490354the Oral Error Correction Techniques Used by Libyan Secondary School Teachers of English Muhsen Abobaker A. Ali A

The Oral Error Correction Techniques
Used by Libyan Secondary School

Teachers of English
Muhsen Abobaker A. Ali
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment
University
the
the
of
of
requirements of
Sunderland for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
October 2008
Abstract
A number of studies have examined the error correction techniques used by teachers and
offered some advice to both teachers and students in order to enhance the effectiveness of
teaching
learning
and
a foreign
language. However,
few studies have examined the
differences between experienced and less experienced male and female teachers in ways of
correcting students' oral errors, and none have been conducted on Libyan teachers' gender
and/or experience. This study examined the oral error correction techniques used by Libyan
teachers at secondary schools, in particular the 2nd year classes, in Ajelate City. The study
focused on the oral error correction techniques applied by teachers when a student commits
during
errors
speaking or reading English, to determine whether there were any differences
between male and female / experienced and inexperienced teachers in correcting students. It
also examined whether teachers' ways of error correction affected students' participation in
oral activities.
Sixty classroom observations, 20 semi-structured interviews, 65 questionnaires for teachers
for
for
data
200
The
the
triangulation
collection.
and
students were utilised
of approaches
investigate
issue
from
different
Observations
to
the
points and angles.
and semiwere used
interviews
were audio-recorded and the tapes were then transcribed, translated
structured
for
analysis. In addition, the nonverbal communications
and encoded
by
the teachers
used
during classroom observation were taken into account by recording them in a form prepared
for
designed
this purpose.
and
different
to
according
questionnaires
questionnaires
genders and the other to different
were classified
Weighted Arithmetic
Teachers'
according
to students'
were grouped
twice,
experiences, while
once
students'
genders. SPSS programme
and
Means were used to establish the differences between participants'
in
item
the questionnaires.
responses regarding each
The data yielded a number of interesting findings which showed that there were differences
female/
in
between
less
teachers
the
male and
and similarities
experienced and
experienced
Findings
oral
errors.
students'
ways of correcting
also showed that students were affected
by the teacher's gender and experience. At the end of this thesis, recommendations and
suggestions were given.
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PAGE
I'XLLL
Abstract
..........................................................................................
Dedication
..........................................................................................
Table of Contents
..................................................................................
Appendices
..........................................................................................
List of Tables
.......................................................................................
11
III
X
XI
List of Figures
.......................................................................................
XIII
Acknowledgement
XIV
.................................................................................
Author's Declaration
Abbreviations
XVI
..............................................................................
XVII
.......................................................................................
Chapter One
.........................................................................................
1.1 Introduction
.......................................................................................
1.2 Education in Libya
..............................................................................
1.2.1 Changes in the Education System
......................................................
1.2.2 The Old System
...........................................................................
1.2.2.1 Primary Schools
.....................................................................
1.2.2.2 Preparatory Schools
................................................................
1.2.2.3 Secondary Schools

1.2.2.4 University
1
1
2
2
2
3
..................................................................
Level
.....................................................................
1.2.3 New Education System
...................................................................
1.2.3.1 Basic Schools
.......................................................................
1.2.3.2 Intermediate Education Level: (Secondary) (16-18 or 19 years)
3
4
4
............
Education Level (19-22 years)

.......................................
1.2.3.4 Advanced Studies
...................................................................
1.2.3.3 University
1.2.4 Teaching English in Libya
.................................................................
1.2.5 The Goals of Teaching English beside other Subjects at Secondary Schools......
1.2.6 Teaching English at Preparatory Schools

................................................
1.2.7 Teaching English at Secondary Schools
.................................................
1.2.8 Teachers of English in Libya
.............................................................
1.2.9 Schools and Classes of Secondary Level
................................................
English
Teaching
in
Problems
1.2.10
...........................................................
Study
the
Issue
1.3 The
of
...........................................................................
III
5
6
7
7
10
11
11
12
12
15
16
1.4 The Research Questions
.........................................................................
1.5 Aims of the Study

................................................................................
1.6 The Scope of the Study
.........................................................................
1.7 Significance of the Study
.......................................................................
1.8 Contributions of the Study
.....................................................................
1.9 The Structure of the Thesis
.....................................................................
17
17
18
18
19
19
1.10 Summary and Conclusion

.....................................................................
20
Chapter Two: Correction
21
2.1 Introduction
of Errors
..........................................................
....................................................................................
2.2 What is Correction

2.3 Factors Affecting
2.3.1 The Teacher
............................................................................
Error-Correction
..........................................................
................................................................................
2.3.2 The Teacher
...............................................................................
2.3.3 Teaching Methods
.......................................................................
21
23
28
28
33
34
2.3.4 The Aims of Language Teaching

.....................................................
2.3.4.1 What is Accuracy?
.....................................................................................
2.3.4.2 What is Fluency?
..........................................................................
36
2.3.5 Methods of Error Correction

............................................................
2.3.5.1 Feedback
...........................................................................
42
2.3.5.2 Recasts
..............................................................................
2.3.6 The Types of Errors to be Corrected
...................................................
2.3.6.1 Errors of Intelligibility
............................................................
36
38
42
45
46
47
2.3.6.2 Global or Major Errors

.............................................................
47
2.3.6.3 Minor Errors
48
.........................................................................
2.3.6.4 Fossilised Errors
....................................................................
2.3.6.5 Errors Related to the Aim of the Lesson

..........................................
2.3.6.6 Recognition Errors
.................................................................
2.3.6.7 High Frequency Errors
.............................................................
2.3.6.8 Pronunciation Errors ................................................................
in
Errors
Oral
Communication
Grammatical
2.3.6.9
....................................
2.4 Time of Correction ...............................................................................
Errors?
Corrects
2.5 Who
.....................................................................................................
2.5.1 Self-Correction ..........
..............................................
IV
48
48
49
49
49
50
51
52
53
2.5.1.1 Showing Incorrectness
.........................................................
2.5.1.2 Using Correction Techniques
.................................................
2.5.2 Peer Correction
........................................................................
2.5.3 Teacher Correction
...................................................................
2.6 Techniques of Error Correction
...............................................................
2.6.1 Repetition
...............................................................................
2.6.1.1 Individual
Repetition
...........................................................
2.6.1.2 Choral Repetition
53
54
54
56
57
58
58
58
...............................................................
2.6.2 Provision of the Correct Model
......................................................
59
2.6.3 Practice
59
..................................................................................
2.6.4 Selection out of Many Options
......................................................
2.6.5 Writing on the Blackboard
............................................................
2.6.6 Using Teaching Aids
..................................................................
2.6.7 Using the Student's Native Language
...............................................
2.6.8 Using Non-Verbal Communication
................................................
59
60
60
60
61
2.6.8.1 Gestures
..........................................................................
61
2.6.8.2 Facial Expression
62
2.6.8.3 Eye Contact

2.7 Conclusion
...............................................................
......................................................................
.......................................................................................
62
62
Chapter Three: Errors and Certain Aspects of Error Correction

..........................
64
3.1 Introduction
64
....................................................................................
3.2 Researchers' Points of View towards Error and Error Correction
......................
65
3.3 Definitions of Terms Employed in the Study

.............................................
69
3.3.1 Errors and Mistakes

......................................................................
69
3.3.2 Teachers and Error Correction

.........................................................
3.3.3 Teachers' Gender
...........................................................................
3.3.4 Teachers Experience
.......................................................................
3.3.5 Teacher's and Students' Different Gender
.............................................
3.3.6 Learners and Error Correction ............................................................
Correction
Error
3.4 The Importance of
...........................................................
Conclusion
3.5 Summary and
.....................................................................
Chapter
Four: Methods and Instruments
Data
Collection
of
..............................
72
76
82
86
88
91
92
94
4.1 Introduction
.......................................................................................
4.21Research Questions
..............................................................................
4.3 The Methodological Approach
.................................................................
4.3.1 Design of the Study
........................................................................
4.3.2 Triangulation
................................................................................
4.3.3 Reliability and Validity

....................................................................
4.3.3.1 Validity
................................................................................
4.3.3.2 Reliability
...........................................................................
4.4 Ethics of the Study
...............................................................................
4.5 The Pilot Study
....................................................................................
4.6 The Sample of the Participants
.................................................................
4.7 Population
.........................................................................................
4.8 Teacher Participants

4.9 Student Participants
4.10 Observations
4.11. Interviews
..............................................................................
..............................................................................
....................................................................................
.......................................................................................
4.11.1 Semi-Structured Interviews
..............................................................
4.11.2 Validity and Reliability of the Semi-Structured Interviews
........................
4.11.3 Power Relation in Interviews
............................................................
4.11.4 Interviews and Ethical Issues
............................................................
4.1 2 Questionnaires
...................................................................................
4.13 Procedure of Data Collection and Data Analysis
..........................................
4.13.1 Procedure of Data Collection
............................................................
4.13.2 Procedure of Data Analysis

..............................................................
4.13.2.1 The Qualitative Method of Data Analysis
....................................
4.13.2.2 The Stages of Analysing the Data
..............................................
4.13.3 Quantitative Data analysis
...............................................................
.....................................................................
Analysis:
Results
and
Chapter Five:
Qualitative
Data
.....................................
94
94
95
95
97
97
98
99
99
100
103
104
104
105
105
109
110
111
112
113
117
121
121
124
125
127
128
129
131
5.1 Introduction
.......................................................................................
1
Question
5.2 Research
............................................................................
131
5.2.1 Observations ...............................................................................

5.2.1.1 Correction .........................................................................
132
VI
131
132
5.2.1.1. a Direct Correction Technique
132
................................................
5.2.1.1. b Correcting Errors within a Sentence as a Direct Correction............
136
5.2.1. l. c Self-Correction
137
................................................................
5.2.1.1. d Correcting Students by Giving a Chance for Peer Correction.........

5.2.1.2 Feedback
..............................................................................
5.2.1.2. a Using a Recast Technique(s)
................................................
5.2.1.2.b Asking Questions
............................................................
5.2.1.2. c Repeating the Student's Answer
5.2.1.2. d Rejecting (No)

5.2.1.2. e Encouraging
...........................................
................................................................
..................................................................
5.2.1.2.f Praising
........................................................................
5.2.1.2. g Facilitating
.....................................................................
5.2.2 Semi-Structured Interviews
...............................................................
138
139
140
141
142
143
145
146
147
150
5.2.2.1 Steps and Techniques of Direct Correction and Feedback

.....................
154
5.2.2.2 Time of Correction

..................................................................
5.2.2.3 Who Corrects Errors?
...............................................................
158
159
5.2.2.4 Types of Errors to be Corrected

...................................................
5.3 Research Question 2
........................................................................
5.3.1 Classroom Observations
............................................................
161

............................................................
166
5.3.1.2 Who Corrects Errors
167
.........................................................
.............................................
5.3.1.4 Techniques of Correction and Feedback
....................................
5.3.2 The Semi-Structured Interviews
...................................................
5.3.2.1 Who Corrects Students' Errors?
..........................................
.........................................................
5.3.2.3 Attitude to Errors ............................................................
5.3.2.4 Types of Errors to be Corrected ..........................................

Sa PPcParchfestion
.....................................................................
Observation
Classroom
5.4.1
............................................................
Interviews
Semi-Structured
5.4.2 The
...................................................
According
Correction
Teachers'
Gender
to
Error
5.4.2.1
........................
Correction
Error
Students'
Effect
Participants
The
of
on
5.4.2.2
...............
Towards
Views
Students
Errors
Participants'
5.4.2.3
...........................
VII
162
162
168
169
170
172
174
175
176
177
177
179
179
181
184
.......................................................................
Chapter Six: Results and Analysis of Qualitative Data

......................................
6.1 Introduction
.......................................................................................
6.2 Teachers' Questionnaire
........................................................................
6.2.1 Research Question 1
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
6.3 Comparison and Contrast
........................................................................
6.3.1 The Similarity
..............................................................................
185
187
187
187
188
193
206
220
220
6 3.1.1 Manner of Oral Error Correction

.
................................................
.................................................................
..............................................................
224
6.3.1.4 Language Skill and Components

................................................
225
6.3.2 The Differences
.............................................................................
6.3.2.1 Manner of Oral Error Correction
................................................
6.3.2.2 The Time of Correction

...........................................................
..................................................................................
................................................
Chapter Seven: Findings
Discussion
and
.......................................................
7.1 Introduction
.......................................................................................
7.2 Discussion of Findings
........................................................................
7.2.1 Findings of Question One
................................................................
................................................
7.2.1.2 Time of Error Correction
.........................................................
7.2.1.3 Who Corrected Errors? ..........................................................
Skills
Components
Language
and
7.2.1.4
................................................
Two
Ouestion
722 PinclingS of
................................................................
Oral
Error
Correction
Manner
of
7.2.2.1
................................................
Correction
Time
of
7.2.2.2
.................................................................
Errors?
Corrects
Who
7.2.2.3
..............................................................
Skills
Components
Language
and
7.2.2.4
................................................
Three
Question
7.2.3 Findings of
...............................................................
VIII
220
225
226
226
229
229
229
234
234
234
234
234
240
241
243
248
248
257
258
259
262
PAGE
MISSING
IN
ORIGINAL
Table
List of Tables
Page
Table 1.1
The subject areas in secondary schools in Libya

........................
Table 2.1 &2.2
The communication continuum

.............................................
37
Table 3.1
Some of the main differences between behaviourists and Mentalists points

of view regarding to errors and error correction
..................
69
Table 4.1
The population and the randomised samples

..............................
103
Table 4.2
Grouping the schools regarding the location distance

..................
122
Table 4.3
Time Matrix of Data Collection

............................................
122
Table 5.1
The frequency of the common error correction and feedback techniques by

less
experienced and
experienced teachers in oral error correction during
direct classroom observations
...........................................
169
Table 6.1
The number of participants regarding their sex

.................................
188
Table 6.2
The number of participants and the percentage according each
group years' experience......................................................

Table 6.3
The distribution of the participants between experienced and

195
in
teachers
as considered this stud
inexperienced
Table 6.4
The number of experienced and inexperienced participants, their gender

and percentage...........................................................................
Table 6.5
197
The number of experienced and less experienced teachers who taught the
basic grade
Table 6.8
196
The teachers' with 10 or less years' experience' responsesin each. item

A.
W.
Ms
to
their
according
ranked
....................................
Table 6.7
195
The teachers' with 11 or more years' experience' responsesin each item

A.
W.
Ms
to
their
ranked according
..............................................
Table 6.6
194
202
...................................................................
The teachers' number according their experiences and the kind of classes
they are teaching .........................
XI
203
.....................
. ........
Table 6.9
The kind of classesteachers prefer to teach

...............................
203
Table 6.10
The number of teachers according to their beliefs towards classes...........
204
Table 6.11
The methods that the teachers' use in teaching English
204
Table 6.12a
The male students' responses in each item ranked according to their W. A.

