Spanish Civil War

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Spanish Civil War
Part of the Interwar period
????????? 11 ???????????? ? ??? ??? ????????. 1937-edit.jpg
Republican International Brigadiers at the Battle of Belchite ride on a T-26 tan
k
Date
17 July 1936
1 April 1939
(2 years, 8 months, 2 weeks and 1 day)
Location
Peninsular Spain, Extrapeninsular Spain, Spanish Morocco, Medite
rranean, Spanish Guinea, North Sea
Result
Decisive Nationalist victory
End of the Second Spanish Republic
Beginning of Franco's rule
Belligerents
Second Spanish Republic Republicans
Popular Front
CNT/FAI
UGT
ERC / EC
Basque Country (autonomous community) EG (1936 37)
PG
Supported by
Soviet Union
Mexico
Foreign volunteers
Spain Nationalists
Falange
Carlists (1936 37)
CEDA (1936 37)
Alfonsists (1936 37)
Supported by
Kingdom of Italy Italy
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany
Portugal
Foreign volunteers
Commanders and leaders
Republican leaders
Second Spanish Republic Manuel Azaa
Second Spanish Republic Julin Besteiro
Second Spanish Republic Francisco Largo Caballero
Second Spanish Republic Juan Negrn
Second Spanish Republic Indalecio Prieto
Second Spanish Republic Vicente Rojo Lluch
Second Spanish Republic Jos Miaja
Second Spanish Republic Juan Modesto
Second Spanish Republic Juan Hernndez Saravia
Second Spanish Republic Carlos Romero Gimnez
Second Spanish Republic Buenaventura Durruti
Llus Companys
Basque Country (autonomous community) Jos Antonio Aguirre
Alfonso Castelao
Nationalist leaders
Spain Jos Sanjurjo
Spain Emilio Mola
Spain Francisco Franco
Spain Juan Yage
Spain Miguel Cabanellas
Spain Manuel Goded Llopis

Spain Manuel Hedilla

Spain Manuel Fal Cond
Spain Gonzalo Queipo de Llano
Spain Mohamed Meziane
Strength
450,000 infantry
350 aircraft
200 batteries
(1938)[1]
600,000 infantry
600 aircraft
290 batteries
(1938)[2]
Casualties and losses
estimated 500,000 killed[3][nb 1]
450,000 fled[4]
[show] v t e
Spanish Civil War
Part of a series on the
History of Spain
Coat of arms of Spain
Early history[show]
Medieval[show]
Early modern[show]
Modern[show]
Contemporary[show]
By topic[show]
Timeline
Portal icon Spain portal
v t e
The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: Guerra civil espaola),[nb 2] widely known in Spai
n simply as the Civil War or The War, was a civil war fought from 1936 to 1939 b
etween the Republicans, who were loyal to the democratic Spanish Republic, and t
he Nationalists, a rebel group led by General Francisco Franco. The Nationalists
won, and Franco ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from 1939 until his death in
1975.
The war began after a pronunciamiento (declaration of opposition) by a group of
generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces, originally under the leadership
of Jos Sanjurjo, against the elected, leftist government of the Second Spanish R
epublic, at the time under the leadership of President Manuel Azaa. The rebel cou
p was supported by a number of conservative groups, including the Spanish Confed
eration of the Autonomous Right,[nb 3] monarchists such as the religious conserv
ative (Catholic) Carlists, and the Fascist Falange.[nb 4][5] Sanjurjo was killed
in an aircraft accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal, wher
eupon Franco emerged as the leader of the Nationalists.
The coup was supported by military units in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Valladoli
d, Cdiz, Crdoba, and Seville. However, rebelling units in important cities such as M
adrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Mlaga were unable to capture their objectiv
es, and those cities remained under the control of the government. Spain was thu
s left militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican g
overnment fought for control of the country. The Nationalist forces received mun
itions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Soviet Union
and Mexico offered lesser support to the "Loyalist" or "Republican" side. Other
countries, such as Britain and France, operated an official policy of non-interv
ention, although France did send in some munitions.
The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west, capturin
g most of Spain's northern coastline in 1937. They also besieged Madrid and the
area to its south and west for much of the war. Capturing large parts of Catalon

ia in 1938 and 1939, the war ended with the victory of the Nationalists and the
exile of thousands of leftist Spaniards, many of whom fled to refugee camps in s
outhern France. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by
the victorious Nationalists. With the establishment of a dictatorship led by Gen
eral Francisco Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were f
used into the structure of the Franco regime.[5]
The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired, and f
or the atrocities committed by both sides.[neutrality is disputed] Organized pur
ges occurred in territory captured by Franco's forces to consolidate the future
regime.[6] A smaller but significant number of killings took place in areas cont
rolled by the Republicans, normally associated with a breakdown in law and order
.[7] The extent to which Republican authorities connived in Republican territory
killings varied.[8][9]
Contents [hide]
1 Background
2 Military coup
2.1 Preparations
2.2 Beginning of the coup
2.3 Outcome
3 Combatants
3.1 Republicans
3.2 Nationalists
3.3 Other factions
4 Foreign involvement
4.1 Support for the Nationalists
4.1.1 Germany
4.1.2 Italy
4.1.3 Portugal
4.1.4 Others
4.2 Support for the Republicans
4.2.1 International Brigades
4.2.2 Soviet Union
4.2.3 Mexico
4.2.4 France
5 Course of the war
5.1 1936
5.2 1937
5.3 1938
5.4 1939
6 Evacuation of children
7 Atrocities
7.1 Nationalists
7.2 Republicans
8 Social revolution
9 Art and propaganda
10 Timeline
11 People
12 Political parties and organizations
13 See also
14 References
14.1 Notes
14.2 Citations
14.3 Bibliography and books by noted authors
15 Further reading
16 External links
16.1 Images and films
16.2 Academics and governments
16.3 Other

16.4 Archives
Background[edit]
Main article: Background of the Spanish Civil War
Niceto Alcal-Zamora in 1931
At the end of the 19th century, the owners of large estates, called latifundia,
held most of the power in a land-based oligarchy. The landowners' power was unsu
ccessfully challenged by the industrial and merchant sectors.[10] In 1868, popul
ar uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon.
In 1873, Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated
due to increasing political pressure, and the short-lived First Spanish Republic
was proclaimed.[11][12] After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874,
[13] Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy.[14][15] Alej
andro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, he
lped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularl
y acute.[16] Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated i
n the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909.[17]
Spain was neutral in the First World War. Afterwards the working class, the indu
strial class, and the military united in hopes of removing the corrupt central g
overnment, but were unsuccessful.[18] Fears of communism grew.[19] A military co
up brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power in 1923, and he ran Spain as a milita
ry dictatorship.[20] Support for his regime gradually faded, and he resigned in
January 1930. He was replaced by General Dmaso Berenguer and then Admiral Aznar,
who both continued to rule by decree. There was little support for the monarchy
in the major cities, and King Alfonso XIII gave in to popular pressure for the e
stablishment of a republic and called municipal elections for 12 April 1931. The
socialist and liberal republicans won almost all the provincial capitals and wi
th the resignation of Aznar's government, King Alfonso XIII fled the country.[21
] The Second Spanish Republic was formed and would remain in power until the cul
mination of the Spanish Civil War.[22]
The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcal-Zamora became the provisional
government, with Alcal-Zamora as the President and Head of State.[23] The republi
c had broad support from all segments of society.[24] In May, an incident where
a taxi driver was attacked outside a monarchist club sparked anti-clerical viole
nce throughout Madrid and south-west Spain; the government's slow response disil
lusioned the right and reinforced their view that the Republic was determined to
persecute the church. In June and July the Confederacin Nacional del Trabajo cal
led several strikes, which led to a violent incident between CNT members and the
Civil Guard and a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guard and the army against the
CNT in Seville; this led many workers to believe the Second Spanish Republic was
just as oppressive as the monarchy and the CNT announced their intention of ove
rthrowing it via revolution.[25] Elections in June 1931 returned a large majorit
y of Republicans and Socialists.[26] With the onset of the Great Depression, the
government attempted to assist rural Spain by instituting an eight-hour day and
giving land tenure to farm workers.[27][28]
Foreshadowing the conflict: Salvador Dal's Soft Construction with Boiled Beans (P
remonition of Civil War) (1936)
Fascism remained a reactive threat, helped by controversial reforms to the milit
ary.[29] In December, a new reformist, liberal, and democratic constitution was
declared. It included strong provisions enforcing a broad secularization of the
Catholic country, which many moderate committed Catholics opposed.[30] In Octobe
r 1931, Republican Manuel Azaa became prime minister of a minority government.[31
][32] In 1933, the right won the general elections, largely due to the anarchist
s' abstention from the vote, increased right wing resentment of the incumbent go
vernment caused by an illegal decree confiscating the land of the aristocracy, t
he Casas Viejas incident, the socialists' (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party) dis

satisfaction with the caution of Republicans and perceived brutality of Manuel A

zaa and the formation of a right-wing alliance, Spanish Confederation of Autonomo
us Right-wing Groups; women's newfound right to vote also contributed to this (m
ost women voted for centre-right parties).[citation needed]
Events in the period following November 1933, called the "black two years," seem
ed to make a civil war more likely.[33] Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republi
can Party (RRP) formed a government and rolled back changes made under the previ
ous administration[34] and also granted amnesty to the collaborators of the unsu
ccessful uprising by General Jos Sanjurjo in August 1932.[35][36] Some monarchist
s joined with the Fascist Falange Espaola to help achieve their aims.[37] Open vi
olence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities, and militancy continued to inc
rease,[38] reflecting a movement towards radical upheaval, rather than peaceful
democratic means as solutions.[39]
In the last months of 1934, two government collapses brought members of the righ
t-wing Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA) into the government.[40][41]
Farm workers' wages were cut in half, and the military was purged of Republican
members.[41] A Popular Front alliance was organized,[41] which narrowly won the
1936 elections.[42] Azaa led a weak minority government, but soon replaced Zamor
a as president in April.[43] Prime Minister Santiago Casares Quiroga ignored war
nings of a military conspiracy involving several generals, who decided that the
government had to be replaced to prevent the dissolution of Spain.[44]
Military coup[edit]
Main article: Spanish coup of July 1936
Preparations[edit]
In an attempt to remove suspect generals from their posts, the Republican govern
ment sacked Franco as chief of staff and transferred him to command of the Canar
y Islands.[45] Manuel Goded Llopis was removed as Inspector General and was made
general of the Balearic islands. Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of
Africa to military commander of Pamplona in Navarre.[45] This, however, allowed
Mola to direct the mainland uprising. General Jos Sanjurjo became the figurehead
of the operation and helped reach an agreement with the Carlists.[45] Mola was
chief planner and second in command.[46] Jos Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in p
rison in mid-March in order to restrict the Falange.[45] However, government act
ions were not as thorough as they might have been, and warnings by the Director
of Security and other figures were not acted upon.[47]
On 12 June, Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yage, who managed to
falsely convince Casares of his loyalty to the republic.[48] Mola began serious
planning in the spring.[46] Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a
former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Socia
list uprising of 1934.[46] He was well respected in the Army of Africa, the Span
ish Republican Army's toughest military force.[49] He wrote a cryptic letter to
Casares on 23 June, suggesting that the military was disloyal, but could be rest
rained if he were put in charge. Casares did nothing, failing to arrest or buy o
ff Franco.[49] On 5 July, an aircraft was chartered to take Franco from the Cana
ry Islands to Morocco.[50] It arrived on 14 July.[50]
On 12 July 1936, in Madrid, members of the Falange murdered Lieutenant Jos Castil
lo a Socialist party member of the Assault Guards police force.[50] The next day, me
mbers of the Assault Guards arrested Jos Calvo Sotelo, a leading Spanish monarchi
st and a prominent parliamentary conservative.[51] Calvo Sotelo was shot by the
Guards without trial.[51] The killing of Sotelo, with involvement of the police,
aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government's opponents on the
right.[52][nb 5] Massive reprisals followed.[51] Although the conservative Nati
onalist generals were already in the advanced stages of a planned uprising, the
event provided a catalyst and convenient public justification for their coup.[51
] The Socialists and Communists (led by Prieto) demanded that arms be distribute

d to the people before the military took over. The prime minister was hesitant.[
51]
Beginning of the coup[edit]
General map of the Spanish Civil War (1936 1939).
Initial Nationalist zone Jul 1936
Nationalist advance to Sep 1936
Nationalist advance to Oct 1937
Nationalist advance to Nov 1938
Nationalist advance to Feb 1939
Last area under Republican control
Solid blue.png Main Nationalist centres
Red-square.gif Main Republican centres
Panzer aus Zusatzzeichen 1049-12.svg Land battles
Vattenfall.svg Naval battles
Icon vojn new.png Bombed cities
City locator 4.svg Concentration camps
Gatunek trujacy.svg Massacres
Red dot.svg Refugee camps
The uprising's timing was fixed at 17 July, at 17:01, agreed to by the leader of
the Carlists, Manuel Fal Cond.[53] However, the timing was changed the men in Span
ish Morocco were to rise up at 05:00, and those in Spain itself starting exactly
a day later, so that control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved and forces se
nt to Iberia from Morocco to coincide with the risings there.[54] The rising was
intended to be a swift coup d'tat, but the government retained control of most o
f the country.[55]
Control over Spanish Morocco was all but certain.[56] The plan was discovered in
Morocco on 17 July, which prompted the conspirators to enact it immediately. Li
ttle resistance was encountered. In total, the rebels shot 189 people.[57] Goded
and Franco immediately took control of the islands to which they were assigned.
[46] On 18 July, Casares Quiroga refused an offer of help from the Confederacin N
acional del Trabajo (CNT) and Unin General de Trabajadores (UGT), leading the gro
ups to proclaim a general strike in effect, mobilizing. They opened weapons caches
, some buried since the 1934 risings.[56] The paramilitary security forces often
waited to see the outcome of militia action before either joining or suppressin
g the rebellion. Quick action by either the rebels or anarchist militias was oft
en enough to decide the fate of a town.[58] General Queipo de Llano managed to s
ecure Seville for the rebels, arresting a number of other officers.[59]
Outcome[edit]
The rebels failed to take any major cities, with the critical exception of Sevil
le, which provided a landing point for Franco's African troops, and the primaril
y conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and Len, which fell quickly.[55]
Cdiz was taken for the rebels, with the help of the first troops from the Army o
f Africa.[60]
The government retained control of Mlaga, Jan, and Almera. In Madrid, the rebels we
re hemmed into the Montaa barracks, which fell with considerable bloodshed. Repub
lican leader Casares Quiroga was replaced by Jos Giral, who ordered the distribut
ion of weapons among the civilian population.[61] This facilitated the defeat of
the army insurrection in the main industrial centres, including Madrid, Barcelo
na, and Valencia, but it allowed the anarchists to take control of Barcelona, al
ong with large swathes of Aragn and Catalonia.[62] General Goded surrendered in B
arcelona and was later condemned to death.[63] The Republican government ended u
p controlling almost all of the east coast and central area around Madrid, as we
ll as Asturias, Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north.[citation
needed]

