ARTICLE IN PRESS

Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620

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Dynamic properties and liquefaction resistance of two soil materials

in an earthfill dam—Laboratory test results
V.C. Xenakia,, G.A. Athanasopoulosb
a
Edafomichaniki S.A., Athens, Greece
b
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
Received 18 April 2006; received in revised form 14 September 2007; accepted 1 October 2007

Abstract

Results are presented of laboratory resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests on specimens of two compacted soils (a sandy–silty clay
and a sand–gravel mixture), planned to be used in the core and the shells, respectively, of a proposed earthfill dam. The values of low-
amplitude shear modulus of the clayey material were found to increase with increasing confining pressure and decreasing water content,
with deviations of 720% from the predictions of the ‘‘Hardin equation’’. On the other hand, the low-amplitude damping ratio was
found to be at least four times higher than the values corresponding to natural undisturbed cohesive soils. The proposed G/G0gc curve
for the compacted cohesive soil was found to be independent of confining pressure and small variations of the water content on either
side of the optimum value and showed a remarkable agreement with recently published similar curves for natural cohesive soils. For the
case of the sand–gravel mixture, normalized G/G0–gc and D–gc curves are proposed, based on recently published results for gravelly soils
and the limited data of the present study. The liquefaction resistance of the saturated sand–gravel mixture was found to be strongly
dependent on its relative density, especially for high values of cyclic stress ratio. A relative density of at least 55% was found to be
necessary to assure safety against earthquake-induced liquefaction of the material. The results presented herein may be used (directly or
as guide) in the seismic analysis of (new or existing) earth dams constructed from similar soil materials and in addition they provide
insight into the dynamic behavior of compacted soils.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Dynamic soil properties; Liquefaction resistance; Compacted clays; Gravelly soils; Earth dams

1. Introduction In earthquake prone areas the stability of earthfill

Earthfill (or earth) dams have been used since the early
days of civilization for the storage of water for irrigation
[1]. In modern times the earthfill dam continues to be the
most common type of dam, principally because its
construction involves utilization of soil materials in their
natural state with a minimum of processing. An earthfill
dam may be either homogeneous (made entirely of
impervious soil material) or zoned (with a central
impervious core flanked by pervious shells). An impervious
core is also used in the case of earthcore rockfill dams [2].
Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 2709636; fax: +30 210 2709600.
E-mail address: vxenaki@edafomichaniki.gr (V.C. Xenaki).
(or rockfill) dams must be analyzed under the action of
seismic loads-in addition to gravity loads-to assure that the
dam will continue functioning safely when subjected to the
design earthquake [3]. The seismic stability of embankment
dams has been the subject of numerous investigations
during the last 50 years and can be analyzed by a number
of methods, depending on whether the dam is not
susceptible or susceptible to liquefaction [2]. However,
regardless of the degree of sophistication of a method used
for the seismic analysis of an earth (or rockfill) dam the
results will be meaningful, and of practical value, only
when realistic values of dynamic properties of the soils
placed in the various zones of the dam (and of the
foundation soils) are introduced in the analysis. These
dynamic soil properties (including liquefaction resistance)

0267-7261/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2007.10.001
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
606 V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620
can be evaluated by conducting specialized, costly and
time-consuming laboratory tests or in-situ tests in existing
dams. Values of dynamic soil properties for use in seismic
dam response analyses can also be back-calculated (for
research purposes) based on the results of full scale
vibration tests or on the recorded earthquake response of
existing dams (e.g. [4–6]). It follows that the values of
dynamic properties of soil materials used in the construc-
tion of earth (and rockfill) dams are not readily available.
Hence, the development of a data bank containing
experimental results (in addition to back-calculated values)
could be particularly useful in the case of new dams as well
as for existing dams under rehabilitation (e.g. [7]).
In the current study the dynamic properties of two soil
materials, of the type used in the construction of earthfill
dams (a sandy–silty clay and a sand–gravel mixture) are
evaluated by conducting laboratory tests and utilizing data
from the recent technical literature. The experimental
investigation was part of a broader study on the suitability
of locally available soils for the construction of a new
earthfill dam in Greece [8]. The experimental program
involved resonant column tests and cyclic triaxial tests for
the evaluation of (a) the dynamic shear modulus and
damping of the two types of soils as a function of the cyclic
strain amplitude, confining pressure and water content and
(b) the liquefaction resistance of the sand–gravel mixture as
a function of degree of compaction. The results presented
herein may be used directly (or as a guide) in the design of
new, or the rehabilitation of existing earthfill dams, for
which laboratory test results are not available. In addition,
they provide useful insight into the dynamic behavior
of compacted (cohesive or granular) soil materials, a
subject that has recently attracted the interest of many
investigators.
2. Literature review
The available experimental results on the dynamic
properties of compacted cohesive soils—under conditions
of full saturation—are rather limited. Kallioglou et al. [9]
have found that the G/G0–gc and D–gc curves of compacted
clays are similar to those of natural soils as described by
Vucetic and Dobry [10]. The low-amplitude damping ratio,
D0, of compacted clays however, was found to be much
higher (2.1–9.8%) compared to the case of naturally
occurring geomaterials. High values of D0, for compacted
sand–bentonite mixtures have been also reported by
D’Onofrio et al. [11] as well as for natural cemented
cohesive soils [12,13]).
The effect of compaction water content on the dynamic
properties of saturated cohesive soils has also been
investigated by a few investigators. Santucci de Magistris
et al. [14] on the basis of resonant column test results have
concluded that the low-amplitude shear modulus, G0, of
clayey materials compacted at water content wopt+2%, is
reduced compared to the value measured at optimum water
content. Vinale et al. [15], on the basis of small-strain cyclic
triaxial test results, have also concluded that specimens
prepared at optimum water content are characterized by
higher stiffness and damping ratio, compared to the case of
dry or wet compacted specimens. In addition, they
reported that the variation of normalized Young’s mod-
ulus, E/E0, with axial strain is also affected by the
compaction water content (lower water content values
result in a more linear behavior).
Of particular interest are the limited available results for
the dynamic properties of partially saturated compacted
cohesive soils. Vinale et al. [15] have found that under both
unsaturated and saturated conditions (1) the values of G0
increase with increasing confinement, regardless of the
water content value, (2) the values of G0 decrease when the
compaction water content is increased from the optimum
value to the wet side of optimum, and (3) the low-
amplitude damping ratio, D0, does not depend on the water
content and takes values ranging from 6.5% to 8.5%.
According to the above investigators the degree of
saturation of compacted cohesive soils affects their
behavior in the following two ways: (1) the low-amplitude
damping ratio, D0, of unsaturated specimens is less
sensitive to the confining pressure changes, compared to
the saturated specimens and (2) the G/G0–gc and D–gc
curves of unsaturated specimens are not affected by the
compaction water content. Finally, Mancuso et al. [13] on
the basis of resonant column test results, concluded that
the low-amplitude modulus, G0, and damping ratio, D0, are
higher and lower, respectively, under partial saturation
conditions, compared to the full saturation case (Fig. 1).
On the contrary, the effect of saturation and confining
pressure on G/G0–gc and D–gc curves of samples compacted
with the same procedure is negligible.
The dynamic properties of gravelly soils have been the
subject of several investigations during the last 20 years.
Seed et al. [16] compared the dynamic behavior of gravelly
soils with that of sands and concluded that damping ratio
values of sand and gravels are very similar. The shear
modulus of gravels, however, is significantly higher, and
the degradation of normalized shear modulus, G/G0, with
shear strain is stronger in the case of gravelly materials,
compared to sands.
Rollins et al. [17] have reported experimental results
pertaining to the effect of confining pressure, relative
density and gradation on the dynamic properties of
gravelly soils. These results are shown in the diagram of
Fig. 2, depicting the variation of normalized shear
modulus, G/G0, and damping ratio with cyclic shear strain
for gravelly materials. Based on these results it is concluded
that the G/G0–gc curve is not dependent on gravel content,
fines content and relative density. However, the effect of
confining pressure is more significant indicating that the
curve moves towards the upper range of data with
increasing confining pressure. Similar observations prevail
for the D–gc curve of gravelly soil materials indicating that
the effect of gradation and relative density on D–gc curve is
not significant. On the contrary, damping ratio values