Ms
Table 6.12b
..........................................................................
.........................................................................
232
The type of classesthat teachers prefer to teach according to teacher's

experience.........................................................................
Table 6.15
214
The methods of teaching English and how they are used among
teachers
.............................................................................
Table 6.14
213
The female students' responsesarranged according the percentage power of

each item
Table 6.13
...................
232
The type of classesthat teachers prefer to teach according to teacher's

gender ..............................................................................
XII
232
Figure
Figure 1.1
List of Figures
The public education system before the revolution in Libya
Page
until the late 1980s

Figure 1.2
The changes of the education system in Libya
Figure 1.3
Class structure and arrangement in secondary schools in
Ajelate city
13
Figure 4.1
An overview of the research design and methodology
96
Graph 6.1
The number of teachers according to their experience 1
195
means > 10 and 2 means<11

Graph 6.5
the number of teachers according to their own experience and
205
the method(s) they use

Graph 6.6
Male and female students' responses according to their
215
teachers' experience.
Graph 6.7
The teachers' gender according to students' responses
216
Graph 6.8
The teachers' correction while the students speak
217
Graph 6.9
The students' response regarding their teachers' way of oral
218
error correction
Graph 6.10
The students' responses regarding their teachers' behaviour
218
Graph 6.11
The differences between male and female students in their
219
oral classroom activities

Graph 6.12
The students' responses with regard to teachers' patience
XIII
219
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere thanks
and gratitude to Dr. Felicity Breet for all her
invaluable guidance, comments, advice, support
and encouragement. She provided me with
all I needed to overcome obstacles and she never hesitated in her endless patience to discuss
issues
any
related to my success. All these have helped me to bring this study to its present
shape.
I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Ahmad Nazari who has given all
his support and encouragement which were the source of keeping me on course to finish
this study. He opened his office and heart to listen to my ideas and never ever hesitated to
support me when I needed it. He was like a candle that showed me the way when it got dark
to keep me going to reach my aim and complete this study.
I am especially thankful to all participants without whose enthusiastic cooperation and help
this work could not have been completed. Special thanks are also due to all staff members
at the University
of Sunderland for their unlimited support and encouragement. I would like
to express my gratitude to Dr. Elizbeth Atkinson who has supported me during this study.
Thanks are also due to Dr. Alex Dockerty who helped me in statistical analyses.
My thanks and gratitude are also due to the following:

Ms Liz Sandaver with whom I have discussed my work and issues related to this study. Ms
Maddalena Taras, Ms Heidi Gritzan, Ms Kim Willis
for their warm encouragement. My
thanks also go to Chris Long, Ms Lucy Marriott, Mr Paul Campbell and Mr David Thomas
for their participation
in the pilot study at Sunderland University during summer 2005.
I would also like to express my faithful
thanks to all people who are in the education
in
Very
to
journey
data
thanks
facilitated
go
all
should
special
collection.
my
authority and
headmasters and all teachers who participated in this study for their warm welcome and
in
These
to
the
thanks
in
their
all
students
all
extend
contribution.
valuable
making
patience
in
this
study.
schools who participated
Gratitude
is owed to all my colleagues in the Department
University
in particular Dr Sallah Metto, Mr Sadique Bossifi, Mr Salama Embarik, Mr Eid
El-rabi,
Said
El-shallali
Mr
and
April
7th
English
the
at
of
for their assistance and translation into Arabic of some
during
data
I
in
levels
thank
taught
the
collection.
all
items of
who
of
questionnaire
me
any
XIV
journey
from primary until finishing this study. I would like to convey especial thanks
my
to Dr Widad Aradi, Dr Balhouq, Dr Targi Al-beshti, and Mr Habib Al-rammash at the

Academic Studies in Tripoli who encouraged me to finish my PhD degree.
Finally, special thanks and gratitude to my wife, my mother, my sons Mohamed, Ahmed,
Abobaker, Mahmud and daughters Marwa and Safa whose unlimited patience, support and
help were my source during my study in the UK. Great thanks are also due to my brothers
Rasheed, Moftah, Munsof and all my sisters for their support. Special thanks are due to my
father, mother, sisters and brothers in-law for their support, motivation and encouragement.
xv
University
Sunderland
of
School of Education and Lifelong Learning
Author Declaration
I certify that, to the best of my knowledge, all the material in this thesis representsmy own
In
in
have
has
been
I
work.
addition, whatever
cited or paraphrased
mentioned
my
list.
reference
Signature
Date:
...........................
.................................
xv'
Abbreviations
EFL
English as a Foreign Language
FL
Foreign Language
FS
Female Student
HE
Higher Institutes
L2
Second Language
LEA
Local Education Authority
MA
Master in Arts
MS
Male Student
NL
Native Language
NNS
Non-native Speaker
PhD
Doctorate of Philosophy
SLA
Second Language Acquisition
SLL
Second Language Learning
SLQ
Second Language Researchers
SLT
Second Language Teaching
SPSS
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.
TEFL
Teaching English as a Foreign Language
W. A. M.
Weighted Arithmetic Mean
XVII
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a brief historical background to the development
of the education system
in Libya with special emphasis
on teaching English as a foreign language. It also discusses the
changes in the education system, comparing the old and the new structured at all stages and
levels of the education system. It focuses in
particular on teaching and learning English.
This chapter also states the main research questions
which the researcher will investigate in
order to find answers to them. It also states the essential aims and limits of the scope of the
current study in which light is shed on the significance of the current study and it shows the
role of the teacher (male-female) when his/her students commit oral errors. It illustrates the
main contribution in the field of teaching and learning English as a foreign language. Finally,
this chapter shows the structure of this thesis and the summary of this chapter.
1.2 Education
in Libya
Libya (The Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) is one of the developed countries
has
which
given education special attention, especially after the September Revolution of
1969, and has made it one of the country's priorities. Education is the right of all Libyan
citizens and it is compulsory for both sexes from the age of six until the age of sixteen. The
in
has
forms,
Libya
is
Public
two
taken
education system
either public or private.
education run
by the Secretary of Education and it is free at all levels from primary school to university. The
Secretary of Education is responsible for building schools, employing teachers and supplying
have
been
by
In
books
private education, schools
run
and students' curricula.
schools with
for
joining
Schools
fees
the
system.
education
private
personal administration and students pay
in public education have accepted learners from the age of six, whereas schools in the private
flexibility
have
more
education system
five.
from
The
the
age
of
and may accept students
has
been
by
Authority
Educational
the
system
encouraged
private education
because it has
been considered as a new concept in Libyan society, which was started in the mid 1990s.
have
follow.
The
to
to
they
both
options
students
In
select which course(s)
want
systems,
because
it
is
free
Libyan
the
citizens
choose
public
education
and
system
of
charge
of
majority
have, on average, six children at school, while only a few choose private
families
most
1
education. The latter have the ability to pay for their children's education
/or
like
them to
and
start a little earlier, believing that learning at private schools is much better than
at public
schools.
1.2.1 Changes in the Education System
The education system in Libya was affected by
many of the Educational Authorities'
decisions
and changes in order to find a suitable system to cater for the needs of the country and cope
with the rapid changes in the world and the modem requirements of the era. Because of The
Libyan Educational Authorities' belief that education is the
human
to
path
social and
technological development and progress, education in Libya has received great attention from
the state at all levels, especially at the legislative level, which organises the educational process
on all paths and levels. This concern with education is clearly evident since the rise of the
Great E1-Fateh Revolution
first
the
on
of September 1969. The education system has
undergone many changes and been reviewed many times according to local and international
development.
intermediate
The reviews
level.
included
The Libyan
all levels in the education system especially the
Education
Authority
help
the
sought
of national
and
international experts to cope with world developments. The new education system is manly
based on the idea of the specialised technical and vocational education at the intermediate
level, to fulfil
Libyan society's needs of specialised cadres to cover the requirements of the
labour market. The new educational system has been gradually introduced over the few past
years and completely
(The
Libyan
2003-2004,
National
the
academic
applied since
year
Commission for Education, Culture and Science 2004). Therefore, it is worthwhile to divide
the changes according to stages and levels of study with regard to the education system.
1.2.2 The Old System

The system of education in Libya consisted of primary schools, preparatory schools, secondary
schools, and university.
1.2.2.1 Primary
Schools
before
this
stage
of
education
and after the revaluation from 1969 until
This was the name of
The
Hence,
to
these
the
1980s.
age
admittance
late
schools
was
six
period
years
and
over.
the
lasted
level,
in
the
this
six
years
schools
when,
at
end
of
pupils
would
receive
primary
study
of
a certificate for completing primary education. Teachers at these schools were graduates from
teachers' institutes and the majority of them were men.
1.2.2.2 Preparatory Schools

After pupils had finished the primary grades, they transferred to
preparatory schools when they
reached the age of twelve years or over. This phase required three years of study and, at the
end of the third year, the student would receive a certificate for completing the preparatory
level after they had passed the final exam. Subsequently, students had the
option, either to
continue their studies at university, through secondary level, or to choose vocational institutes.
1.2.2.3 Secondary Schools

However, at the secondary level, students' ages might be sixteen years or over. This level
lasted three years and at the end, students obtained a certificate for completing secondary level.
This certificate gave the right to students to join university.
1.2.2.4 University
Level
At university level the students' age was seventeen or over. It consisted of four years and at the
end of this stage, the students would get their degree with which they could then obtain a good
job. The majority of university staff members were foreigners who came to teach at university
level. However, education in Libya was compulsory until the age of sixteen; and children from
the age of six had to go to public schools.
Primary School for six

years
Preparatory Schools
for three years
Teachers
Training
Institutes for
four years
Vocational
Training varies
according to the
programme 2-4
Secondary schools for

three years
University
levels for four years and
over
Figure
1.1 illustrates
1.2.3 New Education
the public
education system before the revolution
in Libya until the late 1980s
System
1.2.3.1 Basic Schools

Libya has witnessed great changes and transformations since 1980, with the aim of re-guiding
fulfil
to
serve and
education
21s' century demands (The Libyan National Commission for
Education, Culture and Science, 2001: 62). The new education system was started late in the
1980s and the primary system was replaced by the basic system which consists of nine years,
into
level
is
divided
has
been
Education
The
Basic
level
cancelled.
whereas the preparatory
three parts:
A) The first part consists of four years and enrols the age group of seven to ten years.
B) The second part consists of two years and enrols children in the age group of eleven to
twelve years.
C) The third part consists of three years and enrols children in the age group of thirteen to
fifteen.
last
in
in
level
females.
Libyan
twenty
the
this
teachers
years
are
The majority of
Basic
Educational
Schools. 9 years
Teachers'
Institutes
5 years
Work, part
time study
specialist schools
4 years
Years of university vary

according to the field of study
(From 4 to 6 years)
Figure
1.2.3.2 Intermediate
Secondary
Vocational
institutes
4 years
Work, part
time study
1.2 shows the changes in the education system in Libya
Education Level: (Secondary) (16-18 or 19 years)
The secondary level has faced wide changes in the length of the period of study and the
material to be learnt. Therefore, the years of study have been changed and instead of three,
they have become four, and instead of general subjects, they have become specific. The new
level
large
this
education system at
opened a
window to students to choose any subject they are
interested in, which prepares them for suitable universities. They are able to choose a branch of
knowledge
which will
in
i.
to
them
specialise
e. education, medicine, computing,
enable
following:
divided
into
life.
is
It
the
physics, engineering, maths and general science of
A) General Secondary Education. It is one type of education system which aims to prepare a
branches
The
different
for
to
three
students can choose
of
study
university.
years,
student, after
knowledge in a variety of subjects, but they must study some compulsory subjects.
B) Specialised Secondary Schools. This extends from three to four years and becomes
Students
to
secondary
education.
public
at specialised schools study
gradually an alternative
first
following
in
they
the
to
table,
the
after
which
year,
specialise
as
according
subjects
general
for
Commission
National
Education, Culture and Science (2004):
Libyan
The
from
cited
Secondary Schools
School of Life Sciences
The School subject areas
,
School of Basic Sciences,
Medical Sciences
Agricultural Science
Biology- Chemistry
Physics-Math
School of Engineering Sciences, Building

School of Economical Sciences, Administrative
Sciences
School of Social Sciences, Arabic language
School of Arts& Media, Fine & Practical Arts
Electricity & Electronics, Mechanics, Natural

Resources
Financial Sciences & Banking Information &
Statistics
Religious Sciences, English Language, Social
Sciences
Medial Arts
Table 1.1 shows the subject areas in secondary schools, in Libya
In Libya, the teaching of English language, mainly in the secondary stage, is directed towards
for
the post-secondary stage which attracts most of the school levels.
preparing students
English is the medium of instruction in university education, especially in the field of medical
business.
faculties
in
in
Thus,
the
to
and
science, engineering
admission of students
study
universities
dealing with
these fields requires a good standard of English. Students at
in
by
having
intensive
level
English
their
to
private
resort
weakness
secondary
overcome
faculties
finish
desired
by
they
teachers,
to
the
when
needs of
qualified
meet
courses, mostly
their secondary school stage.
1.2.3.3 University
Education Level (19-22 years)
This includes universities, higher institutes and higher technical and vocational centres. It lasts
for three years in some centres or institutes and for six years in some university faculties (The
Libyan National Commission for Education, Culture and Science 2001,16). Higher education
follows a natural overall plan adjusted to the present and future needs of Libyan society. It is in
is
life
in
developments
drive
full accord with the
aimed at
spheres, and
all aspects of
of
University
life
to
globalisation and modernity.
according
reconstructing social and economic
fields
different
in
of
society
and
specialists
at
providing
with
experts
ultimately
education aims
life i. e. teachers, lawyers, engineers,researchersand experimenters.
1.2.3.4 Advanced Studies

Advanced studies were begun locally (inside the
country) during the latter part of the last
decade and includes MA (Master's) degrees,
and PhD (Doctorate) degrees. Many graduates of
MA and PhD degrees have joined teaching
staff at higher institutes and universities to fulfil the
shortage of staff members and replace foreigners.
1.2.4 Teaching English in Libya

The value and benefit of foreign language learning has been
by
Libyan society. In the
approved
1940s, English, Italian and French were introduced as compulsory
subjects at different levels
of the Education System. Many students from Libyan schools gradated with ability to speak
English, Italian and French fluently.
The English language was a priority among these three
foreign languages because of the large population of young people in Libya who had a great
interest and desire to learn English. As a result of that, English has been widely spread among
Libyan people and especial attention has been given to improving teaching and learning the
English language rather than other foreign languages (see Al Moghani, 2003: 18,34). The
desire to learn a FL led to an increased demand for English. This demand was met by many
institutes
during
the 1970s and the early 1980s.
schools,
and universities which were opened
Many students were sent to study English outside Libya, to countries in which English was the
native language such as the UK, Canada and the USA. During that time there was great
in
in
between
Libya
UK
USA.
Many
the
the
and
and
others
cooperation
some universities
from
Canada
English
have
USA
Britain,
teaching
the
the
and
are
now
students who
graduated
language at Libyan universities.
Since 1940 the English language has formed a prominent part of the curriculum. The main
introduction
behind
the
objectives
Gusbi
into
English
Libyan
the
educational system, as
of
(1984) states, are to enable students to use what they learn to express themselves; to read
(v).
"To
He
this
textbooks
English
achieve
with
says
comprehension
and
passages
simple
he
learn
listen
imitate
to
to
the
teacher
important goal, the pupils should
says
what
carefully,
learn
to
themselves,
they
express
and
write
spell
right
speak
clearly,
what
use
correctly,
legibly" (ibid: vi).
The curriculum designers have