The rebels termed themselves Nacionales, normally translated as Nationalists, th

ough the former implies "true Spaniards" rather than a pure nationalistic cause.
[64] The result of the coup was a nationalist area of control containing 11 mill
ion of Spain's population of 25 million.[65] The Nationalists had secured the su
pport of around half of Spain's territorial army, some 60,000 men, joined by the
Army of Africa, made up of 35,000 men,[66] and a little under half of Spain's m
ilitaristic police forces, the Assault Guards, the Civil Guards, and the Carabin
eers.[67] Republicans controlled under half of the rifles and about a third of b
oth machine guns and artillery pieces.[66][68]
The Spanish Republican Army had just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design, a
nd the Republicans took control of 10.[69] Naval capacity was uneven, with the R
epublicans retaining a numerical advantage, but with the Navy's top commanders a
nd two of the most modern ships, heavy cruisers Canarias captured at the Ferrol s
hipyard and Baleares, in Nationalist hands.[70] The Spanish Republican Navy suffe
red from the same problems as the army many officers had defected or had been kill
ed after trying to do so.[69] Two-thirds of air capability was retained by the g
overnment however, the whole of the Republican Air Force was very outdated.[71]
Combatants[edit]
The war was cast by Republican sympathizers as a struggle between tyranny and fr
eedom, and by Nationalist supporters as between communist and anarchist "red hor
des" and "Christian civilization".[72] Nationalists also claimed they were bring
ing security and direction to an ungoverned and lawless country.[72]
Spanish politics, especially on the left, were quite fragmented, since socialist
s and communists supported the republic. During the republic, anarchists had had
mixed opinions, but major groups opposed the Nationalists during the Civil War.
The Conservatives, in contrast, were united by their fervent opposition to the
Republican government and presented a more unified front.[73]
Republicans[edit]
Main article: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)
Flags of the Popular Front (left) and CNT/FAI (right)
Only two countries openly and fully supported the Republic: Mexico and the USSR.
From them, especially the USSR, the Republic received diplomatic support, volun
teers, and the ability to purchase weapons. Other countries remained neutral, sa
id neutrality being a great source of distress to the intelligentsia in the Unit
ed States and United Kingdom, and to a lesser extent in other European countries
and to Marxists worldwide. This distress led to the International Brigades, tho
usands of foreigners of all nationalities who went to Spain to aid the Republic
in the fight; they meant a great deal to morale but militarily were not very sig
nificant.
The Republic's supporters within Spain ranged from centrists who supported a mod
erately capitalist liberal democracy to revolutionary anarchists who opposed the
republic, but sided with it. Their base was primarily secular and urban, but al
so included landless peasants, and was particularly strong in industrial regions
like Asturias, the Basque country, and Catalonia.[74]
This faction was called variously leales ("loyalists") by supporters; Republican
s, the Popular Front, or the government by all parties; and/or los rojos ("the r
eds") by their opponents.[75] Republicans were supported by urban workers, agric
ultural labourers, and parts of the middle class.[76]
Republican volunteers at Teruel, 1936.
The conservative, strongly Catholic Basque country, along with Galicia and the m

ore left-leaning Catalonia, sought autonomy, or independence, from the central g

overnment of Madrid. The Republican government allowed for the possibility of se
lf-government for the two regions,[77] whose forces were gathered under the Peop
le's Republican Army (Ejrcito Popular Republicano, or EPR), which was reorganized
into mixed brigades after October 1936.[78]
A few well-known people fought on the Republican side, such as English novelist
George Orwell (who wrote Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experienc
es in the war)[79] and Canadian thoracic surgeon Norman Bethune, who developed a
mobile blood-transfusion service for frontline operations.[80]
Nationalists[edit]
Main article: National faction (Spanish Civil War)
Flags of the Falange (left) and Carlist Traditionalist Requets (right)
The Nationalists (nacionales) also called "insurgents", "rebels", or, by opponents
, "Franquists" or "fascists" feared national fragmentation and opposed the separat
ist movements. They were chiefly defined by their anti-communism, which galvaniz
ed diverse or opposed movements like falangists and monarchists. Their leaders h
ad a generally wealthier, more conservative, monarchist, landowning background.[
81]
The Nationalist side included the Carlists and Alfonsist monarchists, Spanish na
tionalists, the fascist Falange, and most conservatives and monarchist liberals.
Virtually all Nationalist groups had strong Catholic convictions and supported
the native Spanish clergy.[81] The Nationals included the majority of the Cathol
ic clergy and practitioners (outside of the Basque region), important elements o
f the army, most large landowners, and many businessmen.[72]
Republican troops at Guadalajara, 1937
One of the rightists' principal motives was to confront the anti-clericalism of
the Republican regime and to defend the Church,[81] which had been targeted by o
pponents, including Republicans, who blamed the institution for the country's il
ls. On the other hand, the Church was against the Republicans' liberal principle
s, which were fortified by the Spanish Constitution of 1931.[82] Prior to the wa
r, in the Asturias uprising of 1934, religious buildings were burnt and at least
100 clergy, religious civilians, and police were killed by revolutionaries.[83]
[84]
Franco had brought in the mercenaries of Spain's colonial Army of Africa and red
uced the miners to submission by heavy artillery attacks and bombing raids. The
Spanish Foreign Legion committed atrocities many women and children were killed, a
nd the army carried out summary execution of leftists. The repression in the aft
ermath was brutal. In Asturias, prisoners were tortured.[85] Franco believed tha
t he was justified in the brutal use of troops against Spanish civilians. Histor
ian Paul Preston said, "Unmoved by the fact that the central symbol of rightist
values was the reconquest of Spain from the Moors, Franco did not hesitate to sh
ip Moorish mercenaries to fight in Asturias, the only part of Spain where the cr
escent had never flown. He saw no contradiction about using the Moors, because h
e regarded left-wing workers with the same racialist contempt he possessed towar
ds the tribesmen of the Rif".[86]
Articles 24 and 26 of the 1931 constitution had banned the Jesuits. This proscri
ption deeply offended many within the conservative fold. The revolution in the R
epublican zone at the outset of the war, in which 7,000 clergy and thousands of
lay people were killed, deepened Catholic support for the Nationalists.[87][88]
The Moroccan regulares joined the rebellion and played a significant role in the

civil war. In a 2009 news story, Reuters reported, "About 136,000 Moroccan figh
ters fought for the Generalissimo's Army of Africa, the feared vanguard of a for
ce that, ironically, Franco portrayed as a Christian crusade against godless com
munists".[89]
Other factions[edit]
Catalan and Basque nationalists were not univocal. Left-wing Catalan nationalist
s sided with the Republicans, while Conservative Catalan nationalists were far l
ess vocal in supporting the government due to anti-clericalism and confiscations
occurring in areas within its control. Basque nationalists, heralded by the con
servative Basque Nationalist Party, were mildly supportive of the Republican gov
ernment, although some in Navarre sided with the uprising for the same reasons i
nfluencing conservative Catalans. Notwithstanding religious matters, Basque nati
onalists, who were for the most part Catholic, generally sided with the Republic
ans.[90]
Foreign involvement[edit]
Main article: Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War seized the fears and hopes of the world, including not jus
t diplomats and politicians, but intellectuals, religious leaders, and labor uni
ons, as well. Opinion divided three ways. The right and the Catholics supported
the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism. On the left, incl
uding labor unions, students and intellectuals, the war represented a necessary
battle to stop the spread of fascism. Antiwar and pacifist sentiment was strong
in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had the potential of e
scalating into a second world war.[91] In retrospect, however, the Spanish Civil
War was not a prelude to the Second World War, but rather an indicator of the g
rowing instability encompassing the whole of Europe.[92]
The Civil War involved large numbers of non-Spanish citizens who participated in
combat and advisory positions. Germany sent a Luftwaffe unit and modern warplan
es. Italy sent 100,000 men. Britain and France led a bloc of 27 nations that pro
mised an embargo on all arms to Spain. The United States unofficially went along
. Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union also signed on officially, but blatantly i
gnored the embargo. The attempted suppression of imported materials was largely
ineffective, however, and France especially was accused of allowing large shipme
nts to Republican troops.[93] The clandestine actions of the various European po
wers were, at the time, considered to be risking another "Great War", alarming a
ntiwar elements across the world.[94]
The League of Nations' reaction to the war was slightly biased against communism
,[95] and insufficient to contain the massive importation by fighting factions o
f arms and other war resources. Although a Non-Intervention Committee was formed
, its policies accomplished little, and its directives were ineffective.[96] The
official Spanish Government of Juan Negrn was gradually abandoned within the org
anization during this period.[97]
Support for the Nationalists[edit]
Germany[edit]
Main article: German involvement in the Spanish Civil War
Members of the Condor Legion, a unit composed of volunteers from the German Air
Force (Luftwaffe) and from the German Army (Heer).
German involvement began days after fighting broke out in July 1936. Adolf Hitle
r quickly sent in powerful air and armored units to assist the Nationalists. The
war provided combat experience with the latest technology for the German milita
ry. However, the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into a world war
for which Hitler was not ready. He therefore limited his aid, and instead encou
raged Benito Mussolini to send in large Italian units.[98]

Nazi actions included the formation of the multitasking Condor Legion, a unit co
mposed of volunteers from the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) and from the German A
rmy (Heer) from July 1936 to March 1939. German efforts to move the Army of Afri
ca to mainland Spain proved successful in the war's early stages.[99] German ope
rations slowly expanded to include strike targets, most notably
and controversia
lly the bombing of Guernica which, on 26 April 1937, killed 200 to 300 civilians
.[100]
German involvement was further manifested through undertakings such as Operation
Ursula, a U-boat undertaking, and contributions from the Kriegsmarine. The Legi
on spearheaded many Nationalist victories, particularly in aerial combat,[101] w
hile Spain further provided a proving ground for German tank tactics. The traini
ng German units provided to Nationalist forces would prove valuable. By the War'
s end, perhaps 56,000 Nationalist soldiers, encompassing infantry, artillery, ae
rial and naval forces, had been trained by German detachments.[99]
A total of approximately 16,000 German citizens fought in the war, including app
roximately 300 killed,[102] though no more than 10,000 participated at any one t
ime. German aid to the Nationalists amounted to approximately 43,000,000 ($215,00
0,000) in 1939 prices,[102][nb 6] 15.5 percent of which was used for salaries an
d expenses and 21.9 percent for direct delivery of supplies to Spain, while 62.6
percent was expended on the Condor Legion.[102] In total, Germany provided the
Nationalists with 600 planes and 200 tanks.[103]
Italy[edit]
After Francisco Franco's request and encouragement by Hitler, Benito Mussolini j
oined the war. While the conquest of Ethiopia made Italy confident in its power,
a Spanish ally would nonetheless help secure Italian control of the Mediterrane
an.[104] The Royal Italian Navy (Regia Marina) played a substantial role in the
Mediterranean blockade, and ultimately Italy supplied machine guns, artillery, a
ircraft, tankettes, the Legionary Air Force (Italian: Aviazione Legionaria), and
the Corps of Volunteer Troops (Italian: Corpo Truppe Volontarie, or CTV) to the
Nationalist cause.[105] The Italian CTV would, at its peak, supply the National
ists with 50,000 men.[105] Italian warships took part in breaking the Republican
navy's blockade of Nationalist-held Spanish Morocco and took part in naval bomb
ardment of Republican-held Mlaga, Valencia, and Barcelona.[106] In total, Italy p
rovided the Nationalists with 660 planes, 150 tanks, 800 artillery pieces, 10,00
0 machine guns, and 240,000 rifles.[107]
Portugal[edit]
The Estado Novo regime of Portuguese Prime Minister Antnio de Oliveira Salazar pl
ayed an important role in supplying Franco's forces with ammunition and logistic
al help.[108] Despite its discreet direct military involvement restrained to a so
mewhat "semi-official" endorsement, by its authoritarian regime, of a volunteer
force of up to 20,000,[109][110] so-called "Viriatos" for the whole duration of t
he conflict, Portugal was instrumental in providing the Nationalists with organi
zational skills and reassurance from the Iberian neighbour to Franco and his all
ies that no interference would hinder the supply traffic directed to the Nationa
list cause.[111]
Others[edit]
The Conservative government of Great Britain maintained a position of strong neu
trality and was supported by elites and the mainstream media, while the far left
mobilized aid to the Republic.[112] The government refused to allow arms shipme
nts and sent warships to try to stop shipments. It became a crime to volunteer t
o fight in Spain, but about 4,000 went anyway. Intellectuals strongly favoured t
he Republicans. Many visited Spain, hoping to find authentic anti-fascism. They
had little impact on the government, and could not shake the strong public mood
for peace.[113] The Labour Party was split, with its Catholic element favouring
the Nationalists. It officially endorsed the boycott and expelled a faction that

