Mamta Awasthi and Rajiv Kumar Singh, 2011

INT J CURR SCI 2011, 1: 14-23

REVIEW ARTICLE

Development of algae for the production of bioethanol, biomethane, biohydrogen and biodiesel
Mamta Awasthia* and Rajiv Kumar Singhb
a

Centre for Energy and Environment, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur

Himachal Pradesh-177 005, India

Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh-791 112, India
*Corresponding author: E-mail: awasthi6@rediffmail.com

Abstract
Microalgal biofuels are a viable alternative for clean, economical and sustainable sources of energy. The research and development of
micro-algae needs a massive boost to ease the technical difficulties to overcome the large cost advantage of other biofuel feed stocks. It is a
large source of biomass on non-arable lands and capture of CO2. Lipids produced from algae contain saturated and polar lipids, which are
suitable for use as a fuel feedstock and it exceeds the best producing oil crops. It has been found that representatives of green and diatom
microalgae are the most promising producers of TAGs, the highest content of which (4060%) has been found in diatom microalgae. This
paper discusses current knowledge on different techniques for microalgal biomass production, harvesting and lipid extraction methods. The
paper also discusses biodiesel production via transesterification of the lipids and other biofuels like biomethane, biodiesel, bioethanol and
biohydrogen depending on the species as well as the biorefinery approach. Besides lipid extraction, the byproducts of processed algae can
be utilized for many other purposes.
Key words: biofuel, bioethanol, biodiesel, bioenergy, microalgae cultivation, harvesting, lipids
Received: 02nd September; Revised: 25th September; Accepted: 19th October; IJCS New Liberty Group 2011
atmosphere from many stationary emitters by feeding the
Introduction

carbon-rich flue gas to the algae (Ackman et al., 1968; Adey and

The concept of using micro algae for energy production is not

Loveland, 2007). Algae are able to fix approximately 1.8 kg of

new. Algae require much less water than the traditional cereals,

CO2 for every 1 kg of algae biomass produced (Antoni et al.,

produce more biomass (Table 1) as well as it can be grown in

2007). Approximately 40 ha of algae ponds are required to fix

salt water or in sewage water. Microalgae do not belong to the

the carbon emitted from one MW of power generated from a

category of traditional raw food materials. One of the possible

coal plant (Becker, 1994). Treated wastewater rich in nitrogen

ways in which the cost of biofuel obtained from microalgae can

and phosphorus can be utilized by algae, thereby providing the

be reduced is by adopting biorefinery approach and using wastes

co-benefit of producing biofuels and removing nitrogen and

from other production processes for cultivating them. With the

phosphorus (Bilanovic et al., 1988; Benemann and Oswald,

latest technologies it has become possible to cultivate the

1996; Bigogno et al., 2002).

biomass of algae on a large scale all year round, not only under

Algae cultivation

the conditions of tropical and subtropical climate, but also in

The necessary technology for developing profitable algae-based

zones with moderate climate, even at negative temperatures of

fuel is still in various states of development and the final

outdoor air in winter. There is potential to effectively reduce the

configuration is yet to be determined and demonstrated at the

amount of carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides released into the

industrial scale. The high capital cost associated with

Mamta Awasthi and Rajiv Kumar Singh, 2011

producing microalgae in closed culture systems is the main

wastewater treatment programme along with production of algal

challenge for commercialization of such systems.

biofuel.

Table 1. Biomass yields of microalgae versus conventional

crops. Source: Richmond (1986)

A photo bioreactor is equipment that is used to harvest

algae. Photo bioreactors can be set up to be continually
harvested (the majority of the larger cultivation systems), or by

Crops

Annual yield (tons/ha)

Sugar cane

54-125

Sweet sorghum

35-70

Soybean

1.1-4.0

Sweet potato

10-40

Trees

20-50

Microalgae

harvesting a batch at a time (like polyethylene bag cultivation).

Some photo bioreactors types include: tubular photo bioreactors,
flat-plated photo bioreactors, an inclined triangular tubular photo
bioreactor, rectangular tanks, continuous stirred tank reactors
(CSTR), helical coils made of plastic tubing placed across a
column-like structure, square tubular reactors consist of plastic
tubing arranged in a series of squares.