attempted to achieve a perfect balance between the four skills
listening,
of
speaking, reading and writing. Their endeavour is also to enable students to
understand the language readily and to speak fluently, as well as to enable them to express
themselves clearly in writing. The objectives are related to the achievement of both
accuracy
and fluency in English with more emphasis on fluency, as students are meant to be able to
recognise and produce spoken English forms in everyday life situations.
Teaching and learning the English language has faced many changes. For instance: in 1968, the
English language was established in the curriculum of primary schools. The authority decided
on teaching English to the fifth year grade when pupils were aged eleven. The decision found
from
the majority of society but this did not last long when the Libyan revolution
wide acclaim
started on 1StSeptember 1969. However, most of the teachers and inspectors at that time were
from the UK and the USA.
After the Libyan revolution
in 1969, teaching English was taken off the primary school
curriculum but was kept at all other levels in the education system. There was great concern
during the revolution
in
English
Libya,
teaching
about
so the revolution
continued the
kept
door
between
It
Libya
the
the
open
and
native speakers' countries.
collaborative attempts
to English teachers from different countries to teach English in Libya. During this time
teaching the English language has undergone immense development and great progress.
In 1973, the Libyans launched a Cultural Revolution in schools, universities and institutions
(Arabic
language
importance
their
increasing
the
native
of
students' awareness of
aimed at
language). The revolution
has taken this decision to keep society close to its culture and
identity. As a result of the Cultural Revolution, Libyan authorities introduced major reforms to
the educational philosophy
textbooks were "Libyanised"
language
English
textbooks.
the
and curricula of
educational
became
local
toward
and
culture aiming to reflect
oriented
life
(see Al Moghani, 2003: 4). This was the case till
Libyan social, economic and political
Authority
decision
Education
took
the
to suspend teaching the
the
unexpected
1985 when
basic
Libya's
in
first
in
the
the
two
language
education
system
of
and
years
English
the
as
a
result
of
system
political
intermediate education
This
situation.
was the case until
1991, when the Education Authority
decided to restart teaching English language to the
seventh year of the basic level. Furthermore in 2005, the English language became
a
compulsory subject for the students in year three, who are around nine years of age. Teaching
English has been eagerly received on the
part of the Education Authority, who have revised the
old curriculum which was unworthy and out of date. Therefore, they devised the alternatives to
learners'
suit
needs and provided up-to-date textbooks which are modernising and expanding
the technical and vocational views of students. Consequently, the Libyan Education Authority
cooperated with some famous companies to design syllabuses and textbooks to replace the old
textbooks at preparatory and secondary levels and cope with the needs of the era. As we have
seen, the changes did not stop at the basic level but went further to the secondary level in
which students are involved in teaching modern English language.
The traditional view of the syllabus was nothing more than a specification of the linguistic
features to be taught purely at all stages. This procedure of syllabus has been under attack for
many years. Dissatisfaction with the traditional view of syllabus design led to redefining the
concepts of that syllabus to reflect its adjustability and emphasise the non-linguistic features in
(Mohamed,
1987). Viewing the traditional syllabus from different sides
syllabus construction
and angles led to a revolution
in language teaching, whereby the traditional methods of
teaching, such as the grammar translation method, direct method and audio-method, began to
lose ground
and was
submerged,
to be replaced
by
the communicative
approach.
Unfortunately, traditional methods and approaches to language teaching are still used by some
teachers in some schools.
Now, Libyan schools in different branches of the education system require teachers to teach
English language through up-to-date approaches. The new textbooks are designed according to
language.
learning
The
theories
teaching
theories
of
complementary
of
and
new concepts and
Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner were taken into consideration in presenting the new curriculum.
is
based on interaction and communication approaches to
the
The new version of
curriculum
learn language through real situations and avoid the traditional methods
learners
to
encourage
language.
idea
The
is
foreign
these
theories
the concern
of
in teaching a
which was adopted
development.
These
their
the
theories
and
cognitive
view
adopted
participation
students'
with
that action led to the formation of thought and not

vice versa, taking into account the role of
social structure and environment (Cameron, 2001). Plaget realised that students need to create
learning
a
community to support their learning, from their environment, at home and at school.
Bruner emphasised the role of the teacher to let
students think, work and focus on what they
learning
by scaffolding them. Vygotsky also emphasised that social interaction
are
was
necessary and the key to success in learning. Students learn more and more in collaboration
friends
with parents,
and others than they can do by themselves (ibid: 2001; Lantolf and Appel,
1994; Lantolf, 2001). The new course books are designed and written specifically for Libyan
students. The tasks and contents have been carefully prepared to meet the specific needs of
students at each level. The new approaches encourage students to work together and help each
other to produce language with a communicative purpose.
Teaching English has faced global changes with a strict evaluation in teaching materials and
equipment but there was another big problem floating on the surface which, till now, has not
been solved. Many schools are still suffering from the shortage of qualified teachers who could
teach the new curriculum, because the new curriculum is based on new approaches which most
highlighted
because
idea
have
This
the
teachers
most of the teachers
about.
problem was
of
no
had graduated from teacher training institutes a long time ago and most of them did not come
in
Therefore,
the
the
most of them are not satisfied with their role
past.
across
new approaches
in teaching English, especially at secondary schools.
1.2.5 The Goals of Teaching English alongside other Subjects at Secondary Schools
The main goals that the education authority in Libya seeks are summarised by Al Faloughi and
A1Ghadafi (1990: 7) as follows:

1. Secondary level prepares Libyan students to continue their education at university.
2. Provide Libyan students with the necessary skills needed for learning and work.
3. Improve students' knowledge of languages (English and Arabic).
languages
know
these
to
and
4. Improve students' abilities
communicate with others who
has
literature
English
the
which
and
with
with
students
contemporary
usage,
acquaint
language.
English
the
vitalised
for
Enhance
possibilities
students who could not continue their studies.
employment
5.
10
6. To utilise the Libyan and Arab background

far
as
as possible to facilitate the linguistic
objectives.
7. To ensure that English studies at school are a source of interest, pleasure and
pride to
students.
Generally speaking, Libyan society is aware of the importance of teaching English language at
different levels in the education system due to the fact that English is widely spread among
countries all over the world and it is the language of science, machinery and technology.
Libyans are also aware that English is of great value to people who go abroad to finish their
studies, or even to those who travel abroad for their private business. Students and their
families are conscious that people who speak English have great opportunities to find a job
do
large
English.
Nowadays,
than
more easily
others who
not speak
numbers
society employs
interpreters
departments.
in
foreign
The chance
translators,
the
tourist
of
and clerks
and
service
in
of employment
private tourist companies is also worth mentioning.
1.2.6 Teaching English at Preparatory
English is a compulsory
Schools
during
for
the three years at
taught
six periods a week
subject
began
in
in
Libya
English
Teaching
preparatory schools where students are
preparatory school.
forty-five
lasts
lesson
Each
the
twelve
other subjects
equals
which
minutes
old.
years
around
Physics,
Mathematics,
Geography,
History,
language,
Islamic
Arab
and
education,
such as the
Biology.
1.2.7 Teaching English at Secondary Schools

field
the
to
in
is
time
of
level,
English
students'
At this
taught
scales according
a variety of
both,
In
the
human
level,
At
science.
science or practical
this
students choose either
specialism.
least
have
in
human
three
different,
is
lesson
at
length of the English
sciences
e.g. students
join
English
day.
to
This
lessons out of seven timetable slots a
stage prepares students
The
be
in
English
teaching
at secondary schools.
departments at the university to
specialists
his
the
three
the
level
three
takes
receives
student
of
which,
years,
at
end
years,
this
study at
the
university.
to
at
enrol
certificate
11
1.2.8 Teachers of English in Libya

Teachers who teach English language
basic
at
and secondary levels of education either
graduated from teacher training institutes or English departments at the university. Teachers
who teach these levels should be trained and well prepared for the level they teach. However,
institutes, which prepare teachers to teach the Basic Level, faced
some
1980 (Abofarwa, 1988). Five-year teacher training
programmes have been
teachers training
changes in
established since1980 as an alternative to four-year teacher training courses for the Basic
Level. The main purpose of the new alternative system is
improvement
a major
and a positive
step towards raising the quality of teachers in particular (ibid). Teachers at secondary level are
graduates from English departments at universities or higher teachers' institutes (see figure
2.1). The latter have been established since 1992 to prepare teachers for
level.
All
secondary
these changes have been implemented to develop and raise the quality of teachers at Basic and
Secondary Schools.
1.2.9 Schools and Classes of Secondary Level
It is useful to give a description of secondary schools and where students have opportunities to
learn English. This may help the reader to get a clear picture where a secondary student spends
their time during school days. Libya is one of the countries which have realised the important
role of education in speeding up the pace of human development of society and due to the
increase of demographic development for Libyan population, schools are built to help students
have
increased
They
to
cope with changes
society.
rapidly and are established everywhere after
1969 at all levels. However, the specialised secondary schools are assigned to replace the
demographical
distributed
to
the
structure of the
according
public secondary ones and were
last
few
developments
during
in
There
the
years
are also
number and equipment
population.
for
1100
Commission
in
(see
National
2004
Libyan
for
the
schools
while
example reached
Education, Culture and Science, 2004: 20). The aim of every school is simply to make classes
in
for
try
the
all
students:
other words all people
prepare suitable classes
needs of
ready to meet
for both students and teacher. Schools are designed basically for teaching and the number of
30.
These
12
large
forty
forty
five
have
from
to
to
classes
are
enough
or
students.
classes varies
in
four
(1.3)
following
figure
they
The
three
in
are
usually
and
or
Students sit
rows.
may
rows
Every
has
how
arranged.
are
student
a table and a chair and can sit close to
illustrate
classes
12
another student in rows. However, boys and girls sit in separate rows. In this way the different
sexes are separated. The number of classes varies from school to school due to the school
location from students' houses and the
school reputation. The average student number is
twenty five in each class. Students receive seven lessons a day in different
subjects such as
Arabic, history, geography and English. Students
intensive
English lessons four periods
receive
a week and each period is forty five minutes.
owl
R
B
off
ail
0B
a
eg
c>EI '2EI
T]
16
Figure 1.3 represents class structure and arrangement in secondary schools in Ajelate city
The Libyan students all share the same cultural, linguistic background as well as the same
factors
influence
learning.
learning
take
these
may
environment where
processes
place, and
The secondary education system includes four years of study and enrolment covers the age
This
(see
1.2.3.2).
(16
19)
to
system consists of general
subsection
group of
years old
divided
into
institutes.
Secondary
schools are
secondary education and vocational centres and
four
level
have
English
5).
(see
periods a
classes at secondary
table 1.1 page
six specialisations
first
In
45
their
takes
year of secondary school, students study
minutes.
week and each period
books covering general English while for second year and beyond different books have been
level
for
to
for
at
the
of
specialisation
a
students
six
specialisations
prepare
of
each
written
institutes.
higher
university or
Students in Libya have limited access to use English outside the classroom and when they meet
few
have
is
Arabic.
Nevertheless,
tongue
a
which
some students
they speak their mother
family
in
English
their
travel
they
to
with
possibly
only
when
communicate
opportunities
13
during the summer holiday. From

what I have said, English lessons in the classroom are vital
for students' learning and language development.
Although there are specific textbooks assigned for
each secondary year teachers, face some
obstacles such facilitated equipment in their teaching, i. e. power point, labs, transparency paper
or recorders. Therefore, teachers are highly dependent on their own materials and resources in
teaching English to help their students gain better understanding. This may indicate that there
differences
between teachers in the ways of presenting materials of teaching.
are some
Moreover, teachers are also under pressures of different factors such as time, the need to cover
the syllabus, the requirements of the examinations and the large number of classes. These
factors may lead teachers to encounter difficulties when engaging some teaching practices such
free
group work or
communication activities.
Teachers who teach English at secondary should hold licences or a Bachelor degree. This
means that Libyan teachers who teach at this level (secondary and/ or intermediate) are
be
different
Teachers
teach
this
to
subjects at
stage are supposed
university graduates.
who
skilful
is
develop
This
to
them
to
enter university.
enough
students' abilities and prepare
because the secondary phase often requires teachers to offer students a broad area of
knowledge that covers the curriculum Moreover, teachers who teach in this level should also
develop their role as facilitators and managers of learning; it is essential that they should be
learning
Having
in
this,
direct
teachers
the
to
their
need
to
said
process.
engage
students
able
be
field
join
the
to
and
aware of students' needs.
education
especial preparation
Unfortunately,
in Libya some teachers who teach English at the secondary phase are not well
in
this
does
teach
This
teachers
that
the
who
not mean
prepared to teach secondary students.
stage are not university
from
but
them
suitable
are not graduates
graduates
some of
be
Arts
from
to
Faculty
i.
teachers
the
departments, e. some
and are supposed
of
are graduated
fields
in
because
have
teaching
they
methods or gone
other
studied
not
translators or work
is
because
field
Such
in
there
teachers
the education
are employed
through pre-service training.
do
The
the
to
English
teachers
teachers
to
who
are
come
qualified
who
so.
shortage of
the
teaching
the
aware
affect
not
of
may
are
principles
of
and
and
methods
sector
education
teaching
their
in
students
the
and
of
correcting
ways
oral errors.
their role
14
The teaching load for Libyan teachers

at secondary schools varies between 8 to 12 lessons per
is
It
week.
rare to find a teacher's load reaches 16 or 18 lessons a week. However, the load of
every teacher is supposed to be between 18 and 24 lessons per week. This may indicate that
all
the teachers who participated in this study have 12 lessons
or fewer. In Libya most teachers,
especially the females, do not go to school everyday because they are accustomed that if they
do not have lessons their presence is not important. This does
not mean the principles and the
education rules allow teachers who do not have classes to be absent from the school during
days
but it is a custom wide-spread among teachers, headmasters/
working
mistresses and
society.
1.2.10 Problems in Teaching English
In the school system, the major and difficult problem encountered by the Education Authority
in every City is the shortage of qualified Libyan teachers, especially at secondary schools, in
the field of English language teaching (see the Libyan National Commission for Education,
Culture and Science, 2004: 16). Teaching English in the secondary stage, is carried out mainly
by Libyan teachers who received their academic qualification from Libya. It follows that the
English
it
for
to
the
to
students exposure
and
opportunity
actually use
communication purposes
fact
from
limited
due
to
the
that
their
training
the English environment.
were very
was away
They were trained in an environment where English is hardly used. Moreover, students were at
the age of puberty and needed to be treated gently.
Nevertheless, there are some other obstructions which face teachers teaching English in Libya
at this level such as:
1. The communicative approach has recently reached Libya with the introduction of new
in
the
teaching,
books
this
the
while
approach
of
use
which
recommended
course
it.
have
information
the
teachers
the
on
way of using
not enough
majority of
2. Many schools face the lack of teaching equipment, for example, overhead projectors,
language laboratories and sometimes even tape-recorders.
do
have
inside
interact
the classroom
the
time,
to
the
Most
students
not
3.
opportunities
of
for two reasons; either for the lack of the time or for the overcrowded classes.
from
date
in-service
to
to
training
Teachers
a shortage of
are suffering
cope with up
4.
developments
in
learning
foreign
languages.
teaching
research
and
changes and
15
5. In the last ten years,

some graduates from English departments are not prepared or
trained to be teachers of English at secondary schools (see the Libyan National
Commission for Education, Culture and Science 2004: 16-19).
Although they may have a vast knowledge, outstanding
cultural awareness and speak English
fluently, that does not necessarily mean that they
are able to teach English, stimulate students'
interest.
1.3 The Issue of the Study

My choice of this topic does not come about by chance or by luck, but it is a result of more
than ten years' experience as an inspector of English language at the secondary and preparatory
level in my country. Through this journey of experience I have realised that Libyan teachers of
English language at secondary level worry too much when their students commit errors during
oral activities,
such as answering questions, reading a passage and acting out a dialogue.
Teachers try to offer their oral error correction to their students at any time, even when it may
be unnecessary, and sometimes they may go further than that and deliberately seek out errors.
Some teachers may also believe that a good teacher is one who does not leave any single error
without
correction
believe
behaviourists'
the
they
and
may still
theory regarding error
fear
immediately,
for
becoming
be
that
of
errors should
corrected
correction which states
be
Besides,
they
aware of old methods of error correction only, such as
acceptable.
may
direct
translation
method or audio-lingual method, and unaware of others
grammar
method,
in
48-49).
The
2007:
(see
Harmer,
the
interactional
the
of
students
number
method
such as
deprive
in
large
the
high
is
students
of
may
which
schools,
of
a
number
classroom
still
Teachers
to
use
encouraged
are
not
opportunities of collaborative and communicative work.
in
in
oral activities.
error correction such as self and peer correction
various techniques
All
deeply
for
this
think
issues
of
problem and
mind
me
those
my
a
and
made
while
engaged
justification
find
I
any
could
where
for what is going on inside secondary classes during
English lessons, when students commit errors and their teachers correct them, to answer the
female
how
1.4).
has
been
done
(see
Little
and
male
subsection
on
research
research questions
has
in
lessons.
during
Little
English
oral activities
comparison
teachers correct students' errors
less
their
the
teachers
on
ways
experienced
correct
been
out
and
experienced
carried
also
The
how
towards
this
attitudes
students'
affect
may
error
correction
and
errors.
oral
students'
16
their L2 learning have not been researched in-depth

either. Therefore, I decided to work on this
issue to find answers by investigation into
what is going on inside the classroom.
1.4 The Research Questions