demanded support for the Republican cause; but it finally voiced some support t
o Loyalists.[114]
Romanian volunteers were led by Ion I Mota, deputy-leader of the Legion of the A
rchangel Michael (or Iron Guard), whose group of seven Legionaries visited Spain
in December 1936 to ally their movement with the Nationalists.[115]
Despite the Irish government's prohibition against participating in the war, aro
und 600 Irishmen, followers of Irish political activist and Irish Republican Arm
y leader Eoin O'Duffy, known as the "Irish Brigade", went to Spain to fight alon
gside Franco.[109] The majority of the volunteers were Catholics, and according
to O'Duffy had volunteered to help the Nationalists fight against communism.[116
][117]
Support for the Republicans[edit]
International Brigades[edit]
The Etkar Andr battalion of the International Brigades.
Polish volunteers in the International Brigades
British Battalion banner
Many non-Spaniards, often affiliated with radical communist or socialist entitie
s, joined the International Brigades, believing that the Spanish Republic was a
front line in the war against fascism. The units represented the largest foreign
contingent of those fighting for the Republicans. Roughly 40,000 foreign nation
als fought with the Brigades, though no more than 18,000 were entered into the c
onflict at any given time. They claimed to represent 53 nations.[118]
Significant numbers of volunteers originated in France (10,000), Germany and Aus
tria (5,000), and Italy (3,350). More than 1,000 each came from the Soviet Union
, the United States, the United Kingdom, Poland, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Canada
.[118] The Thlmann Battalion, a group of Germans, and the Garibaldi Battalion, a
group of Italians, distinguished their units during the Siege of Madrid. America
ns fought in units such as the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, while Canadians joined t
he Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion.[119]
Over 500 Romanians fought on the Republican side, including Romanian Communist P
arty members Petre Borila and Valter Roman.[120] About 145 men[121] from Ireland
formed the Connolly Column, which was immortalized by Irish folk singer Christy
Moore in the song "Viva la Quinta Brigada." Some Chinese joined the Brigades, a
nd the majority of them eventually returned to China, while some went to prison
or French refugee camps, and a handful remained in Spain.[122]
Soviet Union[edit]
Though General Secretary Joseph Stalin had signed the Non-Intervention Agreement
, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics contravened the League of Nations emba
rgo by providing material assistance to the Republican forces, becoming their on
ly source of major weapons. Unlike Hitler and Mussolini, Stalin tried to do this
covertly.[123] In total, estimates of material provided by the USSR to the Repu
blicans vary between 634 and 806 planes, 331 and 362 tanks, and 1,034 and 1,895
artillery pieces.[124]
Stalin also created Section X of the Soviet Union military to head the weapons s
hipment operation, called Operation X. Despite Stalin's interest in aiding the R
epublicans, the quality of arms was inconsistent.[125][126] On one hand, many of
the rifles and field guns provided were old, obsolete or otherwise of limited u
se. On the other hand, the T-26 and BT-5 tanks were modern and effective in comb
at.[125] The Soviet Union supplied aircraft that were in current service with th
eir own forces, but the aircraft provided by Germany to the Nationalists proved

superior by the end of the war.[126]

The process of shipping arms from Russia to Spain was extremely slow. Many shipm
ents were lost or arrived only partially matching what had been authorized.[127]
Stalin ordered shipbuilders to include false decks in the original designs of s
hips and, while at sea, Soviet captains employed deceptive flags and paint schem
es to evade detection by the Nationalists.[128]
The Republic paid for Soviet arms with official Bank of Spain gold reserves. Thi
s would later be the frequent subject of Franquist propaganda, under the term "M
oscow Gold". The cost of the Soviet Union arms was more than the value of Spain'
s gold reserves, the fourth-largest in the world, estimated at US $500 million (
1936 prices), 176 tonnes of which was transferred through France.[129]
The USSR sent a number of military advisers to Spain (2,000[130] 3,000[131]),[132]
and, while Soviet troops were fewer than 500 men at a time, Soviet volunteers o
ften operated Soviet-made tanks and aircraft, particularly at the beginning of t
he war.[118] In addition, the Soviet Union directed Communist parties around the
world to organize and recruit the International Brigades.[133]
Another significant Soviet involvement was the activity of the People's Commissa
riat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) inside the Republican rearguard. Communist figu
res including Vittorio Vidali ("Comandante Contreras"), Iosif Grigulevich, Mikha
il Koltsov and, most prominently, Alexander Orlov led operations that included t
he murders of Catalan anti-stalinist Communist politician Andreu Nin[134] and in
dependent left-wing activist Jos Robles.[135] Also, the shooting down in December
1936 of the French aircraft in which the delegate of the International Committe
e of the Red Cross (ICRC), Georges Henny, carried to France extensive documentat
ion on the Paracuellos massacres was a NKVD-led operation.[136]
Mexico[edit]
See also es:exilio republicano espaol (Mxico).
Unlike the United States and major Latin American governments, such as the ABC P
owers and Peru, the Mexican government supported the Republicans.[137][138] Mexi
co refused to follow the French-British non-intervention proposals,[137] furnish
ing $2,000,000 in aid and material assistance, which included 20,000 rifles and
20 million cartridges.[137]
Mexico's most important contributions to the Spanish Republic was its diplomatic
help, as well as the sanctuary the nation arranged for Republican refugees, inc
luding Spanish intellectuals and orphaned children from Republican families. Som
e 50,000 took refuge, primarily in Mexico City, accompanied by $300 million in v
arious treasures still owned by the Left.[139]
France[edit]
Fearing it might spark a civil war inside France, the leftist "Popular Front" go
vernment in France did not send direct support to the Republicans. French Prime
Minister Lon Blum was sympathetic to the republic,[140] fearing that the success
of Nationalist forces in Spain would result in the creation of an ally state of
Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, an alliance that would nearly encircle France.[1
40] Right-wing politicians opposed any aid and attacked the Blum government.[141
] In July 1936, British officials convinced Blum not to send arms to the Republi
cans and, on 27 July, the French government declared that it would not send mili
tary aid, technology or forces to assist the Republican forces.[142] However, Bl
um made clear that France reserved the right to provide aid should it wish to th
e Republic:
We could have delivered arms to the Spanish Government [Republicans], a legitima
te government... We have not done so, in order not to give an excuse to those wh

o would be tempted to send arms to the rebels [Nationalists]. Blum, 1936.[143]

On 1 August 1936, a pro-Republican rally of 20,000 people confronted Blum, deman
ding that he send aircraft to the Republicans, at the same time as right-wing po
liticians attacked Blum for supporting the Republic and being responsible for pr
ovoking Italian intervention on the side of Franco.[143] Germany informed the Fr
ench ambassador in Berlin that Germany would hold France responsible if it suppo
rted "the manoeuvres of Moscow" by supporting the Republicans.[144] On 21 August
1936, France signed the Non-Intervention Agreement.[144]
Serial '' Potez 540 plane of the Spanish Republican Air Force.[145]
However, the Blum government provided aircraft to the Republicans through covert
means with Potez 54 bomber aircraft (nicknamed the 'Flying Coffin') by Spanish
Republican pilots),[146] Dewoitine aircraft, and Loire 46 fighter aircraft being
sent from 7 August 1936 to December of that year to Republican forces.[147] The
French also sent pilots and engineers to the Republicans.[148] Also, until 8 Se
ptember 1936, aircraft could freely pass from France into Spain if they were bou
ght in other countries.[149]
Even after covert support by France to the Republicans ended in December 1936, t
he possibility of French intervention against the Nationalists remained a seriou
s possibility throughout the war. German intelligence reported to Franco and the
Nationalists that the French military was engaging in open discussions about in
tervention in the war through French military intervention in Catalonia and the
Balearic Islands.[150] In 1938, Franco feared an immediate French intervention a
gainst a potential Nationalist victory in Spain through French occupation of Cat
alonia, the Balearic Islands, and Spanish Morocco.[151]
Course of the war[edit]
1936[edit]
Map showing Spain in September 1936:
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Main article: Spanish Civil War, 1936
Attack on Nationalist position near Madrid, Somosierra, 1936
A large air and sealift of Nationalist troops in Spanish Morocco was organized t
o the southwest of Spain.[152] Coup leader Sanjurjo was killed in a plane crash
on 20 July,[153][154] leaving an effective command split between Mola in the Nor
th and Franco in the South.[46] This period also saw the worst actions of the so
-called "Red" and "White Terrors" in Spain.[155][156] On 21 July, the fifth day
of the rebellion, the Nationalists captured the central Spanish naval base, loca
ted in Ferrol in northwestern Spain.[157]
A rebel force under Colonel Beorlegui Canet, sent by General Mola and Colonel Es
teban Garcia, undertook the Campaign of Gipuzkoa from July to September. The cap
ture of Gipuzkoa isolated the Republican provinces in the north. On 5 September,
after heavy fighting, the force took Irn, closing the French border to the Repub
licans.[158] On 15 September, San Sebastin, home to a divided Republican force of
anarchists and Basque nationalists, was taken by Nationalist soldiers.[111] The
Nationalists then advanced toward their capital, Bilbao, but were halted by Rep
ublican militias on the border of Biscay at the end of September.[citation neede
d]
The Republican government under Giral resigned on 4 September, unable to cope wi
th the situation, and was replaced by a mostly Socialist organization under Larg
o Caballero.[159] The new leadership began to unify central command in the repub
lican zone.[160] On the Nationalist side, Franco was chosen as chief military co

mmander at a meeting of ranking generals at Salamanca on 21 September, now calle

d by the title Generalsimo.[46][161]
Franco won another victory on 27 September when his troops relieved the Alczar in
Toledo,[161] which had been held by a Nationalist garrison under Colonel Moscar
do since the beginning of the rebellion, resisting thousands of Republican troop
s, who completely surrounded the isolated building. Moroccans and elements of th
e Spanish Foreign Legion came to the rescue.[162] Two days after relieving the s
iege, Franco proclaimed himself Caudillo ("chieftain", the Spanish equivalent of
the Italian Duce and the German Fhrer), while forcibly unifying the various and
diverse falangist, Royalist, and other elements within the Nationalist cause.[15
9] The diversion to Toledo gave Madrid time to prepare a defense, but was hailed
as a major propaganda victory and personal success for Franco.[163] A similar d
ramatic success for the Nationalists occurred on 17 October, when troops coming
from Galicia relieved the besieged town of Oviedo, in Northern Spain.[164][165]
In October, the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid,[166]
reaching it in early November and launching a major assault on the city on 8 Nov
ember.[167] The Republican government was forced to shift from Madrid to Valenci
a, outside the combat zone, on 6 November.[168] However, the Nationalists' attac
k on the capital was repulsed in fierce fighting between 8 and 23 November. A co
ntributory factor in the successful Republican defense was the effectiveness of
the Fifth Regiment[169] and later the arrival of the International Brigades, tho
ugh only an approximate 3,000 foreign volunteers participated in the battle.[170
] Having failed to take the capital, Franco bombarded it from the air and, in th
e following two years, mounted several offensives to try to encircle Madrid. The
battle of the Corunna Road, a Nationalist offensive to the northwest, pushed Re
publican forces back, but failed to isolate Madrid. The battle lasted into Janua
ry.[171]
1937[edit]
Main article: Spanish Civil War, 1937
Map showing Spain in October 1937:
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
With his ranks swelled by Italian troops and Spanish colonial soldiers from Moro
cco, Franco made another attempt to capture Madrid in January and February 1937,
but was again unsuccessful. The Battle of Mlaga started in mid-January, and this
Nationalist offensive in Spain's southeast would turn into a disaster for the R
epublicans, who were poorly organised and armed. The city was taken by Franco on
8 February.[172] The consolidation of various militias into the Republican Army
had started in December 1936.[173] The main Nationalist advance to cross the Ja
rama river and cut the supply of Madrid by the Valencia road, termed the Battle
of Jarama, led to heavy casualties (6,000 20,000) on both sides. The operation's m
ain objective was not met, though Nationalists gained a modest amount of territo
ry.[174]
A similar Nationalist offensive, the Battle of Guadalajara, was a more significa
nt defeat for Franco and his armies. It proved the only publicised Republican vi
ctory of the war. Italian troops and blitzkrieg tactics were used by Franco, and
while many strategists blamed the latter for the rightists' defeat, the Germans
believed it was the former at fault for the Nationalists' 5,000 casualties and
loss of valuable equipment.[175] The German strategists successfully argued that
the Nationalists needed to concentrate on vulnerable areas first.[176]
Ruins of Guernica.
The "War in the North" began in mid-March,[177] with Biscay as a first target.[1
78] The Basques suffered most from the lack of a suitable air force.[179] On 26