800-1600

Two methods of cultivation are used for realizing the

Algal Turf Scrubber (ATS)

biosynthesis abilities of natural and modified strains of

In addition to the open ponds or photo bioreactors, an

autotrophic microalgae: in photobioreactors (PBRs) and in open

attached algal culture system such as an algal turf scrubber

cultivators. Cultivation can be conducted in batch, semi-batch,

(ATS) can be used in which benthic algae grow on the surface of

and continuous systems. In a continuous system, two types can

solid support for removing nutrients from animal wastewater

be used: turbidostat and chemostat culture. Algae can be

(Bridgwater et al., 1999; Bosma et al., 2003).

produced in closely-controlled laboratory methods to less

Harvesting Algae

predictable methods in outdoor tanks.

Open pond systems

Conventional processes used to harvest micro-algae

include concentration through centrifugation (Briens et al.,

Open pond systems are shallow ponds in which algae

2008), foam fractionation (Brown et al., 1997), flocculation

are cultivated. Nutrients can be provided through runoff water

(Chaumont 1993; Canakci and Van Gerpen, 2001), membrane

from nearby land areas or by channelling the water from

filtration (Chisti, 2007) and ultrasonic separation (Chynoweth

sewage/water treatment plants. The water is typically kept in

et al., 1993). However, most harvesting methods still involve

motion by paddle wheels or rotating structures, and some mixing

economic or technical drawbacks, such as a high energy cost,

can be accomplished by appropriately designed guides. Algal

flocculant toxicity, or non-feasibility of scaling-up. The

cultures can be defined (one or more selected strains), or are

harvesting of algal cells by flocculation is more convenient than

made up of an undefined mixture of strains (Borowitzka, 1988;

centrifugation or gravity filtration, because it allows large

Chaumont, 1993; Boichenko and Hoffmann, 1994).

quantities of culture to be treated. A variety of chemicals have

Indoor culture / Closed culture

been tested as flocculants and the most effective was found to be

Vessels such as tubes, flasks, carboys, bags, etc. or

aluminum sulfate followed by certain cationic polyelectrolyte

ponds covered with green house or usually a photobioreactor

(Conover, 1975). The flocculating reactions of an algal biomass

which allows control over illumination, temperature, nutrient

are particularly sensitive to the pH, properties of the cellular

level, contamination with predators and other competing algae

surface, concentrations of the flocculants and divalent cations,

can be used. Researchers also took the path of creating

ionic strength of the culture solution and other factors (Craggs

heterotrophic strains of algae from obligate photoautotrophs due

et al., 1996; Csordas and Wang, 2004). High-density algal

to inadequate illuminance. Heterotrophic cultivation of micro

cultures can be concentrated by either chemical flocculation or

algae for lipids production does not involve CO2 mitigation and

centrifugation.

Mamta Awasthi and Rajiv Kumar Singh, 2011

Froth flotation is a method of separating algae from

the medium by adjusting pH and bubbling air through a column
to create a froth of algae that accumulates above liquid level.

treated analogous to vegetable oil. Energy production pathway

can be expressed diagrammatically as shown in figure 1.
Microalgae as biological sources of lipids and hydrocarbons

Ultrasound based methods of algae harvesting are currently

under development, and other, additional methods are currently

Algae are far more oil-rich and offer a higher yield of

being developed. Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) separates algae

oil per unit of land in a year compared to terrestrial crops (Table

from its culture using features of both froth flotation and

2). Lipids are one of the main components of micro algae (2-

flocculation. It uses alum to flocculate an algae/air mixture, with

60% of total cell dry matter) depending on the species and

fine bubbles supplied by an air compressor. Alum is a common

growth conditions (Dote et al., 1994). Microalgae contain lipids

name for several trivalent sulfates of metal such as aluminum,

and fatty acids as membrane components, storage products,

chromium, or iron and a univalent metal such as potassium or

metabolites and sources of energy. Microalgal strains with high

sodium, for example AlK(SO4)2.