In this thesis the researcher will investigate the following
questions:
1. Are there any differences between male and female Libyan teachers in the
ways of
correcting students' oral errors? What are these differences, if any?
2. Do experienced teachers pay more or less attention to the
process of oral error correction
than less experienced teachers? If yes, how and why?
3. How do teachers' gender and experience affect students' participation in
oral activities in
the classroom?
In regard to these questions, I believe gender difference is one of the variables associated with
teaching and learning in Libya and it may cause discrepancy among teachers (see Mussa,
1988). It is also essential to shed light on whether teachers' gender is so important that it
influences their ways of error correction during English classroom activities at secondary level.
Moreover, teachers' years of experience in teaching English is another variable that is worth
considering. It is claimed that teachers with a lot of experience usually correct their students'
(see
Trigwell et al., 2005), at a time when there is a
than
those
errors more
of short experience
beginners
in
duly
English
try
to
teaching
that
counter claim
and
show more seriousness
enable
their students to achieve better success (ibid).
1.5 Aims of the Study

Error correction is one of the most important aspects of foreign language learning and teaching
(Bartram and Walton, 1991; Edge, 1993; Ellis, 1995; James, 1998; Mitchell and Myles, 1998;
Brown,
2000; Gass and Selinker, 2001; Johnson, 2001; Block,
According
(1994:
Sunderland
to
2003; Rydahi, 2005).
166-7), male and female teachers often look at error
literature
factor
The
have
done
I
different
the
in
that
a
of
ways.
review
shows
correction
is
(2002
Granstron
in
As
Einarsson
correction
error
under-researched.
and
teacher's gender
3), point out most research concerning classroom interaction has focused
2006:
Houtte
in
cited
the
the
teacher.
gender
of
neglecting
gender,
on students'
17
Experience is also an important factor in learning

and teaching as it can support or undermine
teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning (see Sato
and Kleinsasser, 2004: 803). Research
shows that experienced teachers criticise less experienced ones on their teaching activities
less
whereas
experienced teachers do not criticise more experienced ones (see Sato and
Kleinsasser, 2004: 804). The factor of teaching experience in
oral correction, according to the
literature review I have done is also under-researched. As these two factors
be
to
seem
underresearched and because learners can be affected by teachers' experience and gender (see Hall
and Hewings, 2001: 282), the focus of this thesis is on these two variables, namely gender and
in
experience,
oral error correction. In this research, the researcher aims to explore oral
correction techniques used by Libyan teachers during English lessons at Ajelate secondary
by
find
trying
to
schools
answers to the research questions (see subsection 1.4).
1.6 The Scope of the Study

This study is concerned with how teachers correct oral errors committed by students in English
language lessons at Ajelate Secondary Schools (intermediate level). The choice of this level in
is
due
fact
it
is
level
beginners,
to
the
that
transitional
particular
a
where students are neither
i.
nor advanced, e. at primary
level, teaching English is generally labelled as weak and
ineffective (see Al Moghani, 2003: 39), therefore teachers may need to do a lot of correction,
do
less
level
to
teachers
the
oral error correction.
are
expected
or at
university
where
This study is focused on the way in which teachers correct oral errors, i. e. errors committed in
Such
lesson
during
English
errors usually occur when students are acting out
activities.
speech
by
by
dialogue,
teachers
to
another student, practising
or
questions posed
giving answers
a
pronunciation,
believed
it
is
In
that
teachers
the
of
study,
current
and/or reading exercises.
English at the secondary level have more options in terms of their adaptation of some particular
methodological
Culture
for
Education,
Commission
(see
Libyan
National
the
and
strategies
2004:
science
64-65),
among which
the correction
forms
a paramount
of oral errors
component.
1.7 Significance
Study
the
of
learning
important
issues
in
the
teaching
deals
and
most
and processes
with one of
This study
(male
female)
his/her
teacher
the
the
or
when
student commits oral
role of
EFL. It shows
18
errors. It presents what exactly a teacher does or does not do to correct students' errors; what
their perspectives are and how s/he acts towards students'
errors.
This current study serves to provide a picture about how

experienced and less experienced
teachers correct students' errors and how their correction techniques encourage their students'
participation.
It explores the different methods which are used by teachers according to their
gender and experience. This study is significant
because it is the first in Libya which
investigates whether there are any differences between male and female and experienced and
less experienced teachers in correcting students' oral errors. My findings will
feed into
building a more complete EFL error correction theory.

1.8 Contributions
Study
the
of
This research will contribute to the field of teaching EFL by:

1. The comparison of male and female teachers in oral error correction techniques in TEFL
because there is not much research concerning teachers' genders in correcting students'
oral errors.
2. The comparison between experienced and less experienced teachers in oral correction.
3. Offering certain findings for building a more complete EFL error correction theory.
4. The improvement
(especially
Libyan
in
EFL
techniques
teachers
error correction
of
teachers) in how to deal with their students' errors during oral activities.
1.9 The Structure
Thesis
the
of
This thesis is divided into eight chapters. Chapter one begins with the introduction and a
description of the Libyan education system, the status of teaching English language and the
the
it
the
Besides,
and
the
significance
study,
of
scope
the
outlines
study.
current
aims of
literature
to
Chapters
three
related
two
of
reviews
the
contain
and
research.
contribution of
factors
Chapter
the
two
and
correction
error
oral
of
meaning
shows
correction.
errors and error
four
Chapter
learning
light
FL
Chapter
three
problems.
and
on
sheds
correction.
which affect
five
Chapters
data
tools
the
and six
the
collection.
of
methods and
describes and constructs
discussed.
be
final
findings
In
the
data
and
summarised
will
chapter
seven,
analysis.
the
exhibit
be
the
and
recommendations
will
recorded.
conclusions
In chapter eight,
19
1.10 Summary
and Conclusion
This chapter has introduced the education system in Libya with special emphasis on the way of
learning and teaching English as a foreign language. It has been pointed out that the English
language has been affected by various decisions and changes. It has been mentioned that the
is
divided
into two parts the old system and the new one. This chapter has
education system
formed the three main research questions in which the researcher will
has
examine, and
clarified the aims, of why the researcher has decided to undertake the current study.
This chapter has also explained the significance of the present study and it is considered as a
in
level
Libya,
study
and particularly
precursory
especially at secondary
in Ajelate city.
Besides, it has pointed out contributions in the field of teaching and learning English with
less
female,
between
the
and experienced and
male and
comparison
special emphasis on
in
the role of oral error correction.
teachers
experienced
20
Chapter Two: Correction
of Errors
2.1 Introduction
Many researchers and teachers feel strongly that
errors are crucial, central and essential, as
inescapable
fact of language learning and teaching (see Bartram and Walton, 1991:
well as an
iii). This does not mean that an ill-formed piece of language is better than the
form
but
accurate
this changes the traditional notion that errors are `bad habits' (see Mitchell and Myles, 2004:
15). The researcher strongly believes that an obsession with errors affects students in general
negatively. The researcher also believes that the basic problem is not why or when a learner
commits an error, but what techniques and methods are needed to correct that error. The
researcher also considers correction is a response to errors, but how much correction do
students need to correct students and what types of correction should we follow? Gass and
Selinker (2001: 292) clarified "corrections cannot occur with all incorrect forms".
In human language, oral communication is the most common form which takes place every day
(see Lynch, 1996: 105; Martin and Miller, 2003: 1). Teachers and students communicate and
interact orally while they read, discuss topics, ask or answer questions. 2). In some L2 lessons,
teachers and students learn to communicate by using the target language to express themselves.
Therefore, in order to communicate in L2 clearly, they may integrate components of their L1
(ibid:
levels
FL
3).
together
the
with
such as sound, grammar, choice of words and meaning
During the students' interaction with their teachers, students commit various types of errors
(1991)
Walton,
be
Bartram
to
pointed out, all students make errors,
and
corrected.
which need
doing
by
Some
too
teachers
to
them.
severely.
teachers
others
react
nothing;
react
react
and all
The ones who react by doing nothing maybe more or less concerned with fluency rather than
by
demoralise
like
do
be
to
that
they
The
error
students
not
other reason could
accuracy.
(1987)
language.
Hendrickson
like
the
but
to
their
to
they
encourage
students
use
correction,
is
in
to
talk.
the
want
students
the
on
which
creation
of
an
atmosphere
emphasis
points out,
fearing
feel
free
learners
during
leads
the occurrence of
to
their
Such emphasis
speech without
too
Those
to
their
(388).
error
severely
every
single
react
pick
up
who
students'
errors,
errors
distinguishing
between major and minor errors. Major errors
immediately
without
and correct
involve
those
those
the
errors
which
and
overall
structure
of
a
sentence
are
or global errors
21
hinder
errors
communication
of the speaker's message while minor or local errors are those
which affect a particular element but the message of the speaker may be still understood (see
Burt and Kiparsky, 1975; Lengo, 1995; Moss, 2000).
Personally, I strongly reject this technique because this
sort of teacher does not encourage
students to build up their self confidence, but students feel that error correction is a kind of
punishment rather than a step towards learning the TL. Each teacher acts according to his/her
attitude towards errors. Therefore the attitude towards oral error correction varies among
learners and teachers of the foreign language.
In Libya teachers are sometimes confused about how to help their students when they commit
during
errors
oral activities.
Some teachers still have a tendency to provide explicit and
elaborate grammatical correction to students' oral activities. They may do that in order to
improve students' accuracy regardless of the type of errors and the time of correction.
In my experience some teachers spend much time in correcting students' oral errors without
realising
that
error
correction
help
may not
improve
students
their
accuracy when
in
directly
by
They
the
communicating
classroom.
correct students' errors
providing the correct
form to all errors by themselves. In my experience, they justify that error correction is their job
feel
do
leave
Some
teachers
proud when
may also
and
any single error without correction.
not
they grasp the student's errors and correct them while some teachers emphasise how students
fluency.
high
final
in
the
to
the
students'
get
marks regardless of
exam
perform accurately
Moreover, some teachers may be surprised when they are asked not to correct all errors during
have
is
Libyan
in
That
FL.
teachers
to
various understandings of error
say,
oral communication
have
Libyan
it
is
in
teachers
that
may
not surprising
oral activities;
correction techniques used
different teaching behaviours and different reaction towards errors and error correction. In my
lose
do
if
their
they
think
they
teachers
may
errors
students'
correct
not
may
experience, some
students' trust.
be
is
between
be
borderline
is
to
to
the
corrected
not
corrected and what
what
In some respects,
discuss
know
This
is
it
to
chapter will
what correction precisely means.
valuable
is not clear;
distinguish
how
by
they
researchers
and
presented
many
correction
definition
error
of
the
22
between different kinds

of error correction. This chapter will also shed light on the factors
which may affect error correction. Consequently, the following section
presents some
definitions of the term correction.

2.2 What is Correction?
The literature review has shown that researchers have defined
correction or error correction in
many ways related to the type of error, the aim of the activities and how serious the errors are.
There is no consensus among researchers for one
overall definition. The following are some
definitions presented by various researchers, for
example: Gainer (1989) in his article "Clozing
in on oral error" argued that correction is provided in the
oral language classroom to help
students to identify difficult
areas and reformulate rules in their minds in order to produce
language more accurately, but he added that many correction techniques

frustrate
to
seem
and
intimidate students rather than enlighten them (1). Gainer's definition concerns pronunciation
errors rather than written ones.
Saxton (1997 cited in Lochtman (2003) pointed out that error correction is a form of input
(273). Lochtman (2003) also added that error correction is the way to inform the learner that
the language just used needs repair and helps the learner to try again to get the form right. The
discussion of the role of error correction is part of a large discussion on the role of focusing on
form, especially in teaching L2. Lochtman's definition emphasises accuracy in all aspects of
language and gives a chance to the learner to participate in the operation of correction to avoid
teachers' correction. Lochtman's
definition
definition
Baker
Westrup's
to
was similar
and
(2003), who pointed out that correction during speaking activities should always be done
positively
and with
fear
let
to
the
of
students participate and overcome
encouragement,
definitions,
in
both
In
(34).
emphasis was placed on students' participation
committing errors
in
involve
themselves
positively
order to
Arnold (1998) points out that "correction can be defined as feed-back on errors" (261), while
is
"Correction
(1989),
a way of reminding students of the forms of Standard
Edge states
kind
be
(20),
James
But
to
It
of
criticism
a
or
English.
punishment"
not
according
should
been
in
has
used three senses:
(1998) the term correction
23
1. Feedback which informs the learners

that there is an error, and leaves them to discover it
and repair it themselves.

2. Correction-proper
which provides treatment or information
of the specific instance of
error without aiming to prevent the same error from recurring later. The corrector can
give a hint but without getting to the root of the problem. This is like doing a temporary
repair on your car, just to get you home.
3. Remediation which provides the learners with information that
allows them to revise or
reject the wrong rule (235-40).
These definitions of error correction as presented by Arnold (1998), Edge (1989)
James
and
(1998) did not make a clear cut distinction between direct and indirect error correction. They
tried to emphasise the role of correction to help the learner to correct him/herself in producing
accurate language, rather than as a way of criticism or punishment. Consequently, Karolina
(2000) pointed out that error correction is the direct intention of pointing the student's attention
towards an error and giving him/her time to think about the nature of the error. In other words,
be
error correction should
used with the purpose of drawing the student's attention to notice the
error and understand the correction.
From the above-mentioned definitions it can be derived that correction can lead the learner to
know the correct or appropriate forms of language, whatever the method of correction is.
James (1998) pointed out that correction can be divided into `surface correction' and `deep
first
deals
The
with the correction of the error without addressing the source of the
correction'.
(237).
involves
behind
The
latter
target
the
the
the
explaining
aim
error
reason
problem, while
is
in
to encourage students to speak accurately and avoid
teachers
oral error correction
of
"Indeed
be
(2000)
that
the
Green
reported
as
successful
normal
speech
can
seen
errors, as
(409).
avoidance of error"
In chapter three, more explanations and various views about
discussed.
be
correction will
Mitchell
is
(2004)
in
frame
`negative
Myles
the
correction
put
of
evidence' which
and
language
development.
in
By
helpful
they
second
some
negative
evidence,
mean
and
necessary
know
learner
form
is
lets
that
the
the
to
input
that
a
particular
not
acceptable
according
kind of
24
target language norms. Correction according to interaction theory