April, the Condor Legion bombed the town of Guernica, killing 200-300 and causin
g significant damage. The destruction had a significant effect on international
opinion.[180] The Basques retreated.[181]
April and May saw infighting among Republican groups in Catalonia. The dispute w
as between an ultimately victorious government Communist forces and the anarchist
CNT. The disturbance pleased Nationalist command, but little was done to exploi
t Republican divisions.[182] After the fall of Guernica, the Republican governme
nt began to fight back with increasing effectiveness. In July, it made a move to
recapture Segovia, forcing Franco to delay his advance on the Bilbao front, but
for only two weeks. A similar Republican attack on Huesca failed similarly.[183
]
Mola, Franco's second-in-command, was killed on 3 June.[184] In early July, desp
ite the earlier fall in June of Bilbao, the government launched a strong counter
-offensive to the west of Madrid, focusing on Brunete. The Battle of Brunete, ho
wever, was a significant defeat for the Republic, which lost many of its most ac
complished troops. The offensive led to an advance of 50 square kilometres (19 s
q mi), and left 25,000 Republican casualties.[185]
A Republican offensive against Zaragoza was also a failure. Despite having land
and aerial advantages, the Battle of Belchite resulted in an advance of only 10
kilometres (6.2 mi) and the loss of much equipment.[186] Franco invaded Aragn in
August and took the city of Santander.[187] With the surrender of the Republican
army in the Basque territory came the Santoa Agreement.[188] Gijn finally fell in
late October.[189] Franco had effectively won in the north. At November's end,
with Franco's troops closing in on Valencia, the government had to move again, t
his time to Barcelona.[190]
1938[edit]
Map showing Spain in July 1938:
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Main article: Spanish Civil War, 1938 39
The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation. The city, which had formerl
y belonged to the Nationalists, was conquered by Republicans in January. The Fra
ncoist troops launched an offensive and recovered the city by 22 February, but F
ranco was forced to rely heavily on German and Italian air support.[191]
On 7 March, Nationalists launched the Aragon Offensive and, by 14 April, they
d pushed through to the Mediterranean, cutting the Republican-held portion of
ain in two. The Republican government attempted to sue for peace in May,[192]
t Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and the war raged on. In July, the
tionalist army pressed southward from Teruel and south along the coast toward
e capital of the Republic at Valencia, but was halted in heavy fighting along
e XYZ Line, a system of fortifications defending Valencia.[193]

ha
Sp
bu
Na
th
th

The Republican government then launched an all-out campaign to reconnect their t

erritory in the Battle of the Ebro, from 24 July until 26 November.[194] The cam
paign was unsuccessful, and was undermined by the Franco-British appeasement of
Hitler in Munich. The agreement with Britain effectively destroyed Republican mo
rale by ending hope of an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers.[195] The re
treat from the Ebro all but determined the final outcome of the war.[194] Eight
days before the new year, Franco threw massive forces into an invasion of Catalo
nia.[196]
1939[edit]
Main article: Spanish Civil War, 1938 39

Map showing Spain in February 1939:

Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Franco's troops conquered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the first two
months of 1939. Tarragona fell on 15 January,[197] followed by Barcelona on 26
January[198] and Girona on 2 February.[199] On 27 February, the United Kingdom a
nd France recognized the Franco regime.[200]
Franco declares the end of the war. However, small pockets of Republicans fight
on.
Only Madrid and a few other strongholds remained for the Republican forces. On 5
March 1939, the Republican army, led by the Colonel Segismundo Casado and the p
olitician Julin Besteiro, rose against the prime minister Juan Negrn and formed th
e National Defence Council (Consejo Nacional de Defensa or CND) to negotiate a p
eace deal.[201] Negrn fled to France on 6 March,[202] but the Communist troops ar
ound Madrid rose against the junta, starting a brief civil war within the civil
war.[citation needed] Casado defeated them, and began peace negotiations with th
e Nationalists, but Franco refused to accept anything less than unconditional su
rrender.[203]
On 26 March, the Nationalists started a general offensive, on 28 March the Natio
nalists occupied Madrid and, by 31 March, they controlled all Spanish territory.
[204] Franco proclaimed victory in a radio speech aired on 1 April, when the las
t of the Republican forces surrendered.[205]
After the end of the war, there were harsh reprisals against Franco's former ene
mies.[206] Thousands of Republicans were imprisoned and at least 30,000 executed
.[207] Other calculations of these deaths range from 50,000[208] to 200,000, dep
ending on which killings are included. Many others were put to forced labour, bu
ilding railways, drying out swamps, and digging canals.[208]
Hundreds of thousands of Republicans fled abroad, with some 500,000 fleeing to F
rance.[209] Refugees were confined in internment camps of the French Third Repub
lic, such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet, where 12,000 Republicans were housed in s
qualid conditions. In his capacity as consul in Paris, Chilean poet and politici
an Pablo Neruda organized the immigration to Chile of 2,200 Republican exiles in
France using the ship SS Winnipeg.[210]
Of the 17,000 refugees housed in Gurs, farmers and others who could not find rel
ations in France were encouraged by the Third Republic, in agreement with the Fr
anquist government, to return to Spain. The great majority did so and were turne
d over to the Franquist authorities in Irn.[211] From there, they were transferre
d to the Miranda de Ebro camp for "purification" according to the Law of Politic
al Responsibilities. After the proclamation by Marshal Philippe Ptain of the Vich
y regime, the refugees became political prisoners, and the French police attempt
ed to round up those who had been liberated from the camp. Along with other "und
esirable" people, the Spaniards were sent to the Drancy internment camp before b
eing deported to Nazi Germany. About 5,000 Spaniards died in the Mauthausen conc
entration camp.[211]
After the official end of the war, guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular b
asis by the Spanish Maquis well into the 1950s, gradually reduced by military de
feats and scant support from the exhausted population. In 1944, a group of repub
lican veterans, who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis, inva
ded the Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but were defeated after 10 days.[212]
Evacuation of children[edit]
Main article: Evacuation of children in the Spanish Civil War

Children preparing for evacuation, some giving the Republican salute. The Republ
icans showed a raised fist whereas the Nationalists gave the Roman salute.[213]
The Republicans oversaw the evacuation of 30,000 35,000 children from their zone,[
214] starting with Basque areas, from which 20,000 were evacuated. Their destina
tions included the United Kingdom[215] and the USSR, and many other locations in
Europe, along with Mexico.[214] On 21 May 1937, around 4,000 Basque children we
re taken to the UK on the aging steamship SS Habana from the Spanish port of San
turtzi. This was against initial opposition from both the government and charita
ble groups, who saw the removal of children from their native country as potenti
ally harmful. On arrival two days later in Southampton, the children were disper
sed all over England, with over 200 children accommodated in Wales.[216] The upp
er age limit was initially set at 12, but raised to 15.[217] By mid-September, a
ll of los nios, as they became known, had found homes with families. Most were re
patriated to Spain after the war, but some 250 still remained in Britain by the
end of the Second World War in 1945.[218]
Atrocities[edit]
Twenty-six republicans were assassinated by fascists that belonged to Franco's N
ationalists at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, between August and Septem
ber of 1936. This mass grave is placed at the small town named as Estpar, in Nort
hern Spain. The excavation occurred in July August of 2014.
Death totals remain debated. British historian Antony Beevor wrote in his histor
y of the Civil War that Franco's ensuing "white terror" resulted in the deaths o
f 200,000 people and that the "red terror" killed 38,000.[219] Julius Ruiz conte
nds that, "Although the figures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843 executions
were carried out in the Republican zone, with a maximum of 150,000 executions (i
ncluding 50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain".[220]
Spanish Civil War grave sites. Location of known burial places. Colors refer to
the type of intervention that has been carried out. Green: No Interventions Unde
rtaken so far. White: Missing grave. Yellow: Transferred to the Valle de los Cado
s. Red: Fully or Partially Exhumed. Blue star: Valle de los Cados. Source: Minist
ry of Justice of Spain
In 2008 a Spanish judge, Baltasar Garzn, opened an investigation into the executi
ons and disappearances of 114,266 people between 17 July 1936 and December 1951.
(Garzn has since been indicted for violating a 1977 amnesty law through his acti
ons.) Among the executions investigated was that of the poet and dramatist Feder
ico Garca Lorca.[3] Mention of his death was forbidden during Franco's regime.[22
1]
The view of historians, including Helen Graham,[222] Paul Preston,[223] Antony B
eevor,[224] Gabriel Jackson[225] and Hugh Thomas,[226] is that the mass executio
ns behind the Nationalists lines were organized and approved by the Nationalists
rebel authorities, while the executions behind the Republican lines were the re
sult of the breakdown of the Republican state and anarchy:
Though there was much wanton killing in rebel Spain, the idea of the limpieza, t
he "cleaning up", of the country from the evils which had overtaken it, was a di
sciplined policy of the new authorities and a part of their programme of regener
ation. In republican Spain, most of the killing was the consequence of anarchy,
the outcome of a national breakdown, and not the work of the state, although som
e political parties in some cities abetted the enormities, and some of those res
ponsible ultimately rose to positions of authority.
Hugh Thomas[226]
Nationalists[edit]
See also: White Terror (Spain)

Nationalist SM.81 aircraft bomb Madrid in late November 1936.

Nationalist atrocities, which authorities frequently ordered to eradicate any tr
ace of "leftism" in Spain, were common. The notion of a limpieza (cleansing) for
med an essential part of the rebel strategy, and the process began immediately a
fter an area had been captured.[227] According to historian Paul Preston, the mi
nimum number of those executed by the rebels is 130,000,[228] and is likely to h
ave been far higher, with other historians placing the figure at 200,000 dead.[2
29] The violence was carried out in the rebel zone by the military, the Civil Gu
ard and the Falange in the name of the regime.[230]
Many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during the first weeks of th
e war.[230] This included the execution of schoolteachers,[231] because the effo
rts of the Second Spanish Republic to promote laicism and displace the Church fr
om schools by closing religious educational institutions were considered by the
Nationalists as an attack on the Roman Catholic Church. Extensive killings of ci
vilians were carried out in the cities captured by the Nationalists,[232] along
with the execution of unwanted individuals. These included non-combatants such a
s trade-unionists, Popular Front politicians, suspected Freemasons, Basque, Cata
lan, Andalusian, and Galician Nationalists, Republican intellectuals, relatives
of known Republicans, and those suspected of voting for the Popular Front.[230][
233][234][235][236]
Bombing in Barcelona, 1938.
Nationalist forces massacred civilians in Seville, where some 8,000 people were
shot; 10,000 were killed in Cordoba; 6,000 12,000 were killed in Badajoz.[237] In
Granada, where working-class neighborhoods were hit with artillery and right-win
g squads were given free rein to kill government sympathizers,[238] at least 2,0
00 people were murdered.[231] In February 1937, over 7,000 were killed after the
capture of Mlaga.[239] When Bilbao was conquered, thousands of people were sent
to prison. There were fewer executions than usual, however, because of the effec
t Guernica left on Nationalists' reputations internationally.[240] The numbers k
illed as the columns of the Army of Africa devastated and pillaged their way bet
ween Seville and Madrid are particularly difficult to calculate.[241]
Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics. In one particular incident, followi
ng the capture of Bilbao, they took hundreds of people, including 16 priests who
had served as chaplains for the Republican forces, to the countryside or gravey
ards and murdered them.[242][243]
Franco's forces also persecuted Protestants, including murdering 20 Protestant m
inisters.[244] Franco's forces were determined to remove the "Protestant heresy"
from Spain.[245] The Nationalists also persecuted Basques, as they strove to er
adicate Basque culture.[187] According to Basque sources, some 22,000 Basques we
re murdered by Nationalists immediately after the Civil War.[246]
The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory,
carried out mainly by the Luftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Ita
lian air force volunteers of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie: Madrid, Barcelona, Val
encia, Guernica, Durango, and other cities were attacked. The Bombing of Guernic
a was the most controversial.[247]
Republicans[edit]
See also: Red Terror (Spain)
"Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen. The photograph
in the London Daily Mail had the caption "Spanish Reds' war on religion".[248]
According to the Nationalists, an estimated 55,000 civilians died in Republicanheld territories. This is considered excessive by Antony Beevor. However, it was
much less than the half a million claimed during the war.[249] The deaths would