oil or lipid content are of great interest in the search for a

Algal drying

sustainable feedstock for biodiesel. A few micro algal species,

Dewatering/drying process reduces the water content

of the algae prior to oil extraction process. The algae paste
obtained from filtration/centrifugation contains as much as ca.
90% water content. Drying algae to ca. 50% water content is
necessary to produce a solid material that can be easily handled.
Solar drying, a popular and inexpensive method, is used
commercially in grains and timber drying. However, it requires
a considerable area of land. A more efficient method would
make use of the low grade waste heat from the power plant to
dry the algae contained in a vessel. The biomass harvested from
the attached culture system is paste-like pulpy slurry having a
water content to that of the cell pellet centrifuged from the

including some Chlorella species (FAO, 1997; Fukuda et al.,

2001) Dunaliella species (Gaffron and Rubin, 1942; Gerpen,
2005) Nannochloris sp. (Gordillo et al., 1998; Ghirardi et al.,
2000), Parietochloris incisa (Haesman et al., 2000) and
Botryococcus braunii (Harris, 1989; Johnson and Wen, 2010),
have been reported to have the capacity of accumulating large
quantities of lipids in cells under favorable conditions. Lipid
content also varies with season as tested in Chlorella vulgaris,
Euglena gracilis and Chlamydomonas sp. (figure 2 Unpublished
data).
Table 2. Oil output of different biofuel feed stocks Source:
Khan et al. (2009)

suspension culture system. This implies a great advantage of the

Crop

Oil yield (gal/acre-yr)

attached algal culture system in terms of ease of biomass

Corn

18

harvesting (Das and Veziroglu, 2001).

Cotton

35

Soybean

48

Canola

127

Jatropha

202

Oil palm

635

Fig. 1. Energy production pathway

Microalgae (15%

1,200

oil)
Microalgae (50%

10,000

oil)
Energy production from algae

Lipids can be used as a liquid fuel in adapted engines

Algal lipids (so-called pseudo vegetable oil or PVO)

as Straight Vegetable Oil (SVO). In comparison with SVO, algal

are much more heterogeneous than the seed-oil lipid. Therefore

oil is unsaturated to a larger degree making it less appropriate

makes it difficult to characterize algae-derived fuel products and

for direct combustion in sensitive engines (Table 3), however,

Mamta Awasthi and Rajiv Kumar Singh, 2011

some members of these algal group like Chlorella is known for

Fig. 2. Changes in lipid content in different algae

containing shorter-chain fatty acids (16 to 18 carbon length)

which are ideally suited for biodiesel production (Kadam, 2002;
20

species that produces up to 80% triglycerides of its total lipids,

18

and most of its fatty acids are saturated fatty acid in the range of
16-20 carbons (Gordillo et al., 1998), ideal for biodiesel
production. However the triglycerides produced by P.incisa is
rich of polyunsaturated fatty acid (Haesman et al., 2000),

Lipid Content (% of DW)

Khan et al., 2009). Neochloris oleoabundans is a freshwater

Chlorella vulgaris
Chlamydomonas sp
Euglena gracilis

16

14

12

10

making them less desirable for biodiesel production.

Table 3. Fatty acid composition of microalgal oil [Source: Meng

8
April

May

Fatty acid

July

August

September

The total amount and relative proportion of fatty acids

Chain

Oil

length:no.

composition

of double

(w/total lipid)

can be affected by nutritional and environmental factors e.g.

nitrogen limitation as in case of Neochloris oleoabundans
(Maeda et al., 1995). The effect of nitrogen on the lipid fraction

bonds
Palmitic acid

16:0

121

Palmitoleic acid

16:1

557

Stearic acid

18:0

12

Oleic acid

18:1

5860

Linoleic acid

18:2

420

Linolenic acid

18:3

1430

and on cell growth of the strain Nannochloris cultured under

saline conditions is summarized in Table 4. At the lower
temperature ranges, an increase in fatty acid unsaturation has
been observed. Light enhances the formation of polyunsaturated
C16 and C18 fatty acids as well as mono- and di-galactosyldiglycerides, sphingolipids and phosphoglycerides in Euglena
gracilis and Chlorella vulgaris (Melis et al., 2000).
Figure 3. Energy conversion processes from microalgae

Factors affecting oil production in algae

Taxonomic
environmental

June

Time Period

et al. (2009)]

factors

groupings,
(e.g.,

stage

seasonal

of

growth,

changes

such

and
as

temperature and light intensity, and media composition) affect

the quantity and types of lipids as well as fatty acids
compositions (Klass, 1998; Lee et al., 1998; Knuckey et al.,
2006) as shown in figure 2. The effects of growth conditions,
growth stage of algal cultures and the taxonomic position of
algae, on both lipid content and lipid type, are discussed
(Piorreck and Pohl, 1984; Li et al., 2008). Lipid accumulation in
algae typically occurs during periods of environmental stress,