V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620
400
saturated undisturbed sample
350 undisturbed sample at natural water content
300
250
Go (MPa)
200 Go = 10.0 (σ'o)0.48
150
Go = 33.8 (σo)0.28
100
50
0
0 200 400 600
15
10
Do (%)
Do = 13.8 (σo' )-0.17
5 may be obtained with that of the sand–gravel mixture by
Do = 8.7 (σo)-0.11
0 liquefaction behavior of the mixture. This approach
0 200 400 600
Confining pressure σo, σo' (kPa)
Fig. 1. Variation of: (a) low-amplitude shear modulus, G0 and (b)
damping ratio, D0, of compacted soils as a function of confining pressure
for saturated and partially saturated conditions (adapted from [13]).
decrease with increasing confining pressure. Finally, the
effect of sample disturbance on the dynamic properties of
gravelly materials has been the subject of a few experi-
mental investigations [18–20]. The test results indicate that
the G/G0–gc curve for undisturbed specimens coincides with
that of reconstituted specimens of gravelly material.
However, the effect of sample disturbance on D–gc curves
is more pronounced indicating higher damping values for
the undisturbed specimens.
On the basis of information presented above it may be
concluded that the low-amplitude shear modulus of soils
G0 is affected by a number of parameters (e.g. confining
pressure, degree of saturation, compaction water content,
gradation, and sample disturbance) whereas the G/G0–gc
and D–gc curves are less sensitive to these parameters. This
explains why several empirical relationships have been
proposed for the determination of G0 [16,21,22] that take
into consideration some of these parameters. In a recent
publication Hardin and Kalinski [23] have reported results
of large size resonant column tests on uniform and well-
graded gravelly soils, indicating an increase of the low-
amplitude shear modulus, G0, with increasing particle size,
under a constant value of void ratio. This increase was
found to be pronounced for uniform gradation of gravel
whereas the effect was diminished for well-graded material.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
607
To account for this particle size effect, the above
investigators introduced a particle size function into the
‘‘Hardin equation’’ depending on the value of D5
(i.e. particle size corresponding to 5% passing). A similar
trend for an increase of G0 values with the particle size of
uniform sands under a constant value of void ratio,
has been reported by Lontou and Nikolopoulou [24].
Hardin and Kalinski [23] have also reported experimental
results for G/G0–gc curves of gravelly soils by utilizing the
concept of ‘‘reference strain’’ introduced by Hardin and
Drnevich [25].
The liquefaction resistance of gravelly soils has received
800 1000 increased attention recently and a significant amount of
data is available in the technical literature. Evans and Zhou
[26] have reported experimental results obtained from
cyclic triaxial tests regarding the effect of gravel content on
the liquefaction resistance (expressed as a cyclic stress ratio,
CSR) of sand–gravel mixtures. According to these results
the liquefaction resistance of sand–gravel mixtures in-
creases significantly with increasing gravel content. In
addition, it was found that the same liquefaction resistance
testing only the finer soil fraction at an equivalent greater
relative density. The equivalent density is introduced to
account for the effect of the gravel inclusions on the
800 1000 enables the use of conventional triaxial equipment for the
experimental investigation of the liquefaction resistance of
gravelly soils, without the limitations imposed by the
maximum particle size allowed in conventional triaxial
testing. The effects of membrane penetration must also be
considered when processing the results of triaxial test in
order to properly evaluate the liquefaction resistance. It is
known that membrane penetration results in a significant
overestimation of the liquefaction resistance of gravelly
soils (Evans and Zhou, 1994) and several corrections have
been proposed to account for this effect, including the use
of correction factors to reduce the experimentally evaluated
liquefaction resistance [27]. Finally, the liquefaction
resistance of cohesionless soils has been found to decrease
with increasing confining pressure (empirical relations are
available for estimating and correcting this effect e.g.
[22,28]) and with sample disturbance [19,20].
3. Materials tested
The clayey material tested in the current study is of the
type used for the impervious core of earth or rockfill dams.
Its grain size distribution is shown in Fig. 3. According to
this diagram the soil sample is composed of 3% gravel,
20% sand and 77% fines with mean particle size of
D50 ¼ 0.012 mm. The Atterberg limits were found to be
LL ¼ 38 and PL ¼ 17, indicating a value of plasticity
index PI ¼ 21. Based on these results the soil material
may be characterized as sandy–silty clay of low to
medium plasticity (CL). Following the procedure of
standard Proctor compaction test (ASTM D698 [29]) the
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608 V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620
Fig. 2. Proposed G/G0–gc and D–gc curves for gravelly soils based on the experimental results of several researchers [17].
maximum dry unit weight, gd max, was found to be equal to
17.9 kN/m3, whereas the optimum water content, wopt, was
equal to 17%. It should be noted that the specimens used in
the current experimental investigation were prepared from
material compacted following the above mentioned proce-
dure with water content values equal to wopt, wopt1%,
and wopt+2%.
The gravelly material used in the present study has
characteristics that make it suitable for the construction of
the shells of earthfill dams. The grain size distribution of
the natural material is presented in the diagram of Fig. 3
indicating that the soil sample is composed of 53.5%
gravel, 44% sand and 2.5% fines and may be characterized
as sandy gravel (GW). The soil material has uniformity
coefficient Cu ¼ 27, mean grain size D50 ¼ 6 mm, and
specific gravity, Gs, ranging from 2.73 to 2.80. The
maximum and minimum values of void ratio was
determined according to ASTM D4253 and D4254 and
found to be emax ¼ 0.44, emin ¼ 0.20. By taking into
consideration the limitation that the largest particle size
of tested material should be smaller than 1/6 the specimen
diameter (ASTM D3999 [30]) the specimens used in the
cyclic triaxial tests of the current experimental investigation
had a maximum particle size equal to 19 mm. This was
achieved by sieving a quantity of the gravelly material and
removing the fraction having diameter greater than 19 mm.
The grain size distribution of the material used in the tests
is also included in the diagram of Fig. 3. The mean grain
size of the tested material is D50 ¼ 2.7 mm with a
uniformity coefficient equal to Cu ¼ 13.4. By utilizing data
presented by Cubrinovski and Ishihara [31] the maximum
and minimum values of void ratio of this material were
found to be approximately equal to the values of the
natural material.