form the prevailing outside opinion of the republic up until the bombing of Gue
rnica.[249]
The Republican government was anticlerical, and supporters attacked and murdered
Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to the news of military revolt.[243] In his 1
961 book, Spanish archbishop Antonio Montero Moreno, who at the time was directo
r of the journal Ecclesia, wrote that 6,832 were killed during the war, includin
g 4,184 priests, 2,365 monks and friars, and 283 nuns, in addition to 13 bishops
, a figure accepted by historians, including Beevor.[244][250][251] Some sources
claim that by the conflict's end, 20 percent of the nation's clergy had been ki
lled,[252][nb 7] The "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist milit
iamen at Cerro de los ngeles near Madrid, on 7 August 1936, was the most infamous
of widespread desecration of religious property.[253] In dioceses where the Rep
ublicans had general control, a large proportion
often a majority
of secular pri
ests were killed.[254]
Like clergy, civilians were executed in Republican territories. Some civilians w
ere executed as suspected Falangists.[255] Others died in acts of revenge after
Republicans heard of massacres carried out in the Nationalist zone.[256] Air rai
ds committed against Republican cities were another driving factor.[257] Shopkee
pers and industrialists were shot if they didn't sympathize with the Republicans
, and were usually spared if they did.[258] Fake justice was sought through a co
mmission, known in Russia as checas.[255]
The Puente Nuevo bridge, Ronda. Both Nationalists and Republicans are claimed to
have thrown prisoners from the bridge to their deaths in the canyon.[259]
As pressure mounted with the increasing success of the Nationalists, many civili
ans were executed by councils and tribunals controlled by competing Communist an
d anarchist groups.[255] Some members of the latter were executed by Soviet-advi
sed communist functionaries in Catalonia,[259] as recounted by George Orwell's d
escription of the purges in Barcelona in 1937 in Homage to Catalonia, which foll
owed a period of increasing tension between competing elements of the Catalan po
litical scene. Some individuals fled to friendly embassies, which would house up
to 8,500 people during the war.[256]
In the Andalusian town of Ronda, 512 suspected Nationalists were executed in the
first month of the war.[259] Communist Santiago Carrillo Solares was accused of
the killing of Nationalists in the Paracuellos massacre near Paracuellos del Ja
rama.[260] Pro-Soviet Communists committed numerous atrocities against fellow Re
publicans, including other Marxists: Andr Marty, known as the Butcher of Albacete
, was responsible for the deaths of some 500 members of the International Brigad
es.[261] Andreu Nin, leader of the POUM (Workers' Party of Marxist Unification),
and many other prominent POUM members, were murdered by the Communists, with th
e help of the USSR's NKVD.[262]
Thirty-eight thousand people were killed in the Republican zone during the war,
17,000 of whom were killed in Madrid or Catalonia within a month of the coup. Wh
ilst the Communists were forthright in their support of extrajudicial killings,
much of the Republican side was appalled by the murders.[263] Azaa came close to
resigning.[256] He, alongside other members of Parliament and a great number of
other local officials, attempted to prevent Nationalist supporters being lynched
. Some of those in positions of power intervened personally to stop the killings
.[263]
Social revolution[edit]
Main article: Spanish Revolution
Women at the Siege of the Alczar in Toledo, 1936
In the anarchist-controlled areas, Aragn and Catalonia, in addition to the tempor

ary military success, there was a vast social revolution in which the workers an
d peasants collectivised land and industry and set up councils parallel to the p
aralyzed Republican government.[264] This revolution was opposed by the Soviet-s
upported communists who, perhaps surprisingly, campaigned against the loss of ci
vil property rights.[264]
As the war progressed, the government and the communists were able to exploit th
eir access to Soviet arms to restore government control over the war effort, thr
ough diplomacy and force.[262] Anarchists and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unif
ication (Partido Obrero de Unificacin Marxista, POUM) were integrated into the re
gular army, albeit with resistance. The POUM was outlawed and falsely denounced
as an instrument of the fascists.[262] In the May Days of 1937, many thousands o
f anarchist and communist Republican soldiers fought for control of strategic po
ints in Barcelona.[182]
The pre-war Falange was a small party of some 30,000 40,000 members.[265] It also
called for a social revolution that would have seen Spanish society transformed
by National Syndicalism.[266] Following the execution of its leader, Jos Antonio
Primo de Rivera, by the Republicans, the party swelled in size to several hundre
d thousand members.[267] The leadership of the Falange suffered 60 percent casua
lties in the early days of the civil war, and the party was transformed by new m
embers and rising new leaders, called camisas nuevas ("new shirts"), who were le
ss interested in the revolutionary aspects of National Syndicalism.[268] Subsequ
ently, Franco united all rightist parties into the Traditionalist Spanish Falang
e and the National Syndicalist Offensive Juntas (Spanish: Falange Espaola Tradici
onalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista, FET y de las JONS).[26
9]
The 1930s also saw Spain become a focus for pacifist organizations, including th
e Fellowship of Reconciliation, the War Resisters League, and the War Resisters'
International. Many people including, as they are now called, the "insumisos" (
"defiant ones", conscientious objectors) argued and worked for non-violent strat
egies. Prominent Spanish pacifists, such as Amparo Poch y Gascn and Jos Brocca, su
pported the Republicans. Brocca argued that Spanish pacifists had no alternative
but to make a stand against fascism. He put this stand into practice by various
means, including organizing agricultural workers to maintain food supplies, and
through humanitarian work with war refugees.[nb 8]
Art and propaganda[edit]
In Catalonia, a square near the Barcelona waterfront was named Plaa George Orwell
, while a street in the town of Can Rull was named [Carrer] Andrs Nin ... the his
tory of the Civil War that is taught to Catalan schoolchildren now includes Orwe
ll, and has been wiped clean of any totalitarian or revisionist taint.[270]
Throughout the course of the Spanish Civil War, people all over the world were e
xposed to the goings-on and effects of it on its people not only through standar
d art, but also through propaganda. Motion pictures, posters, books, radio progr
ams, and leaflets are a few examples of this media art that was so influential d
uring the war. Produced by both fascists and republicans, propaganda allowed Spa
niards a way to spread awareness about their war all over the world. In a film c
o-produced by famous early-twentieth century authors such as Ernest Hemingway an
d Lillian Hellman, video footage was used as a way to advertise Spain s need for m
ilitary and monetary aid. This film, The Spanish Earth, premiered in America in
July 1937. In 1938, George Orwell's Homage to Catalonia, a personal account of h
is experiences and observations in the war, was published in the United Kingdom.
Leading works of sculpture include Alberto Snchez Prez's El pueblo espaol tiene un
camino que conduce a una estrella maqueta ("The Spanish People Have a Path that
Leads to a Star"), a 12.5m monolith constructed out of plaster representing the
struggle for a socialist utopia;[271] Julio Gonzlez's La Montserrat, an anti-war

work which shares its title with a mountain near Barcelona, is created from a sh
eet of iron which has been hammered and welded to create a peasant mother carryi
ng a small child in one arm and a sickle in the other. and Alexander Calder's Fu
ente de mercurio (Mercury Fountain) a protest work by the American against the N
ationalist forced control of Almade'n and the mercury mines there.[272]
Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in 1937
As to other works of art, Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in 1937, taking inspira
tion from the bombing of Guernica. Guernica, like many important Republican mast
erpieces, was featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris. The work's
size (11 ft by 25.6 ft) grabbed much attention and cast the horrors of the moun
ting Spanish civil unrest into a global spotlight.[273] The painting has since b
een herald as an anti-war work and a symbol of peace in the 20th century.[274] J
oan Mir created El Segador (The Reaper, formally titled El campesino cataln en reb
elda (Catalan peasant in revolt), which spans some 18 feet by 12 feet[275] and de
picted a peasant brandishing a sickle in the air, to which Mir commented that "Th
e sickle is not a communist symbol. It is the reaper s symbol, the tool of his wor
k, and, when his freedom is threatened, his weapon."[274] This work, featured at
the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris, was shipped back to the Spanish Rep
ublic's capital in Valencia following the Exhibition, but has since gone missing
or has been destroyed.[275]
Timeline[edit]
Spanish Civil War Timeline
Date
Event
1868
Overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon
1873
Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicates t
hrone ending the short-lived First Spanish Republic
1874
(December) Restoration of the Bourbons
1909
Tragic Week in Barcelona
1923
Military coup brings Miguel Primo de Rivera to power
1930
(January) Miguel Primo de Rivera resigns
1931
Spanish Constitution that included articles 24 and 26 which banned Jesui
ts
1931
(12 April) Municipal elections, King Alfonso XIII abdicates, Second Span
ish Republic is formed with Niceto Alcala-Zamora as President and Head of State
1931
(June) Elections return large majority of Republicans and Socialists
1931
(October) Republican Manuel Azana becomes prime minister of a minority g
overnment
1931
(December) New reformist, liberal, and democratic constitution is declar
ed
1932
(August) Unsuccessful uprising by General Jos Sanjurjo
1933
Beginning of the "black two years"
1934
Asturias uprising
1936
(April) Popular Front alliance wins election and Azana replaces Zamora a
s president
1936
(12 June) Prime Minister Casares Quiroga meets General Joan Yague
1936
(5 July) Aircraft chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Mo
rocco
1936
(12 July) Lieutenant Jose Castillo is murdered
1936
(13 July) Jose Calvo Sotelo is arrested
1936
(14 July) Franco arrives in Morocco
1936
(17 July) Military coup gains control over Spanish Morocco
1936
(17 July) Official beginning of the war
1936
(20 July) Coup leader Sanjurjo is killed in a plane crash
1936
(21 July) Nationalists capture the central Spanish naval base
1936
(7 August) "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militia
men at Cerro de los Angeles in Getafe

1936
(4 September) The Republican government under Giral resigns, and are rep
laced by mostly Socialist organization under Largo Caballero
1936
(5 September) Nationalists take Irun
1936
(15 September) Nationalists take San Sebastian
1936
(21 September) Franco chosen as chief military commander at Salamanca
1936
(27 September) Franco's troops relieve the Alcazar in Toledo
1936
(29 September) Franco proclaims himself Caudillo
1936
(17 October) Nationalists from Galicia relieve the besieged town of Ovie
do
1936
(November) Bombing of Madrid
1936
(8 November) Franco launches major assault on Madrid that is unsuccessfu
l
1936
(6 November) Republican government is forced to move to Valencia from Ma
drid
1937
Nationalists capture most of Spain's northern coastline
1937
(6 February) Battle of Jarama begins
1937
(8 February) Malaga falls to Franco's forces
1937
(March) War in the North begins
1937
(8 March) Battle of Guadalajara begins
1937
(26 April) Bombing of Guernica
1937
(21 May) 4,000 Basque children taken to the UK
1937
(3 June) Mola, Franco's second-in-command, is killed
1937
(July) Republicans move to recapture Segovia
1937
(6 July) Battle of Brunete begins
1937
(August) Franco invades Aragon and takes the city of Santander
1937
(24 August) Battle of Belchite begins
1937
(October) Gijon falls to Franco's troops
1937
(November) Republican government forced to move to Barcelona from Valenc
ia
1938
Nationalists capture large parts of Catalonia
1938
(January) Battle of Teruel, conquered by Republicans
1938
(22 February) Franco recovers Teruel
1938
(7 March) Nationalists launch the Aragon Offensive
1938
(16 March) Bombing of Barcelona
1938
(May) Republican sue for peace, Franco demands unconditional surrender
1938
(24 July) Battle of the Ebro begins
1938
(24 December) Franco throws massive force into invasion of Catalonia
1939
Beginning of General Francisco Franco's rule
1939
(15 January) Tarragona falls to Franco
1939
(26 January) Barcelona falls to Franco
1939
(2 February) Girona falls to Franco
1939
(27 February) UK and France recognize the Franco regime
1939
(6 March) Prime minister Juan Negrin flees to France
1939
(28 March) Nationalists occupy Madrid
1939
(31 March) Nationalists control all Spanish territory
1939
(1 April) Last Republican forces surrender
1939
(1 April) Official ending of the war
1975
Ending of General Francisco Franco's rule
People[edit]
See also: List of people of the Spanish Civil War
Figures identified with the Republican side
Politicians or military
Manuel Azaa (Republican)
Santiago Carrillo (Communist)
Valentin Gonzlez ("El Campesino") (Communist)
Dolores Ibarruri ("La Pasionaria") (Communist)
Francisco Largo Caballero (Socialist)
Diego Martnez Barrio (Republican)
Juan Negrn (Socialist)

Andrs Nin (Communist)

Indalecio Prieto (Socialist)
Buenaventura Durruti (Anarchist)
Others identified with the Republican side (including volunteers)
W. H. Auden (poet)
Robert Capa (photojournalist)
Dezso Rvai (photojournalist)
Pablo Casals (cellist, conductor)
Federico Garca Lorca (poet, dramatist - assassinated)
Egon Erwin Kisch (writer, journalist)
Pablo Picasso (painter, sculptor)
Rafael Alberti (poet)
Ernest Hemingway (author, journalist)
John Dos Passos (novelist)
Jose Robles (academic, activist)
Laurie Lee (poet, novelist, screenwriter)
George Orwell (novelist, journalist)
Luis Buuel (filmmaker)
Miguel Hernndez (poet)
Pablo Neruda (poet)
ikica Jovanovic panac (Socialist)
Figures identified with the Nationalist side
Military
Milln Astray (Spain)
Francisco Franco (Spain)
Miguel Cabanellas (Spain)
Jos Sanjurjo (Spain)
Emilio Mola (Spain)
Gonzalo Queipo de Llano (Spain)
Juan Yage (Spain)
Hugo Sperrle (Germany)
Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma (Germany)
Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen (Germany)
Mario Roatta (Italy)
Ettore Bastico (Italy)
Non-military
Pedro Muoz Seca (playwright - assassinated)
Ramn Serrano Ser (politician)
Political parties and organizations[edit]
Political parties and organizations in the Spanish Civil War[hide]
The Popular Front (Republican) Supporters of the Popular Front (Republican)
Nationalists (Francoist)
The Popular Front was an electoral alliance formed between various left-wing and
centrist parties for elections to the Cortes in 1936, in which the alliance won
a majority of seats.
UR (Unin Republicana - Republican Union): Led by Diego Martnez Barrio, formed in 1
934 by members of the PRR, who had resigned in objection to Alejandro Lerroux's
coalition with the CEDA. It drew its main support from skilled workers and progr
essive businessmen.
IR (Izquierda Republicana - Republican Left): Led by former Prime Minister Manue
l Azaa after his Republican Action party merged with Santiago Casares Quiroga's G
alician independence party and the Radical Socialist Republican Party (PRRS). It
drew its support from skilled workers, small businessmen, and civil servants. A
zaa led the Popular Front and became president of Spain. The IR formed the bulk o
f the first government after the Popular Front victory with members of the UR an
d the ERC.
ERC (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya - Republican Left of Catalonia): The Cata
lan faction of Azaa's Republicans, led by Llus Companys.

PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero Espaol - Spanish Socialist Workers' Party): Forme
d in 1879, its alliance with Accin Republicana in municipal elections in 1931 saw
a landslide victory that led to the King's abdication and the creation of the S
econd Republic. The two parties won the subsequent general election, but the PSO
E left the coalition in 1933. At the time of the Civil War, the PSOE was split b
etween a right wing under Indalecio Prieto and Juan Negrn, and a left wing under
Largo Caballero. Following the Popular Front victory, it was the second largest
party in the Cortes, after the CEDA. It supported the ministries of Azaa and Quir
oga, but did not actively participate until the Civil War began. It had majority
support amongst urban manual workers.
UGT (Unin General de Trabajadores - General Union of Workers): The socialist trad
e union. The UGT was formally linked to the PSOE, and the bulk of the union foll
owed Caballero.
Federacion de Juventudes Socialistas (Federation of Socialist Youth)
PSUC (Partit Socialista Unificat de Catalunya - Unified Socialist Party of Catal
onia): An alliance of various socialist parties in Catalonia, formed in the summ
er of 1936, controlled by the PCE.
JSU (Juventudes Socialistas Unificadas - Unified Socialist Youth): Militant yout
h group formed by the merger of the Socialist and the Communist youth groups. It
s leader, Santiago Carrillo, came from the Socialist Youth, but had secretly joi
ned the Communist Youth prior to merger, and the group was soon dominated by the
PCE.
PCE (Partido Comunista de Espaa - Communist Party of Spain): Led by Jos Daz in the
Civil War, it had been a minor party during the early years of the Republic, but
came to dominate the Popular Front after Negrn became Prime Minister.
POUM (Partido Obrero de Unificacin Marxista - Worker's Party of Marxist Unificati
on): An anti-Stalinist revolutionary communist party of former Trotskyists forme
d in 1935 by Andreu Nin.
JCI (Juventud Comunista Ibrica - Iberian Communist Youth): the POUM's youth movem
ent.
PS (Partido Sindicalista - Syndicalist Party): a moderate splinter group of CNT.
Unin Militar Republicana Antifascista (Republican Anti-fascist Military Union): F
ormed by military officers in opposition to the Unin Militar Espaola.
Anarchist groups. The anarchists boycotted the 1936 Cortes election and initiall
y opposed the Popular Front government, but joined during the Civil War when Lar
go Caballero became Prime Minister.
CNT (Confederacin Nacional del Trabajo - National Confederation of Labour): The c
onfederation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions.
FAI (Federacin Anarquista Ibrica - Iberian Anarchist Federation): The federation o
f anarchist groups, very active in the Republican militias.
Mujeres Libres (Free Women): The anarchist feminist organisation.
FIJL (Federacin Ibrica de Juventudes Libertarias - Iberian Federation of Libertari
an Youth)
Basque separatists.
PNV (Partido Nacionalista Vasco - Basque Nationalist Party): A Catholic Christia
n Democrat party under Jos Antonio Aguirre, which campaigned for greater autonomy
or independence for the Basque region. Held seats in the Cortes and supported t
he Popular Front government before and during the Civil War. Put its religious d
isagreement with the Popular Front aside for a promised Basque autonomy.
ANV (Accin Nacionalista Vasca - Basque Nationalist Action): A leftist Socialist p
arty, which at the same time campaigned for independence of the Basque region.
STV (Solidaridad de Trabajadores Vascos - Basque Workers' Solidarity): A trade u
nion in the Basque region, with a Catholic clerical tradition combined with mode
rate socialist tendencies.
SRI (Socorro Rojo Internacional - International Red Aid): Communist organization
allied with the Comintern that provided considerable aid to Republican civilian
s and soldiers.
International Brigades: pro-Republican military units made up of anti-fascist So
cialist, Communist and anarchist volunteers from different countries.
Virtually all Nationalist groups had very strong Roman Catholic convictions and

supported the native Spanish clergy.

Unin Militar Espaola (Spanish Military Union) - a conservative political organisat
ion of officers in the armed forces, including outspoken critics of the Republic
like Francisco Franco. Formed in 1934, the UME secretly courted fascist Italy f
rom its inception. After the electoral victory of the Popular Front, it began pl
otting a coup with monarchist and fascist groups in Spain. In the run-up to the
Civil War, it was led by Emilio Mola and Jos Sanjurjo, and latterly Franco.
Alfonsist Monarchist - supported the restoration of Alfonso XIII. Many army offi
cers, aristocrats, and landowners were Alfonsine, but there was little popular s
upport.
Renovacin Espaola (Spanish Restoration) - the main Alfonsine political party.
Accin Espaola (Spanish Action) - an integral nationalist party led by Jos Calvo Sot
elo, formed in 1933 around a journal of the same name edited by political theori
st and journalist Ramiro de Maeztu.
Bloque Nacional (National Block) - the militia movement founded by Calvo Sotelo.
Carlist Monarchist - supported Alfonso Carlos I de Borbn y Austria-Este's claim t
o the Spanish throne and saw the Alfonsine line as having been weakened by Liber
alism. After Alfonso Carlos died without issue, the Carlists split - some suppor
ting Carlos' appointed regent, Francisco-Xavier de Borbn-Parma, others supporting
Alfonso XIII or the Falange. The Carlists were clerical hard-liners led by the
aristocracy, with a populist base amongst the farmers and rural workers of Navar
re providing the militia.
Comunin Tradicionalista (Traditionalist Communion) - the Carlist political party
Requets (Volunteers) - militia movement.
Pelayos - militant youth movement, named after Pelayo of Asturias.
Margaritas - women's movement, named after Margarita de Borbn-Parma, wife of Carl
ist pretender Charles VII (1868-1909).
Falange (Phalanx):
FE (Falange Espaola de las JONS) - created by a merger in 1934 of two fascist org
anisations, Primo de Rivera's Falange (Phalanx), founded in 1933, and Ramiro Led
esma's Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista (Assemblies of National-Syndical
ist Offensive), founded in 1931. It became a mass movement when it was joined by
members of Accin Popular and by Accin Catlica, led by Ramn Serrano Ser.
OJE (Organizacin Juvenil Espaola) - militant youth movement.
Seccin Femenina (Feminine Section) - women's movement in labour of Social Aid.
Falange Espaola Tradicionalista y de las JONS - created by a merger in 1937 of th
e FE and the Carlist party, bringing the remaining political and militia compone
nts of the Nationalist side under Franco's ultimate authority.
CEDA - coalition party founded by Jos Mara Gil-Robles y Quiones whose ideology rang
ed from Christian democracy to conservative. Although they supported Franco's re
bellion, the party was dissolved in 1937, after most members and militants joine
d FE and Gil-Robles went to exile.
See also[edit]
List of foreign ships wrecked or lost in the Spanish Civil War
Catholicism in the Second Spanish Republic
Guernica (painting)
The Falling Soldier
Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War
List of war films and TV specials#Spanish Civil War (1936 1939)
List of foreign correspondents in the Spanish Civil War
List of surviving veterans of the Spanish Civil War
List of non-participants who died defending their freedom of conscience
Polish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War
Jewish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War
European Civil War
Spain in World War II
SS Cantabria
Pacifism in Spain

Spanish Republican Armed Forces

Art and culture in Francoist Spain
P history.svgHistory portal Flag of Italy.svgItaly portal Flag of Germany.svgGer
many portal Flag of the Soviet Union.svgSoviet Union portal Flag of Spain.svgSpa
in portal Bluetank.pngWar portal
BlackFlagSymbol.svgAnarchism portal Fasces lictoriae.svgFascism portal Symbol-ha
mmer-and-sickle.svgCommunism portal DodgerBlue flag waving.svgConservatism porta
l Yellow flag waving.svgLiberalism portal Red flag II.svgSocialism portal
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The number of casualties is disputed; estimates generally suggest that
between 500,000 and 1 million people were killed. Over the years, historians ke
pt lowering the death figures and modern research concludes that 500,000 deaths
is the correct figure. Thomas Barria-Norton, The Spanish Civil War (2001), pp. x
viii & 899 901, inclusive.
Jump up ^ Also known as The Crusade among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War a
mong Carlists, and The Rebellion or Uprising among Republicans.
Jump up ^ Known in Spanish as Confederacin Espaola de Derechas Autnomas (CEDA).
Jump up ^ Known in Spanish as the Falange Espaola de las JONS.
Jump up ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 196 198, 309: Conds was a close personal friend of Cas
tillo. His squad had originally sought to arrest Gil Robles as a reprisal for Ca
stillo's murder, but Robles was not at home, so they went to the house of Calvo
Sotelo. Thomas concludes that Conds intended to arrest Calvo Sotelo, and that Cue
nca acted on his own initiative, though he acknowledges other sources that dispu
te this finding.
Jump up ^ Westwell (2004) gives a figure of 500 million Reichmarks.
Jump up ^ Since Beevor (2006). p. 82. suggests 7,000 members of some 115,000 cle
rgy were killed, the proportion could well be lower.
Jump up ^ See variously: Bennett, Scott, Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters Lea
gue and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915 1963, Syracuse NY, Syracuse Universi
ty Press, 2003; Prasad, Devi, War is A Crime Against Humanity: The Story of War
Resisters' International, London, WRI, 2005. Also see Hunter, Allan, White Corps
ucles in Europe, Chicago, Willett, Clark & Co., 1939; and Brown, H. Runham, Spai
n: A Challenge to Pacifism, London, The Finsbury Press, 1937.
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Thomas. p. 628.
Jump up ^ Thomas. p. 619.
^ Jump up to: a b "Spanish judge opens case into Franco's atrocities". New York
Times. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 410 11. Beevor notes that around 150,000 had returned
by 1939.
^ Jump up to: a b Payne (1973). pp. 200 203.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 88.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 86 87.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 260 271.
Jump up ^ Julius Ruiz. El Terror Rojo (2011). pp. 200 211.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 18 19.
Jump up ^ Thomas (1961). p. 13.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 21.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 22.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 24.
Jump up ^ Fraser (1979). pp. 38 39.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 24 26.
Jump up ^ Thomas (1961). p. 15.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 32 33.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 15.
Jump up ^ Thomas (1961). p. 16.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006) p. 20-22.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 20.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006) p. 23.

Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 38 39.

Jump up ^ Beevor(2006) p.26
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 50.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 42.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 22.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 45 48.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 53.
Jump up ^ Thomas (1961). p. 47.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 61.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 66 67.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 67 68.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 63 65.
Jump up ^ Thomas (1961). p. 62.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 69 70.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 70.
Jump up ^ Preston 92006). p. 83.
Jump up ^ Thomas (1961). p. 78.
^ Jump up to: a b c Preston (2006). p. 81.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 82 83.
Jump up ^ Payne (1973). p. 642.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 93.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Preston (2006). p. 94.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Preston (1983). pp. 4 10.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 94 95.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 95.
^ Jump up to: a b Preston (2006). p. 96.
^ Jump up to: a b c Preston (2006). p. 98.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Preston (2006). p. 99.
Jump up ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 196 198, 309.
Jump up ^ Thomas (1961). p. 126.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 55 56.
^ Jump up to: a b Preston (2006). p. 102.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 56.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 56 57.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 58 59.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 59.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 60 61.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 62.
Jump up ^ Chomsky (1969).
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 69.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 102 3.
Jump up ^ Westwell (2004). p. 9.
^ Jump up to: a b Howson (1998). p. 28.
Jump up ^ Westwell (2004). p. 10.
Jump up ^ Howson (1998). p. 20.
^ Jump up to: a b Howson (1998). p. 21.
Jump up ^ Michael Alpert, La Guerra Civil espaola en el mar, Editorial Critica ,
ISBN 978-84-8432-975-6
Jump up ^ Howson (1998). pp. 21 22.
^ Jump up to: a b c Beevor (2006). Chapter 21.
Jump up ^ Beevor (1982). pp. 42 43.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 30 33.
Jump up ^ Howson (1997). p. 2.
Jump up ^ Cohen (2012). pp. 164 165.
Jump up ^ Thomas (1987). pp. 86 90.
Jump up ^ Orden, circular, creando un Comisariado general de Guerra con la misin
que se indica [Order, circular, creating a general comisariat of war with the in
dicated mission] (PDF) (in Spanish) IV (290). Gaceta de Madrid: diario oficial d
e la Repblica. 16 October 1936. p. 355.
Jump up ^ Dawson (2013). p. 85.