Extraction of algal oil

including growth under nutrient-deficient conditions. The

While more efficient processes are emerging as shown in figure

average lipid content of algal cells varies between 1% and 70 %

3, a simple process is to use a press to extract a large percentage

but can reach 90% of dry weight under certain conditions

(70-75%) of the oils out of algae. The remaining pulp can be

(Livansky, 2005; Liu et al., 2008). Under unfavorable conditions

mixed with cyclo-hexane to extract the remaining oil content.

of growth, Botryococcus enters a stage in which its

Chemical methods: Algal oil can also be extracted using

unsaponifiable lipid content increases to a level of 90%.

chemicals. Benzene and ether have been used, oil can also be

Mamta Awasthi and Rajiv Kumar Singh, 2011

separated by hexane extraction, which is widely used in the food

Ultrasonic-assisted extraction - Ultrasonic extraction can greatly

industry and is relatively inexpensive.

accelerate extraction processes. Using an ultrasonic reactor,

Three chemical methods are hexane solvent method, soxhlet

ultrasonic waves are used to create bubbles in a solvent material,

extraction and supercritical fluid extraction method.

when these bubbles collapse near the cell walls, it creates shock

Hexane solvent method: Hexane solvent extraction can be used

waves and liquid jets that cause those cells walls to break and

in isolation or it can be used along with the oil press/expeller

release their contents into the solvent. The need to subject

method. After the oil has been extracted using an expeller, the

biomass to filtration and chemical extraction of oil from it can

remaining pulp can be mixed with cyclo-hexane to extract the

be avoided using the method which consists of treating algal

remaining oil content. The oil dissolves in the cyclohexane, and

suspension in an alternating electromagnetic field with varying

the pulp is filtered out from the solution. The oil and

the pH value by adding CO2 resulting in the cell wall destruction

cyclohexane are separated by distillation. These two stages (cold

of algae thereby causing the floating up of oil. The method

press and hexane solvent) together may derive more than 95% of

developed on the basis of acid catalysis allows the processes of

the total oil present in the algae.

extracting lipids from microalgae and obtaining biodiesel fuel to

Table 4. Effect of nitrogen concentration (as KNO3) on lipid

be combined in a single stage (Meng et al., 2009). The culture

can be kept alive during the extraction of lipids from it by using

production [Source: FAO (1997)]

mesoporous nanoparticles that extract oils from live cells of

KNO3 con.

Cell growth

Internal lipid

(mM)

(g/L)

content (g/L)

0.9

0.39

42.4

9.9

2.5

32.9

9.9 + feeding

2.6

33.6

algae.
Biodiesel from algal oil
Raw microalgal oil is high in viscosity, thus requiring
conversion to lower molecular weight constituents in the form of
fatty acid alkyl esters. Transesterfication is the process of
converting raw microalgal lipid (triacyleglycerols / free fatty

Soxhlet extraction: Soxhlet extraction is an extraction method

that uses chemical solvents. Oils from the algae are extracted
through repeated washing, or percolation, with an organic
solvent such as hexane or petroleum ether, under reflux in
special glassware.
Supercritical fluid extraction: In supercritical fluid / CO2
extraction, CO2 is liquefied under pressure and heated to the
point that it has the properties of both a liquid and a gas, this
liquified fluid then acts as the solvent in extracting the oil.
Other lesser-known extraction methods
Enzymatic extraction - Enzymatic extraction uses enzymes to
degrade the cell walls with water acting as the solvent, this
makes fractionation of the oil much easier. However, the cost of

acids) to give renewable, non-toxic and biodegradable biodiesel.

Transesterification is a reaction of the parent oil with a short
chain alcohol, usually methanol, in the presence of a catalyst.
Products of the reaction are fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and
glycerol. The use of acid catalyst has found to be useful but the
reaction rates for converting triglycerides to methyl esters are
too slow (Meng et al., 2009). Acid catalysis is suitable for
transesterification of oils containing high levels of free fatty
acids

(Metzger

and

Largeau,

2005).

Alkali-catalyzed

transesterification is about 4000 times faster than the acid

catalyzed reaction and hence most frequently used commercially
(Miao and Wu, 2006).
Biochemical conversion

this extraction process is estimated to be much greater than

hexane extraction.
Osmotic shock - Osmotic Shock is a sudden reduction in
osmotic pressure, causing pressure in a solution to rupture.
Osmotic shock is sometimes used to release cellular
components, such as oil.