V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620
CLAY
100
90
80
Percent finer (%) 70
60
50
40
30
20 tested gravelly material
10 natural gravelly material
clayey material
0
1E-4
Fig. 3. Grain size distribution of the clayey and sandy gravel materials used in the present study.
4. Experimental procedure
The effect of isotropic effective confining pressure, water
content and cyclic strain amplitude on the values of
dynamic shear modulus and damping ratio of the soil
materials examined in the present study was investigated by
conducting resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests. The
determination of shear modulus, G, and damping ratio, D,
at small strains was based on the resonant column testing,
whereas the dynamic properties for greater strain values
were estimated by the results of cyclic triaxial tests. The
liquefaction resistance of the gravelly soil material and its
dependence on the void ratio was also investigated by
conducting cyclic triaxial tests.
4.1. Clayey material
The resonant column tests of the current study were
conducted by using a torsional resonant column device of
the fixed-free type [32]—designed and fabricated by the
junior author—which accommodates cylindrical specimens
having values of diameter and height equal to 36 and
80 mm, respectively. The torsional driving system of the
device consists of two electrical coils—attached to opposite
sides of the top cap of the specimen—surrounding
permanent magnets fixed to the frame of the device. The
specimens used in the tests were trimmed to the required
dimensions from material compacted following the proce-
dure of standard Proctor compaction test (ASTM D 698
[29]). In order to investigate the dependence of the dynamic
properties of the clayey material on water content, the soil
material was compacted having three different values of
water content: wopt1%, wopt and wopt+2%, with
corresponding values of degree of saturation, Sr, ranging
from 88% to 97%. It should be noted that the clayey
material was tested under unsaturated conditions to
ARTICLE IN PRESS
609
SILT SAND GRAVEL
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
simulate the condition of the clay core material during
most of the lifetime of the dam.
The resonant column tests of this study were conducted
following the specifications of ASTM D4015 [33]. By
processing the data obtained from each resonant column
test, the values of dynamic shear modulus, G, and damping
ratio, D, of the clayey material were obtained as a function
of the average cyclic shear strain, gc. The values of dynamic
shear modulus are obtained by vibrating the cylindrical
specimen at its resonant frequency, whereas the values of
damping ratio are determined by recording the free
decaying vibrations of the specimen when the driving
signal is shut-off. It should be noted that the specimen
vibration was imposed under undrained conditions. In
order to investigate the effect of confining pressure on the
dynamic properties of the clayey material the resonant
column tests were conducted under values of confining
pressure varying from 15 to 600 kPa. For each value of
confining pressure the test specimen was left to consolidate
for a duration of approximately 1 day and then the
resonant frequency and the free decaying vibrations were
recorded under low-amplitude vibrations. From these
recorded data the low amplitude shear modulus, G0 and
damping ratio, D0, were estimated. The amplitude of
vibration was then gradually increased stepwise and the
new resonant frequency and decaying vibrations were
recorded in each step, in order to investigate the effect of
cyclic shear strain amplitude on the dynamic properties of
the clayey material. By testing the specimens under
successively increasing strain amplitudes, any previous
cyclic loading does not affect the results of subsequent
higher amplitude loading. Following the completion of the
series of measurements described above, the confining
pressure was increased, the specimen was left to consolidate
for a period of 1 day (during which the disturbance caused
by the previous cyclic loading is erased, as shown by [34])
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
610 V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620

and a new series of measurements was obtained. Typical connection between the specimen top cap and the load cell
measurement results in a resonant column test, conducted makes it possible to apply an axial cyclic stress, sc, to the
on a specimen having water content w ¼ wopt+2% under specimen with a maximum value equal to 7s3, where
confining pressure s0 0 ¼ 300 kPa are shown in Fig. 4. The s3 ¼ cell pressure. The pore water back pressure is applied
test conditions of all resonant column tests conducted in at the bottom of the specimen whereas the pore water
the present study are summarized in Table 1. pressure is measured at the other end (top) of the specimen.
The cyclic triaxial tests were conducted using a GDS The tests were conducted on clayey specimens identical
2 Hz fully automated cyclic triaxial testing device, which is to those used in resonant column tests, which were
controlled by a personal computer and has the capability of prepared using the same procedure described above and
applying cyclic loading under both stress-controlled or having the same values of water content. The stress-
strain-controlled conditions. In the above device, the axial controlled cyclic triaxial tests were conducted according to
load is applied at the bottom of the specimen whereas the the specifications of ASTM D3999 [30] with a frequency
value of the load is measured at the top by a load cell ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 Hz. By conducting cyclic triaxial
placed inside the pressure cell. A special arrangement at the tests under different values of confining pressure (from 150
to 900 kPa) the effect of confinement on the values of
dynamic modulus of elasticity and damping ratio of the
6
t = 1200min clayey material was investigated. Values of dynamic
5 elasticity modulus, Edyn, and damping ratio, D, were
Amplitude (x 10-6)

determined from the hysteresis loop of a particular loading

4
cycle. For each value of confining pressure the test
3 specimen was allowed to consolidate for at least 1440 min
2 fn = 357Hz (1 day). Then, hysteresis loops were recorded by perform-
ing a stress-controlled cyclic triaxial test for the lowest
1
value of axial strain. The effect of cyclic axial strain on the
0 dynamic elastic modulus and damping ratio was estab-
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 lished by applying gradually increasing cyclic axial loading
Frequency (Hz)
to the test specimen. For each value of cyclic stress, sc, 40
3.0 cycles of cyclic axial loading were applied under undrained
Volts
conditions with frequency f ¼ 0.5 Hz and the values of
Excitation

axial load and axial deformation were continuously

0 recorded. After the completion of each test the value of
confining pressure was increased and the aforementioned
procedure was repeated.
-3.0 In the diagram of Fig. 5 typical cyclic triaxial test results
0.3
mVolts are presented for a specimen having water content,
w ¼ wopt under confining pressure s0 3 ¼ 150 kPa. The 40
RTO