Jump up ^ Alpert (2013). p. 167.

^ Jump up to: a b c Howson (1998). pp.1 2.
Jump up ^ Werstein (1969) p. 44
Jump up ^ Payne (1973) p. 637.
Jump up ^ Coverdale (2002). p. 148.
Jump up ^ Paul Preston, The Spanish Civil War, Harper 2006,p.79
Jump up ^ Unearthing Franco's Legacy, pp 61 62
Jump up ^ Payne (2008). p. 13.
Jump up ^ Rooney, Nicola. "The role of the Catholic hierarchy in the rise to pow
er of General Franco" (PDF). Queen's University, Belfast.
Jump up ^ "Morocco tackles painful role in Spain's past," Reuters 14 January 200
9.
Jump up ^ Peers, E. Allison; Hogan, James (December 1936). "The Basques and the
Spanish Civil War" (PDF). Studies: an Irish Quarterly Review (Irish Province of
the Society of Jesus) 25 (100): 540 542. ISSN 0039-3495.
Jump up ^ Zara Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark: European International History
1933-1939 (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (2013), pp 181 251.
Jump up ^ Emanuel Adler and Vincent Pouliot (2011). International Practices. Cam
bridge University Press. pp. 184 85. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511862373. ISBN 9781139501
583.
Jump up ^ Stone (1997). p. 133.
Jump up ^ "Spain:Business & Blood". Time. 19 April 1937. Retrieved 3 August 2011
.
Jump up ^ Jackson (1974). p. 194.
Jump up ^ Stoff (2004). p. 194.
Jump up ^ "International: Peace and Pirates". Time. 27 September 1937. Retrieved
3 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Zara Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark: European International History
1933-1939 (2013) pp 181-251
^ Jump up to: a b Westwell (2004). p. 87.
Jump up ^ "The legacy of Guernica". BBC website (BBC). 26 April 2007. Retrieved
6 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Westwell (2004). p. 88.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas (1961). p. 634.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. p.
937
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 135 6.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 199.
Jump up ^ Balfour, Sebastian; Preston, Paul (2009). Spain and the great powers i
n the twentieth century. London, UK; New York, USA: Routledge. p. 172. ISBN 9780-415-18078-8.
Jump up ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 938 939.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 116, 133, 143, 148, 174, 427.
^ Jump up to: a b Thomas (1961). p. 635.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 198.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 116.
Jump up ^ David Deacon, British News Media and the Spanish Civil War (2008) p 17
1
Jump up ^ Richrad Overy, The Twilight Years: The Paradox of Britain Between the
Wars (2009) pp 319-40
Jump up ^ A. J. P. Taylor, English History 1914-1945 (1965) pp 393-98
Jump up ^ Othen (2008). p. 102.
Jump up ^ Casanova (2010). p. 225.
Jump up ^ Mittermaier (2010). p. 195.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas (1961). p. 637.
Jump up ^ Thomas (1961). pp. 638 639.
Jump up ^ Deletant (1999). p. 20.
Jump up ^ Review of O'Riordan's memoir
Jump up ^ Benton, Pieke (1998). p. 215.
Jump up ^ Howson (1998). p. 125.

Jump up ^
^ Jump up
^ Jump up
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
^ Jump up
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
^ Jump up
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
^ Jump up
^ Jump up
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
^ Jump up
Jump up ^
^ Jump up
Jump up ^
Sons, New
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
rid.
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^
Jump up ^

Payne (2004). p. 156.

to: a b Payne (2004). pp. 156 157.
to: a b Beevor (2006). pp. 152 153.
Howson (1998). pp. 126 129.
Howson (1998). p. 134.
Beevor (2006). pp. 153 154.
Beevor (2006). p. 163.
Graham (2005). p. 92.
Thomas (2003). p. 944.
Richardson (2015). pp. 31 40
Beevor (2006). p. 273.
Beevor (2006). p. 246.
VIDAL, Cesar. La guerra que gano Franco. Madrid, 2008. p.256
to: a b c Beevor (2006). pp. 139 14.
Beevor (2006). p. 291.
Beevor (2006). pp. 412 413.
to: a b Alpert (1994). p. 14.
Alpert (1994). pp. 14 15.
Alpert (1994). pp. 20, 23.
to: a b Alpert (1994). p. 41.
to: a b Alpert (1994). p. 43.
Crashed Spanish Potez 540
Potez 540/542
Alpert (1994). pp. 46 47.
Werstein (1969). p. 139.
Alpert (1994). p. 47.
Payne (2008). p. 28.
Luke , Goldstein (1999). p. 176.
Beevor (2006). p. 71.
Beevor (2006). p. 96.
Thomas (1961). p. 162.
Red: Beevor (2006). pp. 81 87.
White: Beevor (2006). pp. 88 94.
Beevor (2006). pp. 73 74.
Beevor (2006). pp. 116 117.
to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 144
Beevor (2006). pp. 146 147.
to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 143
Timmermans, Rodolphe. 1937. Heroes of the Alcazar. Charles Scribner's
York
Beevor (2006). p. 121
Casanova (2010). p. 109.
Cleugh (1962). p. 90.
Beevor (2006). p. 150
Beevor (2006). p. 177
Beevor (2006). p. 171.
Comn Colomer, Eduardo (1973); El 5 Regimiento de Milicias Populares. Mad
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor
Beevor

(2006).
(2006).
(2006).
(2006).
(2006).
(2006).
(2006).
(2006).
(2006).
(2006).
(2006).
(2006).

pp. 177
pp. 191
pp. 200
p. 202.
pp. 208
pp. 216
p. 222.
pp. 223
p. 228.
p. 229.
pp. 231
p. 233.

183.
192.
201.
215.
221.
226.
232.

^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). pp. 263 273.

Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 277.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 235.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 277 284.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 296 299.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 237.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 237 238.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 302.
Jump up ^ Payne (1973).
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 315 322.
Jump up ^ Thomas (2003). pp. 820 821.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 346 7.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). pp. 349 359.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 362.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 374.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 376.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 378.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 380.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 386.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 391 392.
Jump up ^ Thomas (2003), pp. 879 882.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 394 395.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 396 397.
Jump up ^ Derby (2009). p. 28.
Jump up ^ Professor Hilton (27 October 2005). "Spain: Repression under Franco af
ter the Civil War". Cgi.stanford.edu. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Tremlett, Giles (1 December 2003). "Spain torn on tribute to victims o
f Franco". London: Guardian. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 405.
Jump up ^ Caistor, Nick (28 February 2003). "Spanish Civil War fighters look bac
k". BBC News. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Winnipeg, el poema que cruz el Atlntico (Spanish)
^ Jump up to: a b Film documentary on the website of the Cit nationale de l'histo
ire de l'immigration (French)
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 421 422.
Jump up ^ "The Roman salute characteristic of Italian fascism was first adopted
by the PNE and the JONS, later spreading to the Falange and other extreme right
groups, before it became the official salute in Franco's Spain. The JAP salute,
which consisted of stretching the right arm horizontally to touch the left shoul
der enjoyed only relatively little acceptance. The gesture of the raised fist, s
o widespread among left-wing workers' groups, gave rise to more regimented varia
tions, such as the salute with the fist on one's temple, characteristic of the G
erman Rotfront, which was adopted by the republican Popular Army". The Splinteri
ng of Spain, p. 36 37
^ Jump up to: a b Daniel Kowalsky. "The Evacuation of Spanish Children to the So
viet Union". Gutenburg E. Columbia University Press. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "History of the arrival of the Basque Children to England in 1937". Ba
squeChildren.org. Basque Children of '37 Association. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Wales and the refugee children of the Basque country
Jump up ^ Buchanan (1997). pp. 109 110.
Jump up ^ http://thedustbinofhistory.wordpress.com/tag/ss-habana/
Jump up ^ "Men of La Mancha". The Economist. 22 June 2006. Retrieved 3 August 20
11.
Jump up ^ Julius Ruiz (2007). "Defending the Republic: The Garca Atadell Brigade
in Madrid, 1936". Journal of Contemporary History 42 (1): 97. doi:10.1177/002200
9407071625.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 92.
Jump up ^ Graham (2005). p. 30.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 307.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 86 87.

Jump up ^ Jackson (1967). p. 305.

^ Jump up to: a b Thomas (2001). p. 268.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 98
Jump up ^ Paul Preston (19 January 2008). "Paul Preston lecture: The Crimes of F
ranco" (PDF). Retrieved 16 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 94.
^ Jump up to: a b c Beevor (2006). pp. 88 89.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 89.
Jump up ^ Preston (2007). p. 121.
Jump up ^ Jackson (1967). p. 377.
Jump up ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 253 255.
Jump up ^ Santos et al. (1999). p. 229.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). pp. 120 123.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 91.
Jump up ^ Balfour, Sebastian. "Spain from 1931 to the Present". Spain: a History
. Ed. Raymond Carr. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 257. Print.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 93.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 236 237.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006). p. 302.
Jump up ^ Bieter, Bieter (2003). p. 91.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). pp. 82 83.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 82.
Jump up ^ Seidman (2011). p. 205.
Jump up ^ Wieland (2002). p. 47.
Jump up ^ Westwell (2004). p. 31.
Jump up ^ "Shots of War: Photojournalism During the Spanish Civil War". Orpheus.
ucsd.edu. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 81.
Jump up ^ Antonio Montero Moreno, Historia de la persecucion religiosa en Espana
1936 1939 (Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1961)
Jump up ^ Payne (1973). p. 649.
Jump up ^ Bowen (2006). p. 22.
Jump up ^ Ealham, Richards (2005). pp. 80, 168.
Jump up ^ Hubert Jedin; John Dolan (1981). History of the Church. Continuum. p.
607. ISBN 9780860120926.
^ Jump up to: a b c Beevor (2006). p. 84.
^ Jump up to: a b c Beevor (2006). p. 85.
Jump up ^ Preston (2006).
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 83.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas (1961). p. 176.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 172 173.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 161.
^ Jump up to: a b c Beevor (2006). pp. 272 273.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). p. 87.
^ Jump up to: a b Beevor (2006). pp. 102 122.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 40.
Jump up ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1999). p. 151.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 253.
Jump up ^ Arnaud Imatz, "La vraie mort de Garcia Lorca" 2009 40 NRH, 31 34, pp. 32 3
3.
Jump up ^ Beevor (2006). p. 255.
Jump up ^ Christopher Hitchens, introduction, p xviii, Orwell in Spain
Jump up ^ Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, El pueblo espaol tiene un ca
mino que conduce a una estrella (maqueta) (There Is a Way for the Spanish People
That Leads to a Star [Maquette]).
Jump up ^ Museum of Modern Art.
Jump up ^ Pablo Picasso.
^ Jump up to: a b SUNY Oneota, Picassos Guernica.
^ Jump up to: a b Stanley Meisler, For Joan Miro, Painting and Poetry Were the S
ame.

Bibliography and books by noted authors[edit]

Alpert, Michael (1999). The Clash of Spanish Armies: Contrasting Ways of War in
Spain, 1936 1939. War in History 6 (3). pp. 331 51. doi:10.1177/096834459900600304.
Alpert, Michael (2004) [1994]. A New International History of the Spanish Civil
War. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-1171-1. OCLC 155897766.
Alpert, Michael (2013). The Republican Army in the Spanish Civil War, 1936 1939. C
ambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107028739.
Beevor, Antony (2006) [The Spanish Civil War (1982)]. The Battle for Spain: The
Spanish Civil War 1936 1939. London: Weidenfield & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-84832-1.
Benton, Gregor; Pieke, Frank N. (1998). The Chinese in Europe. Macmillan. p. 390
. ISBN 0-333-66913-4. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
Bieter, John; Bieter, Mark (2003). An Enduring Legacy: The Story of Basques in I
daho. University of Nevada Press. ISBN 978-0-87417-568-4.
Bolloten, Burnett (1979). The Spanish Revolution. The Left and the Struggle for
Power during the Civil War. University of North Carolina. ISBN 1-84212-203-7.
Borkenau, Franz (1937). The Spanish Cockpit : an Eye-Witness Account of the Poli
tical and Social Conflicts of the Spanish Civil War. London: Faber and Faber.
Bowen, Wayne H (2006). Spain During World War II. University of Missouri Press.
ISBN 978-0-8262-1658-8.
Brenan, Gerald (1993) [1943]. The Spanish Labyrinth: an account of the social an
d political background of the Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-39827-5. OCLC 38930004.
Buchanan, Tom (1997). Britain and the Spanish Civil War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridg
e University Press. ISBN 0-521-45569-3.
Casanova, Julin (2010). The Spanish Republic and Civil War. Cambridge, New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521737807.
Cleugh, James (1962). Spanish Fury: The Story of a Civil War. London: Harrap. OC
LC 2613142.
Cohen, Yehuda (2012). The Spanish: Shadows of Embarrassment. Brighton: Sussex Ac
ademic Press. ISBN 9781845193928.
Coverdale, John F. (2002). Uncommon faith: the early years of Opus Dei, 1928 1943.
New York: Scepter. ISBN 978-1-889334-74-5.
Cox, Geoffrey (1937). The Defence of Madrid. London: Victor Gollancz. OCLC 40599
42.
Dawson, Ashley (2013). The Routledge Concise History of Twentieth-century Britis
h Literature. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415572453.
Derby, Mark (2009). Kiwi Companeros: New Zealand and the Spanish Civil War. Chri
stchurch, New Zealand: Canterbury University Press. ISBN 9781877257711.
Ealham, Chris; Richards, Michael (2005). The Splintering of Spain. Cambridge Uni
versity Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511497025. ISBN 978-0-521-82178-0.
Graham, Helen (2005). The Spanish Civil War: A very short introduction. New York
: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780192803771.001.0001. ISBN 9780-19-280377-1.
Hemingway, Ernest (1938). The Fifth Column. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. I
SBN 978-0-684-10238-2.
Hemingway, Ernest (1940). For Whom The Bell Tolls. New York: Scribner. ISBN 9780-684-80335-7.
Howson, Gerald (1998). Arms for Spain. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-31224177-1. OCLC 231874197.
Jackson, Gabriel (1965). The Spanish Republic and the Civil War, 1931 1939. Prince
ton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00757-8. OCLC 185862219.
Jackson, Gabriel (1974). The Cruel Years: The Story of the Spanish Civil War. Ne
w York: John Day.
Kisch, Egon Erwin (1939). The three cows (translated from the German by Stewart
Farrar. London: Fore Publications.
Koestler, Arthur (1983). Dialogue with death. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-3477
6-5. OCLC 16604744.
Kowalsky, Daniel (2008). Stalin and the Spanish Civil War. New York: Columbia Un
iversity Press.
Luke , Igor; Goldstein, Erik, eds. (1999). The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to Wor