takes different forms of
correction, ranging from formal correction offered by a teacher, to a more informal
one offered
by a native speaker during communication
him/her
(ibid: 22). Regarding Mitchell and
with
Myles' (2004) definition, there is a great
similarity with Gainer and Lochtman's (2003) and
Baker and Westrup's (1989) in which all
emphasise that error correction is not limited to
teachers only but they gave the opportunity for self-correction and peer correction.
According to current theories, Mitchell and Myles (2004: 22) suggest that any
language
natural
is learnt from positive evidence alone and corrective feedback is largely irrelevant
and not
accepted. This postulation
is rejected by many researchers (e.g. Ferris, 1999/ 2004) and
supported by others (e.g. Truscott, 1996; Hendrickson,
1987; El-Aswad, 2002; Havranek,
2002; Robert and Stevens, 2004). Hence, Mitchell and Myles (2004: 181) stated, "It is possible
that the corrections which are produced by learners immediately after negative feedback are
forgotten...
". By the same token, Mackey et al. (2000 cited in Mitchell and Myles
quickly
2004), stated that learners could be aware of lexical and phonological correction but they could
be less aware of grammatical errors (183).
In the same way, Williams (2005: 686) confirmed
Mitchell and Myles by saying "... there appears to be a growing body of evidence from studies
in and out of the classroom that suggests that negative feedback of various kinds can make
input data more salient and help learners notice the gap between their own production and the
target".
Teachers' strategies for understanding their students' performance vary to some extent with the
formal
(or
tried
to
to
Several
teachers
read)
reacted
type of activity taking place.
experienced
fashion,
in
`friendly
during
FL
by
reserving
native speaker'
a
activities
students
errors made
in
All
FL
for
teachers
and
correction
activity
engaged
activities.
practice
active correction
did
however,
form
of
regardless
consistently,
so
some
at
sometime,
of
explicit evaluation
in
help
(2001)
teachers
Seedhouse
that
this,
Regarding
may
strategies
offers
some
type.
activity
direct
for
dislike
He
linguistic
that
teachers
a
strong
show
errors.
reports
correcting students'
indirect
forms
feedback
this,
to
error
mitigated
and
of
and
minimise
and overt negative
do
better
He
to
that
teachers
be
explicit
an
choose
also
argues
would
applied.
correction can
direct
(2001:
368)
"Teachers
Seedhouse
overt
and
are
avoiding
says:
correction.
means of error
25
negative evaluation of learners' linguistic errors with the best intentions in the world,
namely
to avoid embarrassing and demotivating them".
Positive evaluation of students' FL utterances
was very commonly
by
teacher
expressed
repetition plus a brief FL comment. Reaction to formal error, if felt appropriate, took a variety
forms:
of
modelling of the correct form by the teacher or a student, indicating the existence of
an error without
modelling,
or giving
contrasting examples, or explanation. Such error
handling exchanges typically persisted until the student at fault produced a corrected version
of
his original utterance; they were often conducted entirely in English.
Lochtman (2002) has reported in her article that focusing on the form opposed focusing on
meaning and that classroom interaction differs from real or natural foreign interaction outside
the classroom. Teachers in fact are aware that learning language outside the classrooms may be
more effective and natural especially if that language is used at home. This indicates that
inside
correction
a classroom depends to a large extent on the aim of the activity and what the
teacher wants the students to focus on (271). She also pointed out that there are three different
degrees of salience in the input for language learners:
1. Explicit error correction is an explicit provision of correct form by the teacher, preceded by
has
that
error
occurred.
an
a clear suggestion
2. Recasts, is the teacher's reformulation of student's errors without a clear suggestion that an
is
importance
but
the
has
the
teacher
that
this
type
the
students
provides
of
occurred,
error
focus
is
form
the
the
on one word only.
when
correct
with
3. Self-correction that the teacher initiates self-correction by students (276).
is
by
"Error
that
technique
defended
130)
(2002:
a
El-Aswad
correction
saying
error correction
is
definition
El-Aswad's
detect
the
they
more
help
correct
errors
commit".
and
to
students
aims
indicates
`help'
that
the
less
which
word
as the above mentioned ones and emphasises
or
let
but
for
blaming
them
to
a
way
is
an
error,
students
committing
not a way of
correction
(see
Heubusch
by
the
and
difficulties
again
sentence
again
and
whole
repeating
overcome
definition
is
limited
El-Aswad's
to
However,
one particular aspect of
not
1998).
Lloyd,
types
exception.
but
errors
without
of
to
all
correction
26
Havranek (2002) in her

article "When is corrective feedback most likely to succeed? " points
out that correction feedback is meant to juxtapose the student's utterance
its
and
corresponding
version in the TL and draws the student's attention to structures that have
been
not
mastered,
thus initiating a learning process. She believes that in
order to improve students' knowledge of
the new language, both teachers and students must constantly
match or compare between what
the student has learnt in the TL and try to find if there are
any differences between the two
utterances. Consequently, Havranek's definition
is unlike El-Aswad's;
her definition gives
emphasis to correction of the students' utterances and omits other aspects of language such as
grammatical features i. e. subject-verb agreement, verb tense and plural forms.
Error correction has been the subject of debate among SLQ for
in
years
giving specific
definition of errors and error correction. There is otherwise no evidence of consensus
among
researchers about the effect of error correction in language learning (see subsection 3.2). Only
recently among researchers, is there evidence of error correction which can facilitate learning
and acquisition of the target language, (see Havranek and Cesnik, 2001: 100). However, since
some teachers' and researchers' attitudes towards errors have changed and considering that
errors are no longer a `sin' but are an integral part of language development, some errors are
likely to disappear as a student grows up (McDonough, 2002: 146). This means that some
disappear
development
language
in
learning. It is true that
errors may
as a result of a student's
is
but
differ
in
know
they
the ways and the
teachers
that
all
may
correction
a result of errors
time of using it. They may also differ in regard to what extent error correction gives the desired
do
(2001)
Cesnik
Havranek
that
teachers
rely on corrections which
not
explain
results.
and
development
in
lead
i.
do
desired
have
the
to
they
the
student's
permanent
effect
e.
not
always
language (100). However, it should be noted that error correction is not an undesirable activity
in the communicative
is
it,
but
it
impede
to
teachers
advised
classroom situation, nor are
Teachers
desirable,
the
are advised
especially when
error stops communication.
necessary and
is
it
by
necessary; overcorrection
repeating the whole sentence again
to give correction when
is
not worthwhile,
and again
because students may feel anxious and dislike participation.
hope
in
I
Finally,
be
to
their
Teachers should
provision of oral error correction.
very prudent
definition
the
come to
that error correction is a technique employed by a teacher to help a
difficulties
the
student overcome
s/he faces in producing language, taking the psychological
27
feeling of the student into

consideration. It takes two forms; direct correction when a teacher
corrects the error him/herself, or indirect correction when a teacher indicates the
presence of an
error and helps the learner(s) to correct that error themselves (see DeLoache et al., 1985;
Rydahl, 2005). The direct correction depends
on a teacher to provide the correct form to the
student, while indirect correction depends to a large extent on the students' ability to gain the
form
correct
or utterance with the help of the teacher's verbal or non-verbal communication.
2.3 Factors Affecting
Error-Correction
Correction is not a random procedure which teachers use whenever they like. It depends
on
important
factors
some
which must be taken into account in order to achieve progress and
success in language learning. Researchers believe that correction is a strong feature of teaching
language in the classroom, but there is no consensus among researchers or teachers as to how
and when to offer correction (see McDonough, 2002: 145).
The following
investigate
sections
some factors which may affect error correction:
1- The
teacher. 2- The learner. 3- The teaching method. 4- The aims of language teaching. 5- The
methods of correction. 6- The types of errors to be corrected. 7- Time of correction and 8- Who
corrects errors.
2.3.1 The Teacher

In the light of the teacher's role in teaching language as well as error correction, many
empirical
and experimental
studies have investigated the effects of teachers' oral error
in
Teachers
together
ESL
supportive
effectively
and students can work
students.
correction on
Cullingford
learning
ESL/EFL.
According
to
towards
relationships to achieve good results
(1995: xi) "it is always possible to accumulate information, but how do we acquire wisdom? ".
but
information
fills
is
the
the
s/he
The teacher
students' minds with
only one who
not
how
Teachers
knowledge
in
discover
try
to
this
to
situations.
use
appropriate
them
encourages
For
that
their
teaching
make
more effective and more useful.
to use different techniques
in
front
dialogue
the
to
and
class
ask
some
volunteers
of
act
out
a
teacher
may
the
example,
in
There
some
who
participate
classroom
are
always
to
activities.
students
give presents
lot
because
job
have
like
than
their
they
others, maybe
a
and
teachers who are more effective
know
Such
to
to
them
their
when
correct
that
students'
errors.
correction
enables
of experience
28
be
can
relevant to the aim of the activity which concentrates on accuracy or fluency. Regarding
this, Gore et al. (2004) argue that not all graduates of teacher education programmes become
great teachers i. e. those teachers who are well prepared to improve their teaching and seek
suitable ways to encourage students to learn (357). Harrison et al. (2004) state, "Teachers must
learning
if teacher education is to be a dynamic process. The learning process for
never stop
teachers must be about their practice, must be built on experiences derived from their practice".
Teachers need to build their ability in how they solve problems that may face them in their
how
is
in
they
teaching
this
classrooms and
use effective
practice
correcting students' errors;
by
gained
experience. Robert and Stevens (2004) emphasise, teachers become conscious, clear
in
learning
oral
and aware of various elements which enhance students'
and react positively
knowledge
based
(670).
They
that
these
add
all
elements are
on so-called practical
correction
(2000)
(ibid).
However,
Wilson
is
developed
teaching
explains that
over many years of
which
the aim is how the teacher organises their thinking about what is happening in the classroom to
learning
into
deeper
insight
the
to
them
process and to maximise the effectiveness
gain
enable
(303).
learning
their
to
to
experience
share
experiences and encourage students
of the
Edge (1993), Gettinger (1993) and Larsen-Freeman (2000) advise teachers to be sensitive to
For
teachers
technique.
to
example,
encouraging
adopt an
student's needs and expectations and
fluency
increase
to
to
emphasise
or
to
time
activities
to
pronunciation
give
extra
may need
is
to
One
the
teacher's
roles
by
of
correcting sentence grammar and structure.
accuracy
if
because
hesitation,
the
language
are
stressed,
students
the
to
without
use
encourage students
But
learn
to
they
anything.
unlikely
are
unmotivated,
or
self-conscious
made uncomfortable,
better
developing
in
find
feeling
great success
teachers who know their students' psychological
102)
(2000:
Larsen-Freeman
emphasises
learning in the ways of correcting students' errors.
learner
has
in
the
way".
a
non-threatening
produced
what
"Teachers
with
that
should work
Rivers (1981) in this respect said:
in
factors
involved
a
which are
In view of the emotional and personality
be
in
language
on
personal
meaning
can
a
new
expression
exchange,
verbal
friendly
feel
in
at
atmosphere, where students
a relaxed and
developed only
(227).
teacher
each
other
the
with
and
with
ease
29
In the same way, Doff (1997)

added that the teacher can improve the students' chance of
learning the language successfully
all the way through by;
1. Creating a productive working atmosphere in the
classroom and a good relationship with
the class.
2. By recognising that the students have different
needs and problems and
3. The teacher should be sensitive to the needs of individual
students (283).
This means that the teacher should create a positive atmosphere by, for
example, greeting
students, making jokes, smiling, encouraging students, and clapping when someone produces
correct sentence(s) in the classroom. Crookes and Chaudron (1991: 63) emphasise that there
factors
are
which may affect the climate of the classroom, such as how enthusiastic the teacher
appears, and whether s/he appears happy, and uses humour in classroom. They also add:
As teachers we cannot ignore the fact that classroom SL learning has a
dimension.
It might be assumed that all practitioners are aware
social
of this, and also that all SL teachers will strive to arrange for a relaxed,
in
learning
(62).
to
supportive environment
order
promote
The teacher should not forget that the classroom atmosphere is strongly affected by the
teacher's attitude, and also by her/his behaviour, such as how s/he corrects errors, the way s/he
how
in
how
discipline,
FL
the
the classroom
s/he maintains
and
much s/he uses
asks questions,
(Macaro, 1997; Doff, 1997).
In the same way, Rivers (1981) advises teachers to supply information or corrections in a low,
interrupt
flow
does
The
the
teacher's attitude to error
thoughts.
of
not
supportive voice which
little
If
insists
ignored
be
the
teacher
either.
mistake
on correcting every
correction should not
(all errors) by a continual interruption of the erring student, s/he will destroy communication,
feel
hesitate
frustrated
(226-7).
and
their
will
part,
and students, on
The following
by
teachers
to
their
treatment
according
reaction and
of errors,
classification of
light
discussion
(the
the
topic
teacher):
(1988)
on
under
more
Wajnryb
sheds
"
identify
it,
teachers
they
then
usually
recognise
an
error,
and
classify
The most experienced
procedure.
correction
appropriate
an
choose
30
Teachers advocating the behaviouristic
view usually respond uniformly
to every error,
pounce on it and insist on native-like behaviour.

"
Less experienced teachers can have a complex reaction to errors by either responding
inappropriately or failing to notice the error or not realising what the problem is (242).
The behaviour displayed by this last type of teacher is said to be due to any of the following:
1. Teachers are not sure of some errors such as those of pronunciation and therefore, they
cannot correct their students.
2. They are unfamiliar as yet with the language-learner-language and behave in the classroom
it,
by
focusing
they
as
would outside
on communication rather than on the actual words.
They do not only need to do this, i. e. focus on the communicative intention, but also to pay
form
learner's
the
to
the
of
message.
close attention
3. They lack practice in classroom correction procedures.
4. They are influenced by the need for survival on their courses: if they do not acknowledge an
it
(ibid).
try
to
to
they
correct
are not obliged
error
four
in
towards
(1997:
145)
ways which are
Macaro
error
adds that teachers can react
summarised as:
2.3.6.2).
(see
ignore
subsection
1. Teachers can
errors, when they are global ones,
has
(verbally
that
made an error.
s/he
2. They can inform the student
or non-verbally)
from
the student.
ìmmediate'
3. They can elicit an
correct response
focused
`treatment'
exercises and post
such as repetition,
4. They can pursue a course of
help
their
to
errors.
eradicate
students
may
which
activity evaluation
the
that
I
by
maintain
various researchers, strongly
From the above mentioned explanation
the
in
and
the
correction
error
oral
of
is
operation
crucial
and
significant
teacher's role
very
language
and
to
accurately
the
in
use
lies
motivation
with
students
providing
solution always
is
beneficial
overand
that
necessary
when
I
correction
emphasise
also
appropriately.
have
be
Only
that
unacceptable
errors
avoided.
should
errors
oral
all
of
correction
(1990)
Harley
be
stated:
et
al.
corrected.
should
consequences
31
We suggest that the type of teacher

response likely to motivate successful
error correction is not "Wrong! " repeat after me, " but you mean this or do you
mean that? It's not clear from what you've said" (76-7).
However, many researchers emphasised that it is
important
an
part of the teacher's job to
motivate students in learning the target language (Ur, 1996; Richards and Rodgers, 2001;
Cook, 2001). The teacher's motivation of students
and the way he/she treats them are
important
considered
elements in the success of the TL and strongly related to students'
achievements in learning language. The teacher should have the ability to manage all the
circumstances inside the classroom to facilitate learning the target language as Donald and
Kneale (2001) stated:
Good language tutors gear their speech to the ability level of the class;
discussion
maintain
at an appropriate intellectual level; broaden and enrich
students' vocabulary and knowledge of structures by deliberately using a wide
and varied range of words, phrases and registers; and strike a balance between
correcting mistakes and encouraging communication (18-19).
Zion and Slezak (2005: 876-8) argued that the teacher must guide, focus, challenge, encourage
and motivate student learning and they believe that teaching and learning involve complex role
for
(2005:
Santagta
493) reported that the teacher's role plays a
teachers
changes
and students.
crucial part in shaping the student's reaction towards error correction and the ways of
in
involved
i.
if
to
teacher
oral activities
get
encourages a student
correcting students' errors e. a
in
him/her
does
the
to
this
participate
other
students
may
encourage
out,
and
not stress
communication.
Santagata considered that the teacher's first responses, both verbal and non-
(ibid).
in
influenced
the
error correction
student's contributions
retrospectively
verbal,
For example, direct correction is not always useful because we focus on meaning, although
form serves meaning. According to Brown, in his paper, (2003 JALT Pan-SIG Conference
Proceedings), teachers must recognise that the traditional views of pronunciation, grammar and
linguistic
limit
the
student's
vocabulary
indeed
Hence,
teachers
offer their
options.
should
for
(81).
language
In
three
these
teaching
full
of
aspects
words,
of
other
versions
students
do
focus
teachers
the
in
of
not
units
on
phonemes,
as
smallest
pronunciation,
example,
involve
but
intonation,
more
suprasegmentals
such
and voice
as
stress,
distinctive sound,
32
quality. In grammar, the notion of requiring students to use complete sentences when they
speak and write should be considered. In vocabulary, one may also emphasise that teaching a
in
word
context, and idioms which have a range of meaning, should be taken into consideration
(ibid).
Hyland (2003) reported that traditional grammar sees language as a set of rules and a learner
forms
functional
language,
the
the
acquire
must
and produce correct
view sees
of
while
language as a resource for making meaning in a range of contexts. Consequently, the
traditional view of language assessment is directed at evaluating errors, i. e., the learner uses
individual
linguistic forms correctly, but the learner should be evaluated as to how s/he uses
language resources to make meaning clear in order to convey the message.
2.3.2 The Learner