0 hysteresis loops (stress–strain curve) used for the determi-

nation of elasticity modulus and damping ratio values are
also shown in this figure. Values of dynamic shear
-0.3 modulus, G, and corresponding cyclic shear strains, gc,
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 were calculated from the estimated values of Edyn, by using
Time, msec Eqs. (1) and (2):
Fig. 4. Fourier spectrum and free decaying vibrations from a resonant E dyn
column test conducted on a specimen having water content, G¼ , (1)
2ð1 þ vÞ
w ¼ wopt+2% under confining pressure s0 0 ¼ 300 kPa.

gc ¼ ð1 þ vÞc , (2)
Table 1
where the value of Poisson’s ratio, v, was assumed to be
Test conditions for the resonant column tests conducted on clayey
specimens 0.40, and ec is the cyclic axial strain.
The test conditions of all cyclic triaxial tests conducted
Test no. Water content Void ratio Confining pressure, s0 (kPa) on clayey specimens are summarized in Table 2.
1 wopt1% e ¼ 0.50 20a 150a 300 600
2 wopt e ¼ 0.51 25a 150 300 600 4.2. Gravelly material
3 wopt+2% e ¼ 0.52 15a 150a 300a 600a
a
Following the evaluation of low amplitude shear modulus and The gravelly material tested in the current study was
damping, successively increasing strain amplitudes were applied for subjected to stress-controlled cyclic triaxial testing using
establishing the G/G0–gc and D–gc curves. the GDS system described in the previous section and
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620 611

following the specifications of ASTM D5311 [35]. The Similar tests were conducted for the evaluation of the shear
results of tests were used for evaluating the liquefaction modulus and damping ratio for a limited range of cyclic
resistance of the material as a function of void ratio. shear strains, for material having a void ratio e ¼ 0.22
under a confining pressure of s0 3 ¼ 200 kPa (by using
120
hysteresis loops recorded during the first 10 cycles of
loading).
80
All tests were conducted on saturated cylindrical speci-
40 mens of sandy gravel having maximum particle size equal
σc (kPa)

0 to 19 mm, with nominal values of diameter and height

-40
equal to 100 and 200 mm, respectively. The mean grain size
of the samples was equal to 2.7 mm. All specimens were
-80
isotropically consolidated under an effective confining
-120 stress equal to s0 3 ¼ 200 kPa. The specimens were prepared
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
by using dry soil (compacted by tamping the material
6.0 in a split mold), which was subsequently saturated by water
4.0 flowing from the bottom to the top of the specimen. A high
degree of saturation was achieved in all tested specimens,
2.0
εc (x 10-3)

which was verified by the values of pore pressure coefficient

0.0 measured in the tests (B ¼ 0.95–0.96). It should be
-2.0 mentioned that for dense gravelly materials the B value is
-4.0 less than 1.0 even for a high degree of saturation [36].
During cyclic axial loading, a harmonically varying
-6.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 cyclic load was applied to the saturated specimens and the
Time (sec) variation of axial stress, excess pore water pressure and
120
axial strain of the specimen were continuously recorded
during cyclic loading. The intensity of the cyclic load was
80 varied in such a way as to produce a wide range of CSRs
40 (CSR ¼ tc/s0 3, tc ¼ sc/2 ¼ (s1s3)/2) and corresponding
σc (kPa)

0 number of cycles, NL, required to cause initial liquefaction.

It is postulated here, that initial liquefaction occurs when
-40
the excess pore water pressure becomes equal to the initial
-80 consolidation stress, s0 3, of the specimen. The cyclic
-120 loading in the cyclic triaxial tests was applied with
-4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 frequency, f, varying from 0.1 to 0.5 Hz. According to
Cyclic axial strain. εc (x 10-3) experimental results reported in the literature (e.g. [37]) the
loading strain rate does not affect appreciably the
Fig. 5. Results of cyclic triaxial test on a specimen having water content,
w ¼ wopt under confining pressure s0 3 ¼ 150 kPa: (a) Variation of cyclic experimental results. The results reported in the present
axial stress, sc, and cyclic axial strain, ec, with time and (b) axial study were obtained by testing specimens having three
stress–strain curve. different values of void ratio (0.22, 0.30, and 0.39)

Table 2
Test conditions for the cyclic triaxial tests conducted on clayey specimens

Test no Water content Void ratio, e Confining pressure, Cyclic deviator stress, sc (kPa)
s0 3 (kPa)

wopt1% 0.50 150 78 88 93 98 108 117 127 137 147 –

4 wopt1% 0.50 300* – – – – – – – – – –
wopt1% 0.50 600* – – – – – – – – – –
wopt 0.52 150 79 83 88 93 98 108 118 128 – –
5 wopt 0.52 300 128 138 147 157 177 196 216 236 – –
wopt 0.52 600* – – – – – – – – – –

wopt 0.52 300* – – – – – – – – – –

6 wopt 0.52 600 200 220 250 280 320 – – – – –
wopt 0.52 900 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
wopt+2% 0.52 300* – – – – – – – – – –
7 wopt+2% 0.52 600* – – – – – – – – – –
wopt+2% 0.52 900 198 247 296 346 395 445 – – – –
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150
150
100
50
σc (kPa)

100
0
-50 50

σ1-σ3 (kPa)
-100
-150 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
200 -50

150
-100
Δu (kPa)

100
-150
50 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Cyclic axial strain, εc (%)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
80
2
1 60

0 40
q = (σ'1-σ'3 ) / 2 (kPa)
εc (%)

-1
20
-2
-3 0

-4 -20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Number of cycles, Nl -40