ld War II. London, UK; Portland, Oregon, USA: Frank Cass. ISBN 978-0-7146-8056-9
.
Mittermaier, Ute Anne (2010). "Charles Donnelly, 'Dark Star' of Irish Poetry and
Reluctant Hero of the Irish Left". In Clark, David; lavez, Rubn Jarazo. 'To Banis
h Ghost and Goblin': New Essays on Irish Culture. Oleiros (La Corua): Netbiblo. p
p. 191 200. ISBN 9780521737807.
Orwell, George (2000) [1938]. Homage to Catalonia. London: Penguin, Martin Secke
r & Warburg. ISBN 0-14-118305-5. OCLC 42954349.
Othen, Christopher (2008). Franco's International Brigades: Foreign Volunteers a
nd Fascist Dictators in the Spanish Civil War. London: Reportage Press.
Payne, Stanley G. (1970). The Spanish Revolution. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
ISBN 0-297-00124-8.
Payne, Stanley G. (2004). The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union, and Communism
. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10068-X. OCLC 186010979.
Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal (Print Edition): chap
ters 25 & 26". University of Wisconsin Press (Library of Iberian resources onlin
e) 2. Retrieved 15 May 2007.
Payne, Stanley G. (1999). Fascism in Spain, 1923 1977. University of Wisconsin Pre
ss. ISBN 0-299-16564-7.
Payne, Stanley G. (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II. N
ew Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12282-4.
Preston, Paul (1978). The Coming of the Spanish Civil War. London: Macmillan. IS
BN 0-333-23724-2. OCLC 185713276.
Preston, Paul (1996) [1986]. A Concise history of the Spanish Civil War. London:
Fontana. ISBN 978-0-00-686373-1. OCLC 231702516.
Preston, Paul (2006). The Spanish Civil War: Reaction, Revolution, and Revenge.
New York: WW. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-32987-9.
Radosh, Ronald; Habeck, Mary; Sevostianov, Grigory (2001). Spain betrayed: the S
oviet Union in the Spanish Civil War. New Haven and London: Yale University Pres
s. ISBN 0-300-08981-3. OCLC 186413320.
Richardson, R. Dan (2015) [1982]. Comintern Army: The International Brigades and
the Spanish Civil War. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN
9780813164373.
O'Riordan, Michael (2005). The Connolly Column. Pontypool, Wales: Warren & Pell.
Rust, William (2003) [1939]. Britons in Spain: A History of the British Battalio
n of the XV International Brigade (reprint). Pontypool, Wales: Warren & Pell.
Santos, Juli; Casanova, Julin; Sol I Sabat, Josep Maria; Villarroya, Joan; Moreno, F
rancisco (1999). Victimas de la guerra civil (in Spanish). Madrid: Temas de Hoy.
Seidman, Michael (2011). The Victorious Counter-revolution: The Nationalist Effo
rt in the Spanish Civil War. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-24964-6.
Stoff, Laurie (2004). Spain. San Diego: Greenhaven Press.
Taylor, F. Jay (1971) [1956]. The United States and the Spanish Civil War, 1936 19
39. New York: Bookman Associates. ISBN 978-0-374-97849-5.
Thomas, Hugh (2003) [1961, 1987, 2001]. The Spanish Civil War. London: Penguin.
ISBN 0-14-101161-0. OCLC 248799351.
Werstein, Irving (1969). The Cruel Years: The Story of the Spanish Civil War. Ne
w York: Julian Messner.
Westwell, Ian (2004). Condor Legion: The Wehrmacht's Training Ground. Ian Allan.
Further reading[edit]
Brou, Pierre (1988). The Revolution and the Civil War in Spain. Chicago: Haymarke
t. OCLC 1931859515.
Carr, Sir Raymond (2001) [1977]. The Spanish Tragedy: The Civil War in Perspecti
ve. Phoenix Press. ISBN 1-84212-203-7.
Deletant, Dennis (1999). Communist terror in Romania: Gheorghiu-Dej and the Poli
ce State, 1948 1965. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-386-8.
Doyle, Bob (2006). Brigadista: an Irishman's fight against fascism. Dublin: Curr
ach Press. ISBN 1-85607-939-2. OCLC 71752897.
Francis, Hywel (2006). Miners against Fascism: Wales and the Spanish Civil War.
Pontypool, Wales (NP4 7AG): Warren and Pell.
Graham, Helen (2002). The Spanish republic at war, 1936 1939. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. ISBN 0-521-45932-X. OCLC 231983673.

Graham, Helen (1988). "The Spanish Socialist Party in Power and the Government o
f Juan Negrn, 1937 9". European History Quarterly 18 (2): 175 206. doi:10.1177/026569
148801800203..
Ibarruri, Dolores (1976). They Shall Not Pass: the Autobiography of La Pasionari
a (translated from El Unico Camino). New York: International Publishers. ISBN 07178-0468-2. OCLC 9369478.
Jellinek, Frank (1938). The Civil War in Spain. London: Victor Gollanz (Left Boo
k Club).
Kowalsky, Daniel (2004). La Union Sovietica y la Guerra Civil Espanola. Barcelon
a: Critica. ISBN 84-8432-490-7. OCLC 255243139.
Low, Mary; Juan Bre (1979) [1937]. Red Spanish Notebook. San Francisco: City Ligh
ts Books (originally by Martin Secker & Warburg). ISBN 0-87286-132-5. OCLC 48321
26.
Paz, Abel (2011). The Story of the Iron Column: Militant Anarchism in the Spanis
h Civil War. Oakland, CA: AK Press. ISBN 978-1-84935-064-8.
Monteath, Peter (1994). The Spanish Civil War in literature, film, and art: an i
nternational Bibliography of secondary literature. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press
. ISBN 0-313-29262-0.
Prez de Urbel, Justo (1993). Catholic Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939
, trans. by Michael F. Ingrams. Kansas City, MO: Angelus Press. ISBN 0-935952-96
-9
Puzzo, Dante Anthony (1962). Spain and the Great Powers, 1936 1941. Freeport, NY:
Books for Libraries Press (originally Columbia University Press, N.Y.). ISBN 0-8
369-6868-9. OCLC 308726.
Southworth, Herbert Rutledge (1963). El mito de la cruzada de Franco [The Myth o
f Franco s crusade] (in Spanish). Paris: Ruedo Ibrico. ISBN 84-8346-574-4.
Wheeler, George; Jack Jones (2003). Leach, David, ed. To Make the People Smile A
gain: a Memoir of the Spanish Civil War. Newcastle upon Tyne: Zymurgy Publishing
. ISBN 1-903506-07-7. OCLC 231998540.
Wilson, Ann (1986). Images of the Civil War. London: Allen & Unwin.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spanish Civil War.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Relations of Members of the United Nations with Spain
Spanish Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Condecoraciones otorgadas por Francisco Franco a Benito Mussolini y a Adolf Hitl
er
Hilton, Ronald. Spain, 1931 36, From Monarchy to Civil War, An Eyewitness Account.
Historical text A36rchive..
Low, Mary; Bre, Juan. "Red Spanish Book". Benjamin Peret.. A testimony by two sur
realists and trotskytes
Lunn, Arnold (1937). Spanish Rehearsal..
Peers, Allison (1936). The Spanish Tragedy..
Weisbord, Albert; Weisbord, Vera. "A collection of essays". with about a dozen e
ssays written during and about the Spanish Civil War.
"Magazines and journals published during the war" (online exhibit). The Universi
ty of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign..
"Revistas y guerra" [Magazines & war] (in Spanish). Urbana-Champaign: The Univer
sity of Illinois..
Roy, Pinaki (January 2013). "Escritores Apasionados del Combate: English and Ame
rican Novelists of the Spanish Civil War". Labyrinth 4 (1): 44 53. ISSN 0976-0814.
.
"La Cucaracha, The Spanish Civil War Diary"., a detailed chronicle of the events
of the war
"Spanish Civil War and Revolution" (text archive). The libcom library..
"Southworth Spanish Civil War Collection". Mandeville Special Collection Library
(books and other literature). University of California, San Diego..
"Trabajadores: The Spanish Civil War through the eyes of organised labour", a di
gitised collection of more than 13,000 pages of documents from the archives of t

he British Trades Union Congress held in the Modern Records Centre, University o
f Warwick
Spanish Civil War History Project at the University of South Florida
Images and films[edit]
Spain in Revolt, newsreel documentary (Video Stream) (Part 1, 2)
Imperial War Museum Collection of Spanish Civil War Posters hosted online by Vis
ual Arts Data Service (VADS)
Posters of the Spanish Civil War from UCSD's Southworth collection
Civil War Documentaries made by the CNT
Spanish Civil War and Revolution image gallery
photographs and posters from the
conflict
Aircraft of the Spanish Civil War
Battle of Rio Segre Photographs Capa, Robert (1938) International Center of Phot
ography.
Academics and governments[edit]
A History of the Spanish Civil War, excerpted from a U.S. government country stu
dy.
Dutch Involvement in the Spanish Civil War. Columbia Historical Review.
"The Spanish Civil War causes and legacy" on BBC Radio 4's In Our Time featuring
Paul Preston, Helen Graham and Dr Mary Vincent
Other[edit]
Original war reports from The Times
The Anarcho-Statists of Spain, a different view of the anarchists in the Spanish
Civil War, George Mason University
Spanish Civil War information from Spartacus Educational
American Jews in Spanish Civil War at the Wayback Machine (archived 8 December 2
005), by Martin Sugarman
The Spanish Revolution, 1936 39 articles and links, from Anarchy Now!
The Revolutionary Institutions: The Central Committee of Anti-Fascist Militias,
by Juan Garca Oliver
Warships of the Spanish Civil War
No Pasarn! Speech Dolores Ibrruri's famous rousing address for the defense of the S
econd Republic
New Zealand and the Spanish Civil War
Full text in translation of the Collective Letter of the Spanish Bishops, 1937,
a pastoral letter of the Spanish bishops which justified Franco's uprising
Archives[edit]
Robert E. Burke Collection. 1892 1994. 60.43 cubic feet (68 boxes plus two oversiz
e folders and one oversize vertical file). At the Labor Archives of Washington,
University of Washington Libraries Special Collections. Contains materials colle
cted by Burke on the Spanish Civil War.
[show] v t e
Spanish Civil War (1936 39)
[show] v t e
Nazi Germany Nazi Soviet relations before 1941 Soviet Union
[show] v t e
Spain topics
Categories: Spanish Civil WarCarlismCivil wars involving the states and peoples
of Europe1930s conflicts1930s in SpainFrancoist SpainWars involving SpainWars in
volving the states and peoples of EuropeRevolution-based civil wars
Navigation menu
Create accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView history
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store

Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Afrikaans
???????
Aragons
Asturianu
Az?rbaycanca
??????????
?????????? (???????????)?
?????????
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Catal
Ce tina
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
????????
Espaol
Esperanto
Estremeu
Euskara
?????
Fiji Hindi
Franais
Frysk
Furlan
Gaeilge
Gidhlig
Galego
???
??????
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
slenska
Italiano
?????
???????
???????

Kiswahili
Latina
Latvie u
Ltzebuergesch
Lietuviu
Magyar
??????????
??????
?????
????
????????
Bahasa Melayu
Mirands
??????
??????????
Nederlands
????? ????
???
Norsk bokml
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Plattdtsch
Polski
Portugus
Romna
???????
Sardu
Shqip
Sicilianu
Simple English
Slovencina
Sloven cina
?????? / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / ??????????????
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
?????
Taqbaylit
???
??????
Trke
??????????
Ti?ng Vi?t
Vro
Walon
Winaray
??????
??
emaite ka
??
Edit links
This page was last modified on 11 May 2015, at 13:42.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; add
itional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and P
rivacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, I
nc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersMobile viewWi
kimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki