for the simpler circuit, the rotorlstator tests enable some degree of separation of the opencircuit and short-circuit time constants and provide
additional data for parameter extraction and comparison.
+ L a m ) / R f + (Lk + L a m ) / R k
+ ( L j + Lam)/ R j }
+ s 2 { ( L f * L j + L j * Lam + Lam * L f ) / R f * Rj
[1+ s{(Lf
+ 2 ( L f * L j + Lk + Lf * Lk * L a m + L j * Lk * Lam
+ Lj * Lf * L a m ) / R f * Rk * Rj](La+L m )
(18)
(1
(1
(19)
The armature resistance is the low frequency asymptotic value of the real part of the impedance of the
machine which gives a value of 0.0019098Q. Subtraction of this from the impedance data shown in Fig. 2
and dividing by jw gives the operational inductance
shown in Fig. 3. It is this frequency response which is
the starting point for both the numerical and analytical
method of parameter extraction. The low frequency
asymptote of the magnitude gives a value for Ld of
0.005003H. This will be subtracted from the magnitude
of the impedance in the following analysis to provide a
convenient zero dB datum for the results.
100,
80
I ! , . , . "
'
""""
'
..
""""
'"''"1
.__
.-_
.
60.c
cl 40 -
:20-
__.....---
E -20
-4 0
-6 0
10-3
lo2
IO-l
loo
frequency
io
w m = &IT
(21)
(ii) The value of this maximum phase shift (@m)is
determined from
5
0
-5
._--
$ -10
II
Q
-1 5
5 -20
a,
73
-25
$, -30
0
E -35
-40
4.3.1 Numerical method: This data has been analysed by Harris and Prashad [Ill producing the set of
time constants in the transfer fijnction shown below.
Only the values of the time constants of the poles and
zeros are given, the (1 + ST) format being assumed.
35
Fig.4
frequency
Residuals after subtraction of one polelzero pail
Fig.5
frequency
Residuals after subtraction of two pole-zero pairs
$
.c
0.2
;0
t
2 -2
-4
10-3
Fig.6
36
102
10-1
100
frequency
Residuals after three pole-zero pair
101
102
103
frequency
The frequency response which remains after subtraction of the frequency response of the first pole-zero
pair has a phase maximum of -3.9deg. at a frequency
of 0.7Hz. Time constants of 0.2392 and 0.2061 s for the
pole and zero, respectively, are finally extracted by the
program to give the residuals shown in Fig. 8. It is
clear that the successive subtraction of these pole-zero
pairs has catered for all that is needed in the frequency
response from DC up to approximately 1 Hz with maximum errors of +0.4, -3.4dB and +0.9, -6.2deg.
frequency
of
4.4 Summary
10-3
Fig.8
10-1
io0
io1
102
frequency
Residuals after subtraction of two pole-zero pairs
10-2
103
% O
L
Q
-0 -1
0
G -2
0
J
E-3
0
E -L
5. I Extraction process
-5
-6
10-3
10-2
10-1
io0
frequency
101
io2
103
* Lf + L j + L m + Lf * L m
Lk
Rf * R j
+ * L k + LRjj **LRhm -k Lk * Lm
Lf * Lk + Lf * Lm + Lk * Lm
Lj
+
TI
* L j * Lk + L j * Lk * L m
* T3 * T5
Rf*Rj*Rk
(25)
LktLam
+ +
T2
Rk
+ L j +R3L a m
* T4 + T4 * Tt3 + T6 * T2
- Lk * Lf + L j * L a m + Lf * Lam
-
+
+ Lf
* Lk + Lk * Lam + L j * Lam
* T4 * T6 =
Numerical
1.08
Lf
0.8425
0.413
Tf = LVRf
6.1 14
0.382
Rj
9.4761
205
Li
0.2123
1.68
Ti= LjlRj
0.0224
0.0082
Rk
21 0.59
495
Lk
1.5272
0.588
Tk = LWRk
0.00725
0.00119
sLm{Ld(s) - La}
Lm + La - L d ( s )
(27)
R p ( 1 f s T f ) ( l sTlc)(l+s T j )
(1+ sTv)(1 s T w )
(28)
+ Lf * Lk * Lam+ Lf * L j * L a m
Rf
* Rj * R k
(26)
0.1378
Rf * R j
*Lk+Lf *Lam+Lk*Lam
R k * Rf
{ Lf * L j * L k + L j * L k * L a m
T2
Analytical
Rf
Zr =
Rf * R j
Lj
Parameter
Zr(s) =
Rk*Rf
Lf
Ti * T3 + T3 * T5 + T5 * Ti
-
Rf * R k * R j
(30)
Rf * R k + R k * Rj Rj * Rf
The low frequency asymptotic value of the magnitude
of the frequency response Zv(s) shown in Fig. 12 is Rp
which is therefore known and has a value of
Rp =
Lm2
(31)
Ld(T4+T5 T6 - T 1 - T 2 - T3)
The relationships between the unknown rotor circuit
parameters and the known time constants can then be
written as a simple linear matrix equation.