Fig. 6. Results of a cyclic triaxial test on a gravelly specimen having void -60
ratio e ¼ 0.30: variation of cyclic axial stress, sc, excess pore pressure
development, Du, and cyclic axial strain, ec, with the loading cycles. -80
0 50 100 150 200 250
p' = (σ'1+σ'3) / 2 (kPa)

corresponding to relative densities of 90%, 50% and 20%,
respectively.
During the cyclic loading continuous records were
obtained of the excess pore water pressure, Du, and cyclic
axial strain, ec, as well as of the cyclic axial stress, sc,
applied to the specimen. Each test was continued until
initial liquefaction occurred, i.e. until the excess pore water
pressure became equal to the initial consolidation stress,
s0 3, of the specimen. Typical results obtained from a cyclic
triaxial test conducted on a specimen having void ratio, e,
equal to 0.30 are presented in Fig. 6. The corresponding
diagrams of axial stress–strain and the effective stress path
(p0 , q diagram) of the particular test are shown in Fig. 7.
Data pertaining to all tests conducted on sand-gravel
specimens are summarized in Table 3.
5. Tests results and discussion
For the clayey material the experimental results of the
resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests of the current
study were combined in order to determine the dynamic
properties of the material over a wide range of cyclic shear
strain. More specifically, in this section the effect of
Fig. 7. (a) Axial stress–strain curve and (b) effective stress path for the
loading shown in Fig. 6.
confining pressure, water content and cyclic shear strain
amplitude on the values of dynamic shear modulus and
damping ratio of the clayey material is first presented
and discussed. Regarding the gravelly material, plots of
G/G0–gc and D–gc curves, on the basis of the limited
experimental results of this study and on data from recently
published studies, are first presented and discussed
followed by the results of liquefaction testing under
different degrees of compaction.
5.1. Clayey material
The results presented and discussed in this subsection
pertain to the effects of confining pressure, water content
and cyclic strain amplitude on the values of dynamic
modulus and damping ratio of the tested material.
5.1.1. Effect of confining pressure
The effect of confining pressure, s0 0, on the low
amplitude shear modulus, G0, is depicted in the diagram
Table 3
Test conditions for the cyclic triaxial tests conducted on sand-gravel specimens

V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620
Test no. Specimen dimensions Void ratio Relative Pore Cell Back Conso- Frequency Cyclic CSR tc/s0 3 No of
density Dr pressure pressure s3 pressure pb lidation f (Hz) stress sc cycles Nl
Diameter Height H e emax emin (%) coefficient (kPa) (kPa) stress s0 3 (kPa)
D (mm) (mm) B (kPa)

8 97.9 214.0 0.23 0.438 0.198 87 0.94 500 300 200 0.5 101 0.25 –
9 97.9 213.5 0.23 0.438 0.198 87 0.94 600 400 200 0.3 122 0.305 –
10 97.7 212.5 0.225 0.438 0.198 89 0.95 600 400 200 0.3 140 0.35 –
11 98.1 213.5 0.23 0.438 0.198 87 0.94 600 400 200 0.3 160 0.40 –
12 97.8 214.4 0.23 0.438 0.198 87 0.95 600 400 200 0.3 180 0.45 –
13 97.9 213.3 0.224 0.438 0.198 89 0.95 600 400 200 0.3 180 0.45 –

ARTICLE IN PRESS
14 96.3 215.0 0.31 0.438 0.198 53 0.96 600 400 200 0.1 100 0.25 120
15 96.5 215.0 0.31 0.438 0.198 53 0.96 600 400 200 0.1 116 0.29 100
16 96.0 213.0 0.29 0.438 0.198 62 0.97 650 450 200 0.1 138 0.35 70
17 96.1 211.0 0.28 0.438 0.198 66 0.98 650 450 200 0.1 150 0.38 90
18 96.0 214.5 0.29 0.438 0.198 62 0.95 650 450 200 0.1 156 0.39 50
19 95.7 214.0 0.29 0.438 0.198 62 0.96 700 500 200 0.1 174 0.43 35
20 96.8 214.0 0.40 0.438 0.198 16 0.94 500 300 200 0.5 52 0.13 290
21 96.7 213.0 0.40 0.438 0.198 16 0.95 500 300 200 0.5 72 0.18 65
22 96.4 214.0 0.39 0.438 0.198 20 0.95 500 300 200 0.5 90 0.22 115
23 96.6 212.5 0.395 0.438 0.198 18 0.95 500 300 200 0.5 102 0.26 30
24 96.5 214.1 0.40 0.438 0.198 16 0.94 500 300 200 0.5 123 0.31 8
25 97.6 214.0 0.22 0.438 0.198 90 0.95 500 300 200 0.1 94 –
107 –
120 –
134 –
147 –
160 –
174 –
187 –
195 –

613
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614 V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620

of Fig. 8 for different values of water content. It should be 14

noted that the values of G0 presented in this diagram w = wopt+2%
12
correspond to a duration of confinement equal to 1440 min
(1 day). It is observed that the low amplitude shear 10
modulus, G0, of the clayey material increases with
confining pressure, s0 0, according to the following power 8

Do (%)
functions:
6
0:38
G0 ¼ 24:6s0 0 ðfor w ¼ wopt  1%Þ, (3a)
4
0:48
G0 ¼ 11:6s0 0 ðfor w ¼ wopt Þ, (3b) 2
e = 0.50-0.52
0:43
G 0 ¼ 14:8s0 0 ðfor w ¼ wopt þ 2%Þ, (3c) 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
where G0 is measured in MPa and s0 0 in kPa. σ'o (kPa)
In the diagram of Fig. 8 the curve corresponding
to ‘‘Hardin equation’’ for normally consolidate soils Fig. 9. Effect of confining pressure on the low amplitude damping ratio
(Eq. (4)) has been also plotted, and compared to the test for a clayey specimen having water content w ¼ wopt+2%.
results [21]:
636 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
G0 ¼ 2
pa s00 , (4) 1.0
0:3 þ 0:7e w = wopt
where pa is the atmospheric pressure, and e the void ratio of 0.8
e = 0.52
soil material.
It is observed that the results of measurements are in 0.6
G/Go

general agreement with the prediction of Eq. (4), especially σ'o = 150kPa
for confining pressure around 100 kPa. For values of s0 0 0.4 σ'o = 300kPa
lower or greater than 100 kPa, Eq. (4) underpredicts or σ'o = 600kPa
σ'o = 900kPa
overpredicts, respectively, the value of G0 by 20–25% on 0.2
the average. The diagram of Fig. 8 also indicates that, as Resonant column
Cyclic triaxial
shown in the next subsection, the value of G0 is affected by 0.0
the compaction water content. In particular, it is observed 10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1
that for a confining pressure around 300 kPa the compac- Cyclic shear strain, γ c
tion at 1% dry of optimum results in an 18% increase in
Fig. 10. Effect of confining pressure on G/G0–gc curve for a clayey
the value of G0. On the other hand, a compaction at 2% specimen having water content w ¼ wopt.
wet of optimum has a rather insignificant effect and results
in a 4% decrease in the G0 value.
The dependence of low-amplitude damping ratio, D0, on the values of D0 do not depend on confining pressure
confining pressure for a specimen having water content, for values of s0 0 ranging from 15 to 600 kPa. It can also
w ¼ wopt+2% is shown in Fig. 9. It may be concluded that be observed that the values of D0 of the compacted
clayey material are particularly high, ranging from 6% to
8.5%. Similar high values of damping ratio have also
5000 been reported, as mentioned previously, for compacted
w = wopt-1%
w = wopt materials by Kallioglou et al. [9] as well as for natural
w = wopt+2% cemented soils by Tika et al. [12]. A possible explanation
''Hardin equation''
of the above behavior may be that the soil compaction
energy produces an ‘‘equivalent cementation’’ of soil
Go/pα