Naiman et al. (1978) quoted in Stern (1996) say:
Good language learners are not necessarily those to whom a language comes
have,
frustrations,
have
have
but
they
and
overcome
persevered,
very easily;
level
of achievement
after many trials and errors, achieved a satisfactory
(380).
key
has
S/he
to
learning
in
play
a
role
is
teaching
the
The learner
process.
and
the central core
inside the classroom. A learner should acknowledge that coming to the school and attending
but
be
learning
erring
language lessons is for the purpose of
accurately, therefore speech might
learners'
increases
the
important
attitudes
positive
is
This
be
which
point
a very
corrected.
can
necessary.
their
when
errors
to
teachers
students'
correct
towards correction and encourages
the
important
learners
of
resource
that
8)
are seen as an
McDonough (2002:
pointed out
teaching operation.
from
findings
on
99)
study
(2001:
that
the
a
comprehensive
Cesnik
out
pointed
Havranek and
by
is
type
and
the
corrected
that
error
feedback
of
affected
correction
show
oral corrective
feedback
type
found
They
of
the
that
and
successful
most
learner
characteristics.
certain
indicates
This
that
does
by
him/herself,
i.
learner
the
that
e.
self-correction.
is
the
one
correction
in
from
is
involved
if
the
correction
correction
s/he
accurately
more
a student assimilates
it
do
tend
to
may
react negatively as
not accept correction and
Some students
operation.
33
decrease their confidence. Thus,

error correction should be based to a large extent on the
individual's personality and attitude. The teacher is the
only one who can recognise the
students' attitudes in order to motivate them to gain great benefit from error correction. Macaro
(1997) refers to students' motivation as a vital part in learning FL and suggests that they
should
it
see as useful for their future, not as something vague or as an aimless subject. Cooperation
with their teachers creates a positive
Motivation
atmosphere to practise language in the classroom.
also provides students with enjoyment and immediate success to develop their
learning and cope with teachers' strategies in error correction (73-75).
As
mentioned,
students are different
in many ways;
including
motivation,
emotion,
understanding, personality and way of learning. Inside the classroom, a teacher may find a
good, average or poor student for whom correction of the first two affects change, while for the
latter it does not. Students may also use different learning strategies in terms of their dealing
Students
high
do
the
they
with
errors
make.
with
self-esteem
not care too much about
for
they
the sake of success,
committing oral errors, so surely
will accept oral error correction
low
is
in
In
their
to
selfcommunicate
oral activities.
contrast, students with
since
major aim
fear
both
speaking and committing
esteem
in
the
this case will
errors;
result
be the
do
forms,
not reveal to the teacher where their
since students
establishment of wrong
The
lie
towards
them.
that
errors plays a
attitude
students'
correct
s/he
can
so
weaknesses
lack
For
in
techniques
the way and the
example, students who
of error correction.
crucial role
in
in
to
their
oral classroom activities, or receive
participate successfully
ability
confidence
harsh oral error correction, often listen in silence without any enthusiasm.
in
learning
the
to
I have already mentioned that correction methods are used
student's
support
(2001:
Candlin
Breen
language
become
his/her
and
speaker.
and
a
good
to
goals
achieve
order
4) stated "good speech, like good writing,
be
the
the
to
of
needs
sensitive
must surely
receiver".
2.3.3 Teaching Methods
know
teachers
who
quite well that their students commit various
There is consensus among
language.
from
FL
be
Those
the
practising
errors
eliminated
can
while
errors
oral
types of
34
by
classroom
providing the students with correct forms, but teachers of language differ in how
they correct students' oral errors.
Attitudes towards error-correction
determined
by
the adopted method of teaching
are
mainly
and the theory it is based on. Richards (1997: 18) states: "All language- teaching methods
operate explicitly
from a theory of language and the beliefs or theories about how language is
learned". For instance, the behaviourist theory is strongly against the occurrence of errors and
considers an error as a symptom of ineffective
teaching or as evidence of failure, and
immediate
idea
immediate
It
that
the
the
types
adopts
correction of all
of errors.
recommends
help
forms
fossilisation
the
students acquire
and will
of wrong
correction of errors will prevent
the habit of learning the correct forms only. James (1998) argues that,
the
Errors prevention by overlearning
the
of
strategy
preferred
was
Behaviourists, whose ideas so influenced the audio-lingual approach to FL
teaching, giving rise to the intensive use of structure drills. Drills provide
intensive practice, and it was assumed that practice makes perfect and that
(241).
perfect meant error-free
McDonough (2002) pointed out that the method of teaching restricts the exercises which may
be used by teachers in classroom activities, for example, grammar-translation typically used
de-contextualised
for
translation
sentences
while
audio-visual
exercises used situational
dialogues based on pictures and students' repetition but the communicative method emphasised
3.2)
to
(see
The
(109).
attitude
subsection
mentalists
communication and speaking exercises
FLs
learner
to
belief
the
that
based
attempts
is
of
the
essential
on
errors and error correction
but
the
do
student
give
Mentalists
to
errors
learning
students'
correct
rush
not
problems.
solve
in
in
learners
to
They
communication
him/herself.
participate
encourage
the chance to correct
if
the
important
the
Errors
of
in
content
are
not
break
activities.
the
oral
silence
to
order
during
(1983)
that
issue,
Norrish
Central
out
to
this
points
is
understood.
message
him/herself
than
how
is
listener
expresses
a
speaker
concerned
with
the
more
communication,
lead
beliefs
his
from
(98).
This
that
errors
all
not
to
tries
comes
communicate
what the speaker
listener
is
the
the
to
speech,
speaker's
in
understand
and
able
communication
to breakdown
the
than
is
the
the
code.
with
content
of
message
listener
concerned
more
because the
35
Teachers' methods and theories of teaching

shape their ways of oral error correction in the
classroom. It is understood that the teacher's method of correction related to the theory he/she
adopts, determines the time and the amount of oral error correction in which the integration of
all these affect students' participation and performance in the FL.
2.3.4 The Aims of Language Teaching

An important
procedure that is normally
followed,
in the hope of minimising
students'
committing of various types of oral errors in communication, and during classroom interaction
activities,
is correction.
The latter is necessary if students are to achieve success since
correction means providing the erring student with the correct form of language which s/he
does not know. Error correction is a way of giving the right information to the students to
facilitate
their learning in order to develop their language. Sercombe (2002: 14)
support and
stated that "Constructing
benefit
depend
that
a method of correction
will
on a
pupils will
teacher's teaching priorities".
He also added that error correction is related to the focus of
teaching language (ibid). Thus, oral error correction is affected by the aims of lessons and the
fluency
is
language
That
to
teaching.
and successful
say, achieving accuracy and/or
aims of
learning
FLs.
behind
teaching
the
and
main objectives
communication are
In oral communication,
in
fluency
between
differentiate
to
order
and
accuracy
researchers
based
is
the
The
upon
strongly
sometimes
attitude of correction
correct students' oral errors.
by
both
is
it
is
Therefore,
to
type of error and the aim of activities.
recognise what meant
useful
terms in the following section:
2.3.4.1 What is Accuracy?

lesson
(1991:
is
defined
Walton
32),
the
that
part of
According to Bartram and
as
accuracy
to
their
as
possible.
make
a
native-speaker's
as
near
utterances
encouraged
are
where students
language
definition
does
include
Walton's
of accuracy
other aspects of
Thus, Bartram and
not
language
Although
have
in
they
their
explanation
but it emphasises utterances only.
mentioned
have
intonation
been
linguistic
and
aspects
not
pointed
out,
such
as
stress,
other
and grammar,
Harmer (2001 a) put accuracy in contrast with fluency to make a clear
However,
voice quality.
during
He
depends
teaching
to
them
that
between
activities.
a
pointed
out
accuracy
distinction
36
large extent upon the aim

of the activity and what the teacher expects his/her students to
achieve. For example, when the activity is designed to expect accuracy,
students focus on
producing accurate grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation (104). Harmer also
made clear
differences between accuracy and fluency during `communicative
and non-communicative'
activities as the following citation reveals (ibid: 85):
Non-communicative
"
"
"
"
"
"
Communicative
activities
No communication desired
No communication purpose
Form not content
One language item only
Teacher intervention
Materials control
activities
Desire
to communicate
"
"A
communicative purpose
" Content not form
" Variety of language
" No teacher intervention
No
"
material control
Table (2.1) & (2.2) cited from Harmer (2001a: 81) the communication continuum
Focusing closely on the non-communicative
rectangle which showed that, in accuracy, the
emphasis is on the form rather than the content and the communication or activity is controlled
by the teacher, while accuracy is less important in communicative activities and the emphasis
is on content rather than form. It is generally recommended by Harmer (2001b) that during oral
communication,
teachers should not interrupt students in mid-flow
lexical, or pronunciation
to correct a grammatical,
is
intervene
Instead,
the
teachers
only
student
should
when
error.
involved in accuracy work and s/he is ready for correction or other alternative modes of
it
is
worth mentioning
expression and
that repeated interruption
be
and correction can
does
during
(105).
Hence,
that
in
not
mean
oral
work
accuracy
work
accuracy
unpleasant even
the teacher should stop the student who commits an error at any time and wherever s/he wants,
but a good and subtle teacher should be able to intervene and correct students without
offending them.
by
in
bring
best
teachers
try
to
their
the
giving
During teaching activities, most
students
out
language
bearing
in
the
to
orally,
mind that the students' emotions and
practise
them chances
important
between
2002).
individuals
(Macaro,
1997;
Lyster,
are
activity
any
towards
attitudes
help
teachers
to
students'
emotions
can provide a window
Consequently, understanding
participation
students'
about
more
understand
37
and feeling
in communication
activities.
Correction or `managing' (as Bartram

Walton
1991 prefer to call it) students' errors during
and
oral accuracy work must be done in a way that encourages students to make progress in
learning language. However Harmer (2001a) has
suggested some techniques if the student
could not correct her/his errors after the teacher has pointed them out. The teacher moves to the
following alternative techniques:
1.
Showing incorrectness and this can be done in various ways. A) Asking the student to
he
has
repeat what
said, by saying Àgain' with intonation may indicate to the students
that s/he made something unclear. (B) Echoing what the student has said, emphasising
the part which was wrong. (C) Statement and question by simply saying `that's not quite
right' or `do you think that's correct? ' to indicate that there is something incorrect. (D)
By using facial expression or gesture to indicate that something does not quite work. (E)
Hinting by helping the student to activate rules that s/he already knows just by saying i. e.
`tense' `countable' to remind the student of the rule. (F) Reformulating:
the teacher
has
by
the
student
said correctly
reformulating the sentence and giving the
repeats what
incorrect word.
2.
Getting it right: this can be done when the student is not able to correct him/herself. The
detail
in
the grammar rule.
the
teacher will give
more
correct version and maybe explain
Then the teacher asks the student to repeat the correct utterance. Sometimes the teacher
help
John/
`can
for
by
anyone
to
example,
saying,
correct each other
may ask students
Mary? '
2.3.4.2 What is Fluency?

Fluency is a commonly
language
in
FL
teaching
particularly
notion
used
when teachers
(for
have
term
this
Many
example,
describe oral language production.
studied
researchers
is
It
2003).
to
Brown,
1997;
Chambers,
1992;
Schmidt,
1990;
useful
Lennon,
Brumfit, 1984;
that
help
in
assist
to
teachers
conditions
define
suitable
create
this
order
concept
precisely
fluency.
increase
their
FL
in
students
language
by
been
has
the
the
communicative
accompanied
emergence of
The term `fluency'
fluency
developing
1980s
to
the
of
in
gave
much
emphasis
role
the
which
approach
do
Myles
2004:
how
50).
However,
to
Mitchell
teachers
536;
manage
1997:
and
(Chambers,
38
get their students to achieve fluency? Do teachers teach fluency? According to Chambers
(1997) there is a strong belief that fluency
be
taught to the students as the linguistic
cannot
branches of a language, but teachers can understand the
definite
the
main characteristics of
fluency.
Chambers tried to revise other researchers' definitions and perspectives in
meaning of
order to give a general idea that can be helpful to make the definition of fluency very clear. He
has pointed out that `speed and effortlessness'
are the main characteristics of a fluent
performance. He meant by speed, the amount of speech that the learner produces in a given
time as an indicator of the oral language learning progress (535).
According to Hartmann and Stork (1976) citied in Brown (2003: 2), "A person is said to be a
fluent speaker of the language when he can use its structures accurately whilst concentrating on
form,
than
content rather
using the units and patterns automatically at normal conversational
speed when they are needed". However, Brown's own definition of fluency says "In general,
I feel that fluency can best be understood, not in contrast to accuracy, but rather as a
...
language
fluency
definitions
it"
(ibid).
Both
to
as automatic use of
clarified
complement
emphasising meaning and comprehension of the message.
Hunt and Beglar (2002) refer to using words in familiar
grammatical and organisational
fluency
is
They
that
hesitation
achieved
to convey meaning.
also emphasise
patterns without
(2002:
(269).
Nation
has
learner
the
that
understood
through repetition of words and patterns
269) supported Hunt and Beglar's definition of fluency by saying `fluency' "means making the
best use of what you already know".
it
is
but
from
term
this
the
does
only,
Building fluency
meaning of
understanding
not come
built
up through
knowledge
both
foreign
language
a
components of
understanding the
Myles,
(see
Mitchell
how'
`knowing
and
`knowing
a
skill
component
and
what'
component
how
language
fluently
knows
if
to
FL
the
learner
ask questions,
The
can
use
s/he
2004: 21).
of
important
is
Consequently,
language
another
pragmatics
to answer, to reject, to apologise etc.
issue
help
learner
be
this
to
the
understand
and
under
control
mentioned
should
element which
languages
do.
do
Speakers
say
usually
the
of
all
even
always
or
not
natives
language
as
the
(see
Thomas,
frequently
than
their
much more
they
mean
say
words
actually
they
mean,
what
39
1995: 1). The researcher

supports in his argument, researchers who mentioned in their
definitions, the familiarity with language
concepts, for example (Hunt and Beglar, 2002: 261),
and rejects the others who emphasise the term automatically.
It has been mentioned that correction depends

less
more or
on the aim of the activity and as
part of the lesson, the teacher should encourage students to communicate in the FL as much as
possible. It is worthwhile for teachers to let their students know that errors are necessary and
acceptable in learning language. Such knowledge is useful in building confidence in students to
encourage them to use the language without fear of errors. This was emphasised by Bartram
and Walton (1991: 19) when they said "the person who never made a mistake, never made
anything". The same applies to people in the real world who are never worried about errors
(errors)
impede
they
the flow of communication and lose meaning (ibid: 22,31). In the
until
same way, McDonough and Shaw (2003) pointed out that if we encourage students to become
fluent in language communication,
correcting regularly during oral activities will tend to
inhibit, especially in taciturn students. Besides that, most teachers feel that correcting a student
in the middle of the speech is very harmful and unhelpful, unless the student shows a need for
the teacher's help (152).
During the fluency activity, students are asked to speak freely without interruption by the
teacher, which would break their stream of communication. When the teacher stops the student
in the middle of what s/he is saying, this may cause a lot of damage to the student's emotion
and frustrates his/her participation
in the conversation. It is very important for teachers to
foreign
language
learning
language
is
the
teaching
to
that
the
a
process
make
realise
purpose of
more efficient
less
painful
and
and to prepare students for real-life
communication.
To
build
fluency,
(1995)
Brown
that
their
to
and
out
pointed
communicate
encourage students
fluency
in language if they: (a) encourage their students to
their
teachers can promote
students'
that
they
they
to
that
errors
which
means
will
constructive
need
understand
make
go ahead and
(b)
for
fluent
they
become
make
errors,
create
unless
an atmosphere and opportunities
not
be
by
FL,
this
to
can
achieved
choosing
to
activities
students
need
which
practise
students
develop and create a relaxed classroom atmosphere by using humour, smiles, songs, etc. (c)
to
(d)
compel
students
which
get
a
message
activities
across,
assess students'
create various
40
fluency rather than their accuracy,

and (e) talk explicitly
pointing out directly the aim of the fluency work.
to the students about
fluency,
Harmer (2001 a) suggested three ways of correcting fluency