Rp =
Tj+Tk
1
Tf+Tk
1
Tf+Tj]
Tj*Tk
Tf*Tk
Tf*Tj
[i]&
__
Rf
Rk
.. _.
Iu+Tw]
Tu* Til:
(32)
-45
,,,,
,,,,,,
, 1 , 1 1 , , ,
/ 1 # 1 < 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, ,
100
IO'
102
103
frequency
Operational inductances, comparison of input and analytical cal-
10-3
Fig. 13
10-2
10-1
culated
-45
-40
I 0-3
frequency
l o80
o
Q
r---
'
'
'
""""
'
' '
-7
60-
40
20-
c3
U
2 0-
...
U1
z-20
-40
-/OG10-3
10-2
10-1
100
frequency
'
""-
I O ~
io2
i 1
-U
lo3
Conclusions
Frequency response methods are becoming the standard means for the determination of the parameters of
synchronous machines for transient stability studies.
Existing numerical methods for extracting the parameters for the equivalent circuits from the measured data
tend to be rather arbitrary and have not produced the
level of agreement with measured responses necessary
for validation purposes.
From the basic properties of cascaded L-R circuits
and the fundamental characteristics of their frequency
39
40
References
1 KILGORE, L.A.: Calculation of synchronous machine constants, Truns. A I E E , 1931, 50, pp. 1201-1214
2 WRIGHT. S.H.: Determination of Synchronous machine constants by test, Truns. A I E E , 1931, 50, pp. 1331-1351
3 BUSEMAN, F., and CASSON, W.: Results of full scale stability
tests on the British 132 kV grid system, Proc. IEE, 198?, 10, pp.
347-362
4 SHACKSHAFT, G., and NEILSON, R.: Results of stability
tests on an underexcited 120 MW generator, Proc. IEE, 119, pp.
17-188
5 SHACKSHAFT, G.: New approach to determination of synchronous machine parameters from tests, Proc. IEE, 121, pp.
1385-1391
6 Electric Power Research Institute, Compendium of the EPRI
Workshop on modelling for stability calculations (EPRI, 1981)
7 WALTON, A.: Determination of synchronous machine stability
study constants, a summary of work done by N.E.I. Parsons,
E P R I Workshop, St. Louis, USA, 1981
8 WALTON, A., and CROFT, J.S.: The modelling of synchronous
machines, Fourth Int. Conf. on Electrical Machines and Drives,
London. 1989
9 WALTON, A.: The extraction of parameters for synchronous
machines from the results of frequency response tests, Int. Conf.
on Electrical Machines and Drives, 1993, pp. 480-484
10 Van Valkenberg: Network analysis (Prentice Hall, 3rd edn.)
11 HARRIS, M.R., and PRASHAD, F.R.: Improved methods for
inter-relating circuits and frequency-response data for synchronous machines, Int. Conf. on Electrical Machines and Drives,
1989, pp. 192-197
12 CROFT, J.S.: Microprocessor based control systems for synchronous machines, MEng Sc thesis, James Cook University, North
Queensland, Australia