particles. However, it is fair to say that little is known on

1000 the effect of compaction and associated cementation of soil
particles on the soil consumption of energy during cyclic
loading. Systematic experimental work in the subject is
needed.
e = 0.50-0.52 Finally, in the diagram of Fig. 10 the effect of confining
300
pressure on G/G0–gc curve for a specimen prepared with
0.1 1 10
water content w ¼ wopt is shown. It is observed that the
σ'o/pα
curves corresponding to different values of confining
Fig. 8. Effect of confining pressure on the low amplitude shear modulus of pressure almost coincide, indicating that the effect of s0 0
clayey soil for different values of water content. on G/G0–gc curves is negligible. This is exactly the opposite
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620 615

of the behavior of sandy materials where G/G0 increases 1.0

with higher confining pressures. σo = 15-900kPa
0.8 e=0.50-0.52

5.1.2. Effect of water content resonant column tests

The effect of water content on values of dynamic shear 0.6 cyclic triaxial tests

G/G0
modulus, G, for two different values of confining pressure
is demonstrated in the diagrams of Fig. 11. More 0.4
specifically, specimens having different values of water w = wopt-1%
content were tested under s0 0 ¼ 150 and 900 kPa for a wide 0.2
w = wopt
range of cyclic shear strains, gc. The test results indicate w = wopt+2%
that the effect of water content on the values of shear 0.0
modulus is more significant for low values of cyclic shear 30
w = wopt-1% σo = 15-900kPa
strain as well as for low values of confining pressure. On w = wopt e = 0.50-0.52
25

Damping ratio, D (%)

the other hand, this effect becomes in general less w = wopt+2%
pronounced for values of gc greater than 104. 20
In the diagrams of Fig. 12, the results of both resonant
column and cyclic triaxial tests are shown and average 15
G/G0–gc and D–gc curves are plotted for specimens of 10
clayey material prepared with different values of water
content and tested under a wide range of confining 5
pressures. It may be concluded that small variations of
0
water content with regard to the optimum water content do 10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1
not affect the G/G0–gc and D–gc curves of the clayey Cyclic shear strain, γ c
material regardless of the confining pressure value.
Fig. 12. Effect of water content on G/G0–gc and D–gc curves for the clayey
soil.

200
Dynamic shearmodulus, G (MPa)

σ'0 = 150kPa 5.1.3. Effect of cyclic strain amplitude

e = 0.50-0.52
By combining the results of all resonant column and
150 cyclic triaxial tests the mean curves of Fig. 13 were plotted
which depict the variation of normalized shear modulus,
100
G/G0, and damping ratio, D, with cyclic shear strain for the
clayey material tested in the current experimental investi-
gation. It has already been mentioned that the dependence
50 of G/G0–gc and D–gc curves on confining pressure and
w = wopt-1% compaction water content is not significant. Therefore, the
w = wopt
0 mean curves presented in Fig. 13, depict the behavior of the
10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 clayey material for the whole range of confining pressure
Cyclic shear strain, γ c and compaction water content used in the tests.
In the diagram of Fig. 13, in addition to the mean
G/G0–gc and D–gc curves obtained for the clayey material
Dynamic shear modulus, G (MPa)

350
σ'0 = 900kPa of the current study, the following curves are also included:
300 e = 0.52 (1) the Vucetic and Dobry [10] curves for PI ¼ 20, (2) the
250 curves proposed by Stokoe et al. [38] for CL soils (e ¼ 0.64,
200
PI ¼ 20, OCR ¼ 1.5), and (3) the curves proposed by
Zhang et al. [39] for tertiary or older age cohesive soils
150 (PI ¼ 21). A remarkable agreement is observed in Fig. 13
100 between the behavior of the compacted clay of the current
w = wopt
study and the behavior of naturally occurring (i.e.
50
w = wopt+2% undisturbed) cohesive soils, regarding the shear stiffness
0 of the material. On the other hand, a striking difference is
10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1
observed regarding the low-amplitude damping behavior
Cyclic shear strain, γ c
as mentioned above: the measured damping ratio of the
Fig. 11. Effect of water content on G–gc curves for the clayey soil (a) for
compacted cohesive soil (D0 ¼ 7–8%) is significantly high-
confining pressure s0 0 ¼ 150 kPa and (b) for confining pressure er (by about four times) than the corresponding value of
s0 0 ¼ 900 kPa. naturally occurring clays (D0 ¼ 1–2%).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
616 V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620

1.0 By substituting s0 0 ¼ 200 kPa in Eq. (5) the value of

σ'0 = 15-900kPa
0.9 the low amplitude shear modulus is estimated as
e = 0.50-0.52
0.8 G0 ¼ 267 MPa. Also, by applying the empirical formulae
0.7 summarized by Ishihara [22], for estimating G0 of gravelly
0.6 soils as a function of void ratio, e, and confining pressure,
G/G0

0.5 s0 0, values of low amplitude shear modulus ranging from

0.4 617 to 226 MPa are obtained, with an average value of
0.3 this study G0 ¼ 285 MPa.
0.2 Vucetic and Dobry (PI = 20)
Zhang et al. 2005, PI = 21, tertiary age
The G/G0 curve for the sandy gravel under an isotropic
0.1 Stokoe et al. 2004, CL, e = 0.64 confinement, s0 0, can be determined from the relation [23]:
0.0
10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 G 1
¼ h i, (6)
30
this study σ'o = 15-900kPa
G0 1 þ gc 1 þ aebggrc
Vucetic and Dobry (PI = 20) e = 0.50-0.52 gr
25 Zhang et al. 2005, PI = 21, tertiary age
Damping ratio, D (%)