work as follows:
Gentle
"
correction:
this may take place when the communication
breaks down
completely during a fluency activity and teachers in this case intervene to offer a form
of correction. This offer can be done in number of ways; (a) simply reformulate what
the student has said, for example;
Student: I am not agree with you
(*)
...
Teacher: I don't agree
...
Student: I don 't agree with you because I think
By
applying
this
technique
the way of making

showing
incorrectness
of
correction,
...
the student can learn something new in
an attempt at some piece of language s/he is not sure of, (b)

by pointing
directly
towards it in a gentle way, (c) a quick
prompt may help the communication to move along without intruding too much (108).
9
Recording Errors:
the teacher uses a chart form of categorisation (ibid: 108), in which
down
s/he writes
errors that the student made, either in words or in phrases, under the
appropriate column. The teacher can also use a tape-recorder or videotape to record
language
later
students'
on the teacher plays the students' recordings
performance and
form.
I
think
the
to
the
the
of
correct
errors and
and encourages all
class
pick up
in
do
Harmer
this
technique
correcting students'
on applying
personally
not agree with
fluency errors because students can be very emotional and when the students see their
teacher writing
down something while they speak, they may get confused, either by
by
breaking
I
Meanwhile,
the
errors
or
other
encourage
off
activity.
committing many
involves
the technique which
all students to design their own charts and write up any
do
it
This
follow
heard.
technique
they
makes
they
all
students
up each other and
errors
humour
for
kind
and
entertainment.
game
of
a
as
0
After
last
the
the event:
stage after recording the students' errors on audio or
has
to
teacher
tell
the
the
ask
every
will
student
class what errors s/he
picked
videotape,
by
his/her
from
one, while the teacher writes them on the black board or
classmates one
41
on screen in order. The teacher should give more focus to the errors which were made
by more than one student. It is also important to mention here that the teacher and the
students should not indicate the student who has made the errors.
Ur (1996) advised teachers not to correct a student during fluent speech but to let students
continue their speech. Teachers should not always correct, even where the emphasis is on
getting the language right, in grammar exercises for example, if the student has got most of an
item right, it may be preferable not to draw attention to a relatively trivial error (247). In
addition, Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2005: 732) argue that students are not able to engage in a
simple conversation in the target language without normal fluency i. e. an average rate without
long pauses or undue hesitation. They also suggest that teachers deal explicitly with any area
that causes problems and impedes clear communication.
2.3.5 Methods of Error
Correction
Methods of error correction

investigated
have been one of the most (if not the most) extensively
interaction,
objects of classroom
inevitability
because
their
of
probably
in
classroom oral communicative activities.

In teaching language, there are various methods of error correction techniques which allow the
for
the
that
is
type
the
students may
error
that
of
technique
the
more suitable
teachers to choose
type
of
is
a
particular
teachers,
on
There
researchers,
among
or
among
consensus
no
commit.
lesson
teaching.
it
leave
the
but
of
to
the
method
and
they
of
aim
up
correcting students' errors
I
following
In
the
to
the
teachers.
sub-sections will explain
They leave the choice of methods
the essential methods or techniques which are usually associated with errors and error
(methods
topic
the
to
terms
technical
following
related
In
are
some
the
sub-sections
correction.
discussed
detail.
be
in
to
of correction) which needed
2.3.5.1 Feedback
in
back
feed
between
is
difference
has
that
there
correction and
a
shown
The literature review
distinguishing
(1977)
forms
language.
Long
Thus,
accurate
of
help
produce
the
student
to
order
information
former
(feedback
the
terms
as any
and correction), regards
two
the
between
learner
target
the
the
the
of
teacher
correctness
of
production
by
concerning
the
supplied
42
language, while the latter is

seen as the hoped for result of feedback. However, it is virtually
impossible to identify correction in Long's
sense within any period of instruction which leads
to one kind of correction, self-correction or peer correction. It seems to
me that feedback is not
correction but it could be one of the processes of the whole operation of correction. This
concept encompasses the steps in which the teacher simply informs the student of errors
without pursing correction by the teacher him/herself. This assumption was supported by
Harmer (2001: 99) when he pointed out that "Feedback encompasses
not only correcting
students, but also offering them an assessment of how well they have done, whether during a
drill or after a longer language production exercise". Consequently, Cook (2001) reported that
feedback is a result of language interaction which occurs in the classroom. The interaction
exchange consists of three main moves initiation, which is usually structured by the teacher;
is
done
by the student, and the feedback. He has argued that feedback
response, which
usually
is announced by the teacher to indicate whether the student is right or wrong and it is a matter
of evaluation as to the student's response (143). Further to the above, it has been argued that
feedback acts as an umbrella under which correction lies as Cook (2001: 142) stated "feedback:
teacher evaluation of the student response". However, Havranek and Cesnik (2001) argued that
feedback
for
leads
to negative transfer
correction and explanation
using students'
as a method
for
(100).
In
the meanwhile,
the
and causes problems
students who committed such errors
doing
feedback
do
they
are
which tells them whether they are on
about what
students
expect
the right lines or not (Dames et al., 2006: 29). This does not mean that feedback is useless, but
it is a beneficial
technique if teachers use it regularly, taking into account the students'
immediate reaction.
Havranek and Cesnik (2001) reported in their article `Factors Affecting
feedback
Feedback',
Success
Corrective
that
showed
the
students who received corrective
of
feedback
They
that
the
corrective
also argued
control group.
significant gains compared with
during classroom communication draws the student's attention to linguistic forms to prompt
Cesnik's
(2003)
Havranek
Mackey
Oliver
(101).
arguments
and
and
supported
self-correction
in
learning
facilitative
language
in
feedback
occurs
that
and
plays
a
role
second
out
and pointed
is
feedback
interaction
(519).
They
that
situations
also claimed
a wide variety of classroom
interest
facts,
to
the
by
particularly
educational
of
great
was
context,
which
various
affected
less
(2002,1998a,
1998b)
feedback
is
less
Lyster
(ibid).
that
argues
effective and
their research
in
TL.
to
their
drawing
attention
output
students'
at
successful
43
Through feedback, both assessment

and correction can be very helpful during oral work.
Teachers should not deal with all
errors in the same way because decisions depend upon the
stage of the lesson, the activity, the type of mistake made, and the particular student who
makes that mistake (see Harmer, 2001: 104).
Therefore, the aim of the activities leads teachers to decide the

distinction
A
way of correction.
is often made between accuracy and fluency. For instance, teachers
may present an activity in
the classroom in which students accept complete accuracy, as a study of a piece of grammar,
vocabulary, or a pronunciation exercise, or whether teachers ask students to use language in
speaking activity in which students expect to improve their language fluency. It is of great
in
teaching language that teachers do not correct their students in the same way in all
value
activities but correction of students' errors should vary according to the type and the aim of the
activity (see Harmer 2001: 104). When students are involved in accuracy work, the teacher's
function is to point out and correct the errors that students make. Teachers may stop the
(ibid:
105). When students are involved in fluency and teachers
to
the
activity
make
correction
encourage communication, it is always advisable not to stop the flow of communication when
the meaning is understood, although some errors can be seen. Hence, Harmer (2001: 105) said,
"there are times during communicative activities when teachers may want to offer correction or
because
is
because
be
the
this
suggest alternatives
students' communication
at risk, or
might
just the right moment to draw the students' attention to the problem".
According to McDonough and Shaw (2003), it is obvious that teachers' methods and decision
In
depend
the
type
their
addition, a
and
mistakes.
attitudes
and
of
error
on
of correction
distinction
form
between
be
the
of
wrong
mistakes, when students are using
made
should
language that they already know, while errors show the outcome of students' developing
be
direct
feedback
Mistakes
treatment
require
and remedial
while errors may
competence.
for
future
(167).
Hulterstrm
By
the
token,
the
planning
of
work
same
more appropriately used
feedback
in
is
immediately
for
to
that
tool
teachers
(2005: 4) reported
oral
school
used as a
in
order to avoid fossilisation and to help students achieve better
help students correct errors
be
in
for,
to
could
used
Feedback
school
praise
a
a
student
out
achieving
a
goal
or
point
results.
grammatical
mistake.
a
or
error
pronunciation
44
Finally,
error correction
plays an important role in the study of language learning and

sometimes draws on classroom interaction between the teacher and students. Brown
and
Rodgers (2002: 82) say, "Learners
and teachers have preferences for what kinds of error
correction they feel most useful and least intrusive in classroom interaction". However,
teachers' techniques of error correction and other factors such
as time, the need to cover the
syllabus, the requirements of the examinations and the large number of classes may affect error
correction.
2.3.5.2 Recasts
According to Gass and Selinker (2001: 286) "recasts are
form
another
of feedback, through
they are less direct and more subtle than other forms of feedback". Recasts are reformulations
of the incorrect utterances, structures or forms by a native speaker (NS) or bilingual speaker to
a none native speaker (NNS). Examples: if the NNS says;
* Why she want this house?
NS: Why does she want this house?
*I am a student?
NS. Am Ia student?
*He does not his homework.
NS: He does not do his home work.
Recast is an indirect form of correction and sometimes is not exactly clear to the learner (ibid:
287) because teachers do the recast without pointing towards the error directly and focus
attention on lesson content rather than on language form. McDonough (2002) emphasised that
by
both
less
intrusive'
`pedagogically
teachers
recasts are more accepted
and students, are
and
disrupt the flow of classroom conversational for less time than other types of oral correction
(148). Many teachers prefer to use this technique of oral correction in order to avoid confusing
their students by a series of stop-start interruptions during the stream of conversation (ibid).
Thus, Lyster (2005) points out that recasts are the most frequent type of feedback used by the
FL teachers in their classrooms. The teacher reformulates the student's utterance to minimise
the error, i. e.
Student: Before someone will takes it*.

Teacher: Before someone takes it.
45
Lyster shows practical advantages

disadvantages
and
of recasts in order to help teachers
ascertain when they are effective and when they are not. On the one hand, Lyster mentions
that recasts do not lead to self or peer correction because the
student can only repeat his/her
teacher's reformulation. He adds, in classrooms many recasts can be
ambiguous and do not
assist students to become aware of their errors. On the other hand, he encourages teachers to
use recasts because they provide supportive scaffolding that assists students to participate in
oral activities. He also emphasises that recasts are ideal for facilitating the delivery of some
complex issues. Nevertheless, Lyster (2002), in his article `Differential Effects of Prompts and
Recasts in Fornm-Focused Instruction'
that classroom interaction activities are

concluded
,
more effective when teachers combine recasts with prompts, rather than with recasts or no
feedback, to enable students to benefit from correction (399).
2.3.6 The Types of Errors to be Corrected

The type of errors to be corrected has even been debated. Allwright
(1975); Norrish (1983);
James
(1998)
learner
that
and
suggest
errors should be corrected only when they cannot correct
themselves. When learners are more concerned with expressing a meaning about an issue of
discussion or opinion, then they should not be stopped and corrected. This technique might
impede students' participation
in oral activity for the fear of errors. However, this does not
but
do
to
the
that
teachers
of
correction,
students' errors and way
not pay much attention
mean
during
be
communication.
profitable
an actual stoppage would probably not
(1987); and Norish
proficiency
especially
(1983) argue that error correction

when correction
inhibits
Hendrickson
does not improve the student's
communication.
They suggest also that
tolerance should be encouraged and teachers should choose a suitable and useful time which
language.
learners
the
be
devoted
to
the
to
more of
exposing
could
Scholars have approached learners' oral errors in varied ways Sercombe (2002), pointed out
that:
Not all errors are equally important. Five useful criteria for judging the
importance of an error include the following: centrality to teaching focus;
(i.
it
(it
is
to
intelligibility;
generality
e.
common
many students); globality
(often
tolerability
the
sentence);
whole
social
concerned with
affects
likelihood
(15).
of
success
with
correction
register);
46
By the same token, Kelly (2006: 2),

pointed out that errors detract from successful completion
which could lead to misunderstandings, and repeated and or shared ones should be corrected.
The following is a detailed statement of some types
of errors which are classified according to
the degree of severity of the error and need to correct the error.
2.3.6.1 Errors of Intelligibility

Some scholars suggest that errors which hinder communication and intelligibility
of a message,
i. e. errors that interfere with the meaning, and make the listener tired or irritated or draw
his/her attention away from the content of the message, should receive priority in correction.
As Rivers (1981) points out, errors which impede communication and which a native speaker
find
difficult,
would
unacceptable or misleading, should receive priority
in correction.
The
in
problem
correcting such a type of errors depend to a large extent on the teacher of the FL.
i. e. if s/he is not a native speaker of the TL they are teaching, they may find difficulty
in
establishing certain expressions in their students' minds or distinction between communicative

errors and non-communicative
distinction
(see
Hendrickson
1987).
The
ones
was originally
introduced and constructed by Burt and Kiparsky (1975), who called them global and local
errors, and called by Norri sh (1983), major and minor errors.
2.3.6.2 Global
Major
or
Errors
that can significantly
hinder communication
and affect
follows:
2002).
This
(see
Sercombe,
type
subsumes as
overall sentence organisation
1. Wrong Word Order:
this means that the student does not follow the word order which
causes misunderstanding
language
English
Example:
use many
of what s/he may say.
people*
2. Missing, Wrong or Misplaced Sentence Connectors. Examples: (If) ... not take this bus, we
late for school. * (when) he will be rich until he would be married. *
3. Missing
cues to signal obligatory
Example:
the
to
rule.
syntactic
pervasive
exceptions
by.
here
The
the
and
are
was
words
missing
principal.
proposal
student's
...
...
4. Overgeneralising pervasive syntactic rules to exception. Examples: not observing selectional
looked into
That
lexical
items.
Example:
`we
that
very
much'.
movie
amused
certain
on
restrictions
`that
us
very
much'
amused
movie
means
47
Consequently, language teachers

should pay much attention to these errors and give them
priority in oral correction.
2.3.6.3 Minor
Errors
communication.
which affect single elements in a sentence and do not usually hinder
A sentence containing local errors is still possible to be

understood by the
listener and the flow of communication is still continuous. These

errors usually do not impede
communication
communication
and language
teachers are advised
to
correct
their
during
students
when they commit these minor errors. For example, the sentences below
local
contain
or minor errors, and therefore, if the language teacher leaves these errors
uncorrected, the sentences can still be understood by the listener.
Most
e.g.
subjects in our department are teaching in English language. *
The teacher who teach us an English is a female. *
2.3.6.4 Fossilised Errors,
errors which are resistant to change and are systematically repeated
by the learner are called fossilised errors. Many researchers such as Norrish (1983); Brown and
Paul (1997); James (1998); Rydahl (2005) pointed out that this type of error should be given
if
been
develop
knowledge
has
FL.
the
to
there
of
some correction
plenty of opportunity
Consequently, some time should be spent on oral error correction to help students avoid
by
is
Imaginative
teachers
to
that
often suggested
correction
are unlikely
change.
making errors
develop
lot
has
been
break
fossilisation.
If
is
to
there
the
to
a
of opportunity
not
and required
knowledge of the second language, correction should be by telling the student what to look for
in
language
the
oral situations.
second
when observing people using
2.3.6.5 Errors Related to the Aim of the Lesson

It is claimed that errors relevant to a specific pedagogical aim should be corrected before others
(Hendrickson,
1987; Freeman, 2002; Tsang and Wong, 2002; McDonough,
2002; Rydahl,
2005). For example, Rydahl (2005) argued that despite this, English should not be divided up
into different
learnt
(pronunciation,
be
to
parts
grammar, vocabulary,
fluency).
accuracy,
lesson
find
to
the
the
these
to
to
achieve
aim of
strategies
Teachers need
elements according
behind
if
lesson
is
to
the
the
to
the
aim
In
errors
related
achieve
accuracy,
(4-5).
other words,
first.
Edge
(1989)
level
be
is
important
that
corrected
states
accuracy
a very
this aspect should
based
in
how
is
examinations
many
are
and
on
accurate
a
student
of communication
48
constructing correct pieces of a FL (20). On the other hand, if the

is
to develop fluency in
aim
using the FL, correction of errors committed in this respect should have
priority, especially in
the following situations:
"
When a student hesitates for some time to

show inability to continue his speech.
Inability to handle turn-taking to speak.
"
When he is clearly not conveying the intended

meaning.
"
When being silent without knowing how to start speaking.
"
When he has made a mistake in pronunciation or structures

hinder
which
comprehension
"
(see Rivers, 1981: 139,226).
2.3.6.6 Recognition
Errors
Some students commit errors due to their inability to recognise them and they continue their
believing
that they are correct. Wingate (1993: 24) states that: "Errors of competence
speech,
the speaker makes and doesn't know are errors because his knowledge and
are
errors
...
language
the
experience of
are limited". Therefore, such errors should be corrected so that
students' communicative competence will inform language in the correct form.
2.3.6.7 High Frequency Errors