Biomethane production: The production of biogas from biomass

is gaining increasing importance worldwide. An anaerobic
digester contains synergistic microbial populations to convert a
variety of organic substrates to methane and carbon dioxide.
Thus algal organic compounds (lipid, protein, or carbohydrate)

Mamta Awasthi and Rajiv Kumar Singh, 2011

can be converted to methane. Methane is widely used as both a

an enzyme and yeast, Saccharomycess cerevisiae is added when

fuel and a chemical feedstock however under normal conditions

the biomass starts degrading to initiate fermentation. The

it is a gas and therefore, bulky to handle, its use as a

product of fermentation i.e ethanol is drained from the tank and

transportation fuel is limited. Chynoweth et al. (1993) compared

pumped to a holding tank to be fed to a distillation unit. Ethanol

the technical potential of different biomass sources (marine

production by dark fermentation in the marine green alga

algae, wood and grass species, municipal solid waste) to be used

Chlorococcum littorale was also investigated (Ueno et al.,

in energy farms, and concluded that marine biomass offered the

1998). Under dark anaerobic conditions, 27% of the cellular

highest potential for biomethanation. The growth rates of marine

starch was consumed within 24 h at 250C, the cellular starch

macroalgae exceed those of land plants; however, growth is

decomposition being accelerated at higher temperature. Ethanol,

often limited by the availability of nutrients. Conversion of

acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide were obtained as

methane to methanol through photochemical conversion is

fermentation products. Some prominent strains of algae that

possible.

have a high carbohydrate content and hence, promising

Table 5. Carbohydrate and Lipid content of some commonly

candidates for ethanol production are Sargassum, Gracilaria,

Prymnesium parvum, Euglena gracilis (Piorreck and Pohl,

found algae

1984).
Carbo

Thermochemical conversion

hydrat

Thermal decomposition of algal biomass can yield different

e (%
Organism

quadricauda
Pleurotonium
sp.
Anabaena sp.

types of energy fuels depending on temperature used for

of

conversion. Pyrolysis is a phenomenon related to decomposition

DW)

of biomass under the condition of oxygen deficiency and high

Min.
S.

Lipid (% of DW)

20.2

25.1

22.9

Mean

Ma

Mi

Mean

temperature.

SD

x.

n.

SD

ax.

condensable organic liquids, acetic acid, acetone, methanol and

27.76

34.

4.2

6.85

9.6

non-condensable gaseous products by a simple, effective,

5.79

2.12

wasteless and pollution free process. This technology may be

28.02

30.

4.9

8.29

11.

more suitable for microalgae because of the lower temperature

2.09

2.82

23

required for pyrolysis and the higher-quality of oils obtained

25.56

30.

8.6

11.33

14.

(Olson and Ingram, 1975). Compared to lignocellulose,

3.03

2.46

82

microalgae contain high content of cellular lipids, resolvable

Pyrolysis

of

biomass

produces

charcoal,

polysaccharides and proteins, which are easier to be pyrolyzed

Ethanol production: Algae are the optimal source for bioethanol

to bio-oils and bio-gases.

due to high content of carbohydrates/polysaccharides (Table 5)

Gasification is a term that describes a chemical process by

and thin cellulose walls. Generally two methods are employed

which carbonaceous materials (hydrocarbon) are converted to a

for the production of bioethanol from microalgal biomass,

synthesis gas (syngas) by means of partial oxidation with air,

namely fermentation (biochemical process) and gasification

oxygen and/or steam at high temperatures, typically in the range

(thermo-chemical process) (Minowa and Sawayama, 1999).

800-9000C. Syngas can be burned directly or used as fuel for

Fermentation is used commercially on a large scale in various

diesel or gas turbine engines. A novel energy production system

countries to produce ethanol from sugar crops and starch crops.

using microalgae with nitrogen cycling combined with low

The biomass is grounded, and the starch is converted by

temperature catalytic gasification of the microalgae has been

enzymes to sugar. The sugar is converted to ethanol by yeast.

proposed (Sebnem Aslan, 2006). Other conversions are also

The purification process of ethanol by distillation is an energy

possible, most notably a thermochernical conversion to produce

intensive step (Minowa et al., 1995). The starch of microalgae is

higher alcohols, which have octane-enhancing properties of

released from the cells with the aid of mechanical equipment or

Mamta Awasthi and Rajiv Kumar Singh, 2011

ethanol and methanol but pose fewer water solubility and phase

promising and a potentially emission-free fuel stream for the

separation problems.

future, which could also be coupled to atmospheric CO2-

Thermochemical liquefaction

sequestration. Bio-hydrogen production from micro algae has

High content of water often exists in micro algae after

been known for more than 65 years and was first observed in the

harvesting which requires a great deal of energy to remove

green alga Scenedesmus obliquus and in many other

moisture from algal cells during pretreatment. Liquefaction has

photosynthetic species (Boichenko and Hoffmann, 1994). Most

been developed to produce bio-fuel directly without the need of

studies on algal hydrogen production have been performed using

drying micro algae (Singh and Gu, 2010). Moreover, wet

the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a model organism

microalgae can provide hydrogen for hydrogenolysis. It was

for photosynthesis research via an aerobic-anaerobic cycle

reported that Dunaliella tortiolecta cells with 78.4% water

developed by Melis and coworkers (2000). Earlier, algae biofuel

content converts to oils directly. The yield of oils reached 37%

projects were focused at obtaining biodiesel fuel, but at present,

of the total organic matters (Singh and Gu, 2010). Dote et al.

owing to innovative technologies, producers are becoming

(1994) reported that B. braunii produced liquid oils at 57-64%

interested in the possibility of obtaining other kinds of fuel from

of dry weight under the conditions of a N2 pressure of 10 MPa at

algae that are close in composition to fuel products obtained by

300C in warm water and catalyzed by NaCO3. Liquefaction of

petroleum distillation e.g. aviation fuel, which is obtained by

algae uses moderate temperature and pressure and, most

subjecting algae oil to hydroprocessing.

interesting, wet material can be used in the process.

Integrated biodiesel production from microalgae (IBPCS)

Thermochemical liquefaction requires temperature around 350

IBPCS enables the overall system to be operated at a

and 395C in order to have the optimal amount of extracted oil.

profit and the design requires the combination and optimization

Nevertheless, its composition depends on the working

of several factors such as biomass culture, growth management,

temperature. Among the technologies used, the thermochemical

transport to conversion plants, drying, product separation,

liquefaction seems to be more efficient than the extraction.

recycling, waste (liquid and solid) management, transport of

Hydrogenation

saleable products and marketing. These factors can be simplified

Hydrogenation is a reductive chemical reaction that

and reduced to three main groups; culturing of microalgae,

results addition of hydrogen (H2), usually to saturate organic

harvesting and processing of biomass. In the idealized case, the

compounds. The process consists of the addition of hydrogen

conversion plants are located in or near the biomass growth

atoms to the double bonds of a molecule through the use of a

areas to minimize the cost of transporting biomass to the plants,

catalyst (Gaffron and Rubin, 1942). Algal hydrogenation is

of which all the non-fuel effluents are recycled to the growth

performed by using an autoclave under high temperature and

areas (Pushparaj et al., 1993). Integration approaches for

pressure conditions in the presence of a catalyst and a solvent.

sustainable micro algal biodiesel production use hydrothermal

Algal hydrogenation is a three-phase operation in which contact

technology for direct liquefaction of algal biomass.

must be established between the gaseous phase (hydrogen and

Bio-refinery approach and other biofuels

hydrocarbon phase), liquid phase (mixture of solvent and liquid

The economics of biodiesel production can be significantly

product), and solid particle phase (algal and catalyst) in order to

improved by using the bio-refinery based production strategy

achieve algal conversion and to promote the transfer of

where all the components of the biomass raw material are used

momentum, heat and mass.

to produce useful products (Antoni et al., 2007). Furthermore, it

Algal biohydrogen production

is recommended that a bio-refinery approach is the best solution

Over the years microalgae for photo-biological

to combine and integrate various processes to maximize

hydrogen production from water are being developed into a

economic and environmental benefits, while minimizing waste

and pollution (Pushparaj et al., 1993).

Mamta Awasthi and Rajiv Kumar Singh, 2011

Briens C, Piskorz J, Berruti F (2008). Biomass valorization for

Acknowledgement
The first and second authors thank their respective organization

fuel and chemicals production-a review. Int J Chem

viz. Centre of Energy and Environment, National Institute of

React Eng 6: 1-49.

Technology,

Hamirpur,

Himachal

Pradesh,

India

and

Brown MR, Jeffrey SW, Volkman JK, Dunstan GA (1997).

Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, India

Nutritional properties of microalgae for Mariculture.

for support.

Aquaculture 151: 315-331.

Canakci M, Van Gerpen J (2001). Biodiesel production from

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