Stokoe et al. 2004, CL, e = 0.64

20
15
10
5 1400
0 "
10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3
Cyclic shear strain, γ c
Fig. 13. Comparison of the measured G/G0–gc and D–gc curves of the
clayey material with curves proposed by other investigators.
5.2. Gravelly material
In this subsection results are presented and discussed on the
dynamic modulus and damping ratio as well as the liquefac-
tion resistance of the sandy gravel tested in the current study.
5.2.1. Shear modulus and damping
Only a limited amount of experimental data (for void
ratio e ¼ 0.23 and shear strains gcX103) were obtained in
the current study for the shear modulus and damping ratio
of the sandy gravel material under an isotropic confinement
of s0 0 ¼ 200 kPa. It should be noted that the cyclic triaxial
tests were conducted by using measurements of overall
deformations of the specimens, due to the non-availability of
equipment for local strain measurements. It should therefore
be expected that the reliability of the estimated values of
stiffness and damping is reduced. This is particularly true for
the case of damping ratio values, which were estimated from
hysteresis loops with uncertain and distorted shapes.
Values of the low-amplitude shear modulus, G0, of the
sandy gravel were estimated based on the results reported by
Hardin and Kalinski [23] for a similar gravelly soil. For a
void ratio e ¼ 0.23, and for the case of no particle size effect,
the value of G0 can be determined from the relationship [23]:
1400 1 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
G0 ¼ 100ðs00 Þ
0:3 þ 0:7ð0:23Þ2 2:2
pffiffiffiffiffi
¼ 1:888  104 s00 , ð5Þ
where G0 and s0 0 are measured in kPa.
where: a ¼ 6 and b ¼ 2 for the material No. 12 (which is
similar to the sandy gravel tested in the present study) in
Hardin and Kalinski’s [23], paper, and
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0:3 þ 0:7ð0:23Þ2  s00
gr ¼ ð2:2Þðsin 40 Þ
100
5
pffiffiffiffiffi
¼ 3:40  10 0
s0 . ð7Þ
10-2 10-1 ðkPaÞ
In the diagram of Fig. 14a the G/G0–gc curve, estimated
on the basis of Eqs. (6) and (7) for isotropic confinement
s0 0=200 kPa, has been plotted. In the same diagram are
shown: (1) the G/G0–gc curve for GW soils (e=0.30,
D50=10 mm and Cu=50), proposed by Stokoe et al. [38],
(2) the range of values reported by Rollins et al. [17] for
gravelly soils, (3) a G/G0–gc curve reported by Ishihara [22]
for a 50% gravelly material under a confining pressure of
s0 0 ¼ 200 kPa, and (4) the results of tests of the present
study. It is observed that a very good agreement exists
between the Hardin and Kalinski [23] and Stokoe et al. [38]
curves and that both deviate from the Rollins et al. [17]
range of values. The Ishihara [22] curve almost coincides
with the mean of Rollin’s et al. (1998) range whereas the
data points of the present study fall between the Hardin
and Kalinski [23] and Ishihara [22] curves.
In the diagram of Fig. 14b pertinent data are presented
regarding the damping ratio curves (D–gc) of the sandy
gravel. In particular, the Stokoe et al. [38] and Ishihara [22]
curves are presented as well as the range of data by Rollins
et al. [17]. It is observed that the results of the current study
(which are based on global deformation measurements)
indicate D values well below the values reported by all
other investigators; this may be taken as an indication of
the errors resulting from the use of global—instead of
local—deformation measurements. It is observed that the
Ishihara [22] curve falls within the Rollins et al. [17] range
of values whereas the Stokoe et al. [38] curve follows
approximately the upper bound of this range.
It is concluded that the behavior of the sandy gravel
tested in the current study can be adequately described by
the G/G0–gc curve proposed by Stokoe et al. [38] for GW
soils. Regarding the damping properties, the upper bound
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620 617

1.0 1.0
CSR = 0.25
0.8 e = 0.39
0.8

0.6
G/Go

0.6

Δu / σ'3
e = 0.30
0.4 Rollins et al. 1998
Hardin and Kalinsky 2005
Stokoe et al. 2004 0.4
0.2 Ishihara 1996
This study, Go = 267MPa
D<19mm, σ'3 = 200kPa, e = 0.22~0.23, Dr = 90%
0.0 0.2
e = 0.22
10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3 10-2
25 0.0
Rollinset al. 1998
Stokoe et al.2004, GW, e = 0.50 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
20 Ishihara 1996 Number of cycles, N
Damping ratio, D (%)

This study, Go = 267MPa

D<19mm, σ'3 = 200kPa, e = 0.22~0.23, Dr = 90%
Fig. 15. Effect of void ratio of the sandy gravel on the development of
15
excess pore water pressure for CSR ¼ 0.25.

10

resistance of the tested material is reduced compared to

5
0
10-6 1x10-5 1x10-4 10-3
Cyclic shearstrain, γ c
Fig. 14. (a) G/G0–gc curves and (b) D–gc curves for the sandy gravel tested
in the present study. The proposed curves for the description of material
behavior are: the Stokoe et al. [38] G/G0–gc curve and the upper bound
D–gc curve of the Rollins et al. [17] range.
of the Rollins et al. [17] curve can be used to describe the
material behavior.
5.2.2. Liquefaction resistance
The liquefaction resistance of the sandy gravel—which
was studied in the present investigation as a function of the
void ratio (or relative density) of the material—can be
presented in several ways, e.g. by showing (1) the
development of excess pore water pressure as a function
of the number of cycles of loading or (2) the CSR required
to induce liquefaction (i.e. DuEs0 3) for a given number of
cycles of loading.
In the diagram of Fig. 15 the development of excess pore
water pressure is shown as a function of the number of
cycles of loading, for a CSR ¼ 0.25 and three values of
void ratio of the material. It is observed that the pore water
pressure development in the dense material (e ¼ 0.22,
Dr ¼ 90%) is negligible whereas the loose material
(e ¼ 0.39, Dr ¼ 20%) liquefies easily following the applica-
tion of approximately, 30 cycles of loading. For a material
having an intermediate density (e ¼ 0.39, Dr ¼ 55%) a
large number of loadings cycles (4120) is necessary to
induce liquefaction for the particular level of CSR. It
should be mentioned that the experimental results of the
current study were obtained by testing soil specimens
containing particle sizes less or equal than 19 mm. It
should, therefore, be expected that the liquefaction
the resistance of the natural soil. On the other hand, the
test results have not been corrected to account for
10-2 membrane penetration effects, and this results in an
increased liquefaction resistance of the material. It may
thus be assumed that the two opposite effects are counter-
balanced and the liquefaction resistance of the tested
material is approximately equal to its resistance before
removing the larger than 19 mm particles.
In the diagrams of Fig. 16 the effect of CSR on the
development of excess pore water pressure is illustrated for
three values of the number of loading cycles. It is evident
that the slope of the curves is increasing as the material
becomes looser, especially for the first 10 cycles of loading.
Furthermore, the effect of void ratio (or relative density)
on the excess pore water pressure is shown in the diagrams
of Fig. 17, for three values of CSR (0.25, 0.275, 0.30).
These diagrams clearly indicate that the excess pore water
pressure generation depends on the relative density of the
material and is more pronounced for higher CSR values. It
is also observed that the slope of the Du/s0 3–e curves
decreases markedly for relative density values greater than
50%. This indicates that in the case of dense material more
compaction effort is required to achieve a certain amount
of further reduction of Du/s0 3.
Finally, in the diagram of Fig. 18 the dependence of the
critical value of CSR (i.e. the value necessary to induce
liquefaction) on the number of cycles of loading, for loose,
medium–dense and dense material, is shown. It should be
noted that data points are not shown on the 90% relative
density curve of Fig. 18, because this curve is actually a
lower bound liquefaction resistance curve (i.e. liquefaction
did not occur for the number of cycles shown). From this
diagram it is evident that for a CSR approximately equal to
0.30 the loose material may liquefy following the applica-
tion of as low as 8 cycles of loading. For the medium–dense
material, approximately 30 cycles of loading, at CSR ¼
0.42, are required to induce liquefaction. From the above it
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
618 V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620

1.0 1.0
e = 0.22-0.23 N=5 N = 5 cycles CSR = 0.25
0.9 e = 0.29-0.31 0.9
N = 30cycles
0.8 e = 0.39-0.40 0.8
0.7 0.7
σ3 = 600kPa
0.6 0.6
σ'3 = 200kPa

Δu/σ'3
Δu/σ'3

0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Cyclic stress ratio, CSR Void ratio, e

1.0 1.0
e = 0.22-0.23 N = 10 N = 5 cycles CSR = 0.275
0.9 0.9
e = 0.29-0.31 N = 30 cycles
0.8 e = 0.39-0.40 0.8
0.7 0.7
σ3 = 600kPa
0.6 0.6
σ'3 = 200kPa
Δu/σ'3

Δu/σ'3

0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Cyclic stress ratio, CSR Void ratio, e

1.0 1.0
e = 0.22-0.23 N = 30 CSR = 0.30
0.9 0.9 N = 5 cycles
e = 0.29-0.31 N = 30 cycles
0.8 e = 0.39-0.40 0.8
0.7 σ3 = 600kPa 0.7
0.6 σ'3 = 200kPa 0.6
Δu/σ'3

Δu/σ'3

0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Cyclic stress ratio, CSR Void ratio, e
Fig. 16. Effect of void ratio and cyclic stress ratio on the development of Fig. 17. Effect of void ratio and number of cycles on the development of
excess pore water pressures in the sandy gravel specimen for (a) N ¼ 5 excess pore water pressures in the sandy gravel specimen for (a)
cycles, (b) N ¼ 10 cycles and (c) N ¼ 30 cycles. CSR ¼ 0.25, (b) CSR ¼ 0.275 and (c) CSR ¼ 0.30.

may be concluded that the sandy gravel tested in the

present study has to be compacted to a relative density construction of the impervious core of earthfill (or rockfill)
greater than 55% to assure safety against liquefaction. dams, and on a sandy gravel (GW) suitable for building the
shells of earthfill dams. Based on the experimental results the
6. Conclusions following conclusions can be drawn:

In the present investigation dynamic laboratory tests were 1. The dynamic properties of the unsaturated cohesive
conducted on a clayey soil (CL), of the type used in the soil—compacted at optimum water content—are mainly
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
V.C. Xenaki, G.A. Athanasopoulos / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 605–620
0.50
0.45 σ3 = 500kPa
σ'3 =200kPa
0.40
Dr
Cyclic stress ratio, CSR
Dr
=
0.35
90
55
%
0.30
%
0.25
D
0.20
r =2
0%
0.15
0.10
0.05 occurence of liquefaction
liquefaction conditions not reached
0.00
1 10 100
Number of cycles, Nl
Fig. 18. Effect of relative density on the liquefaction resistance of sandy
gravel.
affected by the confining pressure and the cyclic strain
amplitude, and to a lesser degree by deviations of water
content to the dry or to the wet side of optimum. More
specifically:
(a) The low-amplitude dynamic shear modulus of the
compacted cohesive soil increases with the confining
pressure in a pattern similar to the one described by
the ‘‘Hardin equation’’. The measured G0 values are
in good agreement with the predictions of above
equation, for confining pressures s0 0 ¼ 100 kPa,
whereas for lower or greater values of confinement,
Eq. (4) underpredicts or overpredicts, respectively,
the value of low-amplitude shear modulus by
20–25% on the average. The value of G0 was also
found to depend on the compaction water content:
the highest values of G0 were obtained for specimens
compacted to the dry side of optimum (showing an
increase of 18% with respect to the ones correspond-
ing to optimum value) with a trend of decrease as
the water content increased through the optimum to
values to the wet side of optimum.
(b) The low-amplitude damping ratio, D0, of the
compacted cohesive soil was found to be practically
independent of confining pressure and compaction
water content. The measured damping ratio values
(6–8.5%) of the compacted soils, however, were
found to be significantly higher than the values
usually associated with naturally occurring (i.e.
undisturbed) cohesive soils.
(c) The normalized values of G/G0–gc were found to be
practically independent of confining pressure (for a
range of confinement from 15 to 600 kPa) and of
small deviations of compaction water content with
regard to the optimum value (1% to +2%). The
proposed G/G0–gc curve shows a remarkable agree-
ment with the Stokoe et al. [38] curve for (CL) soils
as well as the Zhang et al. [39] curve for tertiary or
older age soils of the same plasticity. A relatively
619
good agreement with the Vucetic and Dobry [10]
curve was also found to exist. Thus, it may be
concluded that compacted and naturally occurring
cohesive soils exhibit a similar behavior in this
respect.
(d) The D–gc curve derived from this study deviates
significantly from the Stokoe et al. [38], Zhang et al.
[39] and Vucetic and Dobry [10] curves. The deviation
is particularly pronounced in the low-amplitude
range, where the measured damping ratio values of
the compacted clay are about four times higher than
the corresponding values of undisturbed cohesive
soils. A possible explanation of this behavior may be
1000 the development of a weak cementation between
particles as a result of the compaction. However, the
subject needs further investigation.
2. The behavior of the sandy gravel tested in the present
investigation follows, in general, the trends reported in
the literature for gravelly soils. More specifically:
(a) The limited experimental results obtained in the
present study, regarding the values of shear modulus
of the sandy gravel, are in agreement with results
reported recently for gravelly soils. The proposed
G/G0–gc and D–gc curves can be used with con-
fidence directly (or as a guide) in seismic response
analyses of this type of soils.
(b) The liquefaction resistance of the compacted gravely
material was found to be strongly affected by its
relative density, with the effect being more pro-
nounced for high values of CSR and low values of
relative density. In particular, for the number of
cycles associated with common earthquake events,
the sandy gravel tested in the present study liquefies
easily when placed in a loose state, whereas remains
stable for relative densities greater than 55%.
Acknowledgments
The experimental results of the present study were
obtained in the framework of a research project funded by
the Institute for Earthquake Engineering and Earthquake-
Resistant Structures, (ITSAK) Thessaloniki, Greece. The
authors are grateful for this financial support.
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