Errors of high frequency sometimes claim priority and require correction (see Lewis and Hill,
2002). In this respect Hendrickson (1987), Todd (1999), Sheen (2004), and Kelly (2006) point
knowledge
frequently
the
that
that
the
of
errors
occur
out
correction of such errors necessitates
languages.
by
learning
FL
at various stages of
students of varying native
2.3.6.8 Pronunciation
Errors
In this respect, students may produce wrong pronunciation of words, which may be interpreted
differently
by the listener. Therefore, correct pronunciation, including intonation, stress and
(see
important
to
is
their
the
make students practise
sentences clearly
content of
very
rhythm,
Lynch,
1996: 120). With specific reference to intonation, Rivers (1981: 130) says, "with
in
fact,
languages
be
interpreted
intonation
incorrect
a question
some
as a statement of
may
in communication".
breakdown
with resultant
Nevertheless, some teachers face a problem in
49
correcting pronunciation
errors because they are uncertain of their pronunciation.
In this
situation they may leave the student who commits such errors uncorrected.
2.3.6.9 Grammatical
Errors in Oral Communication
Second language learners need to involve themselves in real communication

develop
their
and
knowledge to communicate successfully with others who use the same language. They
need to
be aware of grammatical rules and understand the meaning of words in order to be able to use
the language in a meaningful
Dickson 2004: 1) stated "...
situation. As William
(2001
in
Zadiro
Hargie
and
cited
and
if we are unable to engage meaningfully
with others, or are
by
them, the result is often loneliness, unhappiness and depression". It is important
ostracised
here to ask, is grammar needed in communication?
It is obvious that L2 speakers need to use grammar in their communication
to convey a
To
their
meaningful message and express
opinion clearly without any ambiguity.
achieve this,
have
knowledge
features
to
a
and constructions which enable
students need
of grammatical
them to access communication rapidly and produce language smoothly without the need for
(2000)
hesitation
Tonkyn
pointed out that students need grammatical
or pauses.
rule-searching
discourse
help
in
the
to
them
and
needs of sociolinguistic appropriateness
cope with
rank
order
form
in
learning
focus
(2002),
Lochtman
By
that
token
a
the
on
some
claimed
same
coherence.
improve
in
desirable
is
direct
less
to
is
language
order
error correction
needed and
second
fluency
between
balance
language
for
is
important
(274).
to
It
teachers
make a
second
students
high
is
itself
by
fluency
to
international
In
achieve
not enough
conversation
and accuracy.
levels of accuracy. This does not mean that students wait till they master grammar and then
language,
have
but
to
get
to
and
practise
to
opportunities
students
need
start
communicate,
feedback on how well he or she is performing. The practice and the encouragement to use
language will help students to be aware of the crucial grammatical concepts which may affect
their
communication
(see
Hargie
messages
and
Dickson,
2004:
5). The
teachers'
in
feedback
have
impact
their
meaningful
engagement
great
on
students'
and
encouragement
feature
Dickson
fundamental
is
Hargie
"Feedback
of
and
stated
a
as
communication
it
(ibid:
denied"
39).
prospects
of
skilled
without
engagement
are
and
communication
50
2.4 Time of Correction

Different viewpoints have been suggested
concerning the time of correcting errors. These are
represented, mainly by: (a) immediate correction, (b) correction after the student finishes the
message he wants to convey, (c) correction at the end of the lesson, and finally (d) correction
by devoting a whole lesson to reviewing errors and then
correcting them (see Allwrigh, 1994:
103). Kelly (2006) points out that there are three options open to the teacher to treat
errors:
1. To treat the error immediately,
2. To delay treatment until later in the lesson,
3. To postpone the treatment to another lesson (2)
The procedure of correcting errors at any time should be applied carefully and cautiously so as
learner
in
difficult
is
to
It
the
not
put
a
psychological position.
clear that the time of correction
depends on the aim of the activity being taught or on the aim of the lesson. For example, if the
focus is on accuracy, the correction will be immediate; if the focus is more on fluency, not to
is
better.
As Ur (1998: 246) puts it "there are some situations where we
correct
sometimes
might prefer not to correct a learner's mistake: in fluency work, for example, when the learner
is in mid-speech, and to correct would disturb and discourage more than help".
Rivers (1981); Gower et al. (1995) and Harmer (1998) suggest that there should be immediate
in
lesson.
is
What
during
drill
the
the
noteworthy
phase of
correction of pronunciation errors
this respect is that a process of correction similar to the above-mentioned technique, immediate
than
favourable
is
to
these
rather
communication
emphasise
scholars who
correction,
not
his
Brooks
finishes
learner
be
the
In
their
speech.
made after
accuracy.
view, correction should
(1964) points out that "students must not be stopped in the middle of a word or an utterance in
if
be
to
communication
order
corrected
Lightbown
is to be successfully learned" (148). Similarly,
in
believe
be
(1999)
the
Spada
that
midst of a
out
pointed
errors
should
not
and
(191).
lesson
(1998:
Ur
247)
"recommendation
to
that,
in
but
correct
not
states
task,
a separate
is
in
but
fluent
during
learner
speech
principle
a
valid
one,
perhaps an over-simplification".
a
before
be
the
their
to
differently,
it
whole
units
of
performance must
course
allowed
run
To put
immediate correction may interfere with performance and will defeat its
Otherwise,
correction.
the viewpoint that prefers postponing correction till the
Among
the
of
advocates
own purpose.
51
student has finished what he wants to say are Finocchiaro and Bonomo (1973). Their advice in
this respect is that, "during communication activity when the
student has completed his
thoughts, say something complimentary, and then make one or two corrections in a low
voice"
(194). It is quite clear that immediate correction
of errors is preferred with pronunciation errors
(when words are uttered in isolation), global errors, and
fluency
for
the sake of speech
errors of
continuity. The correction of errors of accuracy is postponed to a later time.
In my personal view, the main reason behind such controversial viewpoints lies in the way
those students' feelings and reactions are affected by each method of correction. For instance,
pronunciation errors, which occur while students are repeating the sounds in isolation after the
teacher, need immediate correction because the correct learning of sounds will be firmly
established at a time when the student will
emotionally
being
welcome such a correction without
affected. Therefore, teachers may choose appropriate time to correct students'
errors (see Brown, 1994).

On the other hand, although correction of global errors and errors of fluency will help students
learn how to convey their message, i. e. express their ideas without hesitation, it may cause a lot
for
As
errors of accuracy,
of embarrassment and put students under psychological pressure.
these are expected to stop the flow
leading
to
thoughts
the
and
speech,
students'
of
large
discouraging
to
extent.
a
students
embarrassment, and
2.5 Who Corrects Errors?

Many researchers have pointed out that there are three main techniques concerning who
be
through:
(1995)
that
Gower
made
can
correction
suggest
et al.
corrects errors.
1. Self-correction.
2. Student-to- student correction (peer correction).
3.
Teacher correction (167).
The priority
effectiveness
its
degree
by
determined
is
the
of
the
techniques
above-mentioned
of
any
of
in bringing about efficient learning on the part of the learners. The following
the
technique:
to
devoted
explanation
of
each
sections are
52
2.5.1 Self-Correction
Self-Correction is one of the main correction techniques
by
teachers nowadays. It
used widely
should be given priority over the other two techniques whenever the student commits an error,
Gower et al. (1995: 167) advise that teachers should "Always
give the students the chance to
correct themselves. If they are going to become more accurate they must learn to monitor
themselves". Therefore, self-correction is an important technique. As Edge (1989: 24) says,
students usually prefer to put their own errors right rather than be corrected by someone else.
Also, self-correction is more easily remembered, because someone has put something right in
his own head. It is particularly important and necessary to give self-correction a chance when
the teacher thinks that a mistake is a slip of performance (see subsection 3.3). However,
sometimes students need some assistance from the teacher in knowing where the error is,
before they can self-correct. In this respect, there are many techniques, which help students in
(1998)
during
Harmer
that
the accurate reproduction phase there are
self-correction.
points out
two basic correction stages: showing incorrectness and using correction techniques (68-9).
2.5.1.1 Showing Incorrectness

According to Harmer (1998), showing incorrectness means that the teacher will indicate to the
he
be
feedback,
to
has
been
If
this
the
that
able
will
student
understands
made.
an error
student
learning
him
helpful
be
the
to
process.
as part of
correct the error and this self-correction will
In the same way, Lochtman (2002: 274), clarified that the teacher initiates a task with students
for
in
draw
their
self-correction.
performance
attention to some errors
who commit errors to
Showing incorrectness may help students to notice the gap with the help of their teacher.
following
in
incorrectness
the
(1999)
way:
However, Todd
summarises the ways of showing
be
),
this
denial
(e.
Wrong!
though
effectively
may
1. The teacher could give a
clearly
g.
undesirable.
2. The teacher could pretend to misunderstand the student's utterance.
by
àgain'.
his
the
3. He could simply repeat
question
using
word
intonation,
the
which will usually
4. He could echo
student's utterance, perhaps with arising
(96).
the
indicate that
response was unsatisfactory
benefit
if
to
them
that
teacher
the
has
students
guides
will
more
also added
Todd (1999)
if
he
form
This
form
to
than
themselves
them
the
rather
copy.
gives
correct
the
correct
provide
53
guidance may involve showing the students the location of the error, perhaps by repeating the
utterance up to the point where the error was made. Another way of guiding the students is to
give additional information,
which they may need before they can self-correct. This can be
done by explaining a key point in the question, or by giving clues as to the correct answer. The
teacher also, could provide more overt guidance. For example, he could give a model answer (I
for
to
the student to adopt for his own purposes (Oh! I went to the cinema);
a
went
restaurant)
he could put the incorrect utterance on the board for the whole class to analyse; or he could
book
be
found.
Moreover, there
the
to
the
student
refer
a reference
where
correct answer can
be
occasions when the teacher will
may
form
in
the
simply state
correct
response to an
incorrect student utterance. Many teachers indicate that a response was incorrect by their
incorporate
by
These
techniques
treatment
verbal and
may
some gesture.
of error
expression or
information
language.
Verbal
treatment
about the
should normally contain specific
non-verbal
incorrect point. Non- verbal treatment may be in the form of facial expression, gesture or using
the fingers to represent words or syllables.
2.5.1.2 Using Correction
Techniques
Harmer (1998), Larsen-Freeman (2000) and Winkler
(2007) point out that if students are
to
by
teachers
technique,
of
one
can
resort,
themselves
to
self-correction
using
correct
unable
the following techniques: A student corrects a student or a teacher corrects student.
2.5.2 Peer Correction

When
the self
`student-student
correction'.
It is also called `student corrects student' or
by
help
the
is
down,
providing
breaks
can
not workable, another student
or
correction process
(1998)
Harmer
that:
In
this
suggests
respect,
correct answer.
if
We
if
the
can ask any
We can ask anyone else can give
correct response.
If
has
the
`help'
student
the
another
mistake.
student
who
made
one can
for
be
information
it
that
selfthe
student's
good
will
correct
can supply
feel
the
However,
the
may
mistake
student
made
who
originally
esteem.
(69).
is
insensitively
if
technique
this
humiliated
used
Larsen1993;
Edge,
Berube,
1996;
1995;
Nunan
Lamb,
(Deners
and
and
Researchers such as
in
is
that
the
of
understanding
out
peer
point
correction
case
useful
2000
others)
and
Freeman,
54
how the students made errors. In other

words, it is important for students to understand not
only the errors they committed but why they made them. Peer correction develops students'
awareness of their errors because when a student makes an error, the other students make
him her aware of that error and she gradually develops a sense of awareness. However, it is a
useful technique that the teacher, after peer correction, asks the student who first made the
error to repeat the correct form or utterance again. This is to let the students know the example
his, her students gave was correct.
Therefore, peer correction must be done carefully to encourage students doing the correction.
Students also need to understand the purpose of what they are being asked to do. However,
peer correction has certain advantages if it is used carefully and correctly. Allwright
(1975);
Norrish (1983): Gower et al. (1995): Harmer (1998); Edge (1993) and Larsen-Freeman (2000)
in
following
the
the
state
main advantages
way:
1. When a student makes a mistake and another student corrects it, both students are involved
in listening to and in thinking about the language.
2. When a teacher encourages students to correct each other's errors, he gets a lot of important
information about the students' ability.
3. Reducing student dependence on the teacher thus increasing self-dependence.
4. Increasing the amount the students listen to each other.
5. Motivating the better students.
6. Making the learning more co-operative generally.
Larsen2002;
Wong,
Tsang
1993;
Edge.
1998;
(Harmer,
and
Many researchers such as
disadvantages
the
of
Freeman, 2000) did not give too much emphasis and were not clear-cut on
if
how
their
did
s/he
colleague
correct
students
exactly
they
not explain
also
peer correction;
by
did
the
other
They
using
they
error
that
explain
could
not
mention
still repeats the error.
form
form,
the
a
piece
on
the
correct
writing
as
repeating
correct
such
techniques of correction
if
be
Therefore,
blackboard.
not
this
useless
may
sort
of
the
correction
peer
of paper or on
be
The
therefore
technique
cautiously and carefully
should
peer correction
damaging (ibid).
teacher.
by
the
applied
55
2.5.3 Teacher Correction

If neither self-correction nor student-student
correction is effective, the teacher himself/herself
will correct the students' errors. This is a vital part of any correction process. Traditionally, and
as an educational procedure, it is the teacher's responsibility to correct all students' errors. To
be more precise, teachers should locate errors,
analyse them and then find solutions, i. e.
correction. Rivers (1981) states that the teacher should listen carefully, and analyse the errors
to be corrected before speaking to the student (132,431).
Although there are various factors which affect teacher's ways of error correction (see 2.3), it
is useful to mention in this context that the teacher either corrects errors without asking the
student to correct (direct teacher correction) or he corrects after many students fail to give the
former
In
does
the
the
teacher
correct answer.
case,
not give students the time and chance to
correct themselves or each other, i. e. s/he dominates the correction process. This way of
is
correction
viewed as ineffective. It provides the least effective formal feedback to the student
improvement. The student can only repeat corrected words without internalising the correction.
This correction
technique is widely
by
behaviourists.
the
used
Concerning the second
viewpoint which favours teachers' correction after students' failure in their attempts to give the
is
(1989:
it
last
it
27)
"As
As
Edge
a very effective and promising process.
puts
a
right answer,
form
fail,
if
the
teacher
the
and then says the whole
gives
correct
resort , all other possibilities
sentence".
However, sometimes teachers may feel that they should take charge of correction because the
be.
In
they
this
the
case,
should
response
correct
what
about
confused
students are extremely
difficulty.
is
language
item
the
causing
of
which
can re-explain
This will be appropriate when
the majority of the class are having the same problem. After the re-explanation teachers can
individual
to
move
choral and
is,
The
techniques
of
repetition.
object of using correction
is
It
language
know
how
to
to
the
utterance right.
get
new
course, to give the student a chance
important, therefore, that when teachers have used one of the correction techniques, they
the
to
originally
who
made
the
error
give a correct response.
student
should ask
56
2.6 Techniques of Error
Correction
Various techniques of error- correction

are said to be used by language teachers. They are
determined to a large extent by the teaching
approaches adopted by language teachers. These
techniques of error-correction should be effective and less time-consuming in
order to achieve
the goals and objectives of the language course. Teachers are also different in the
way of
choosing suitable techniques for correction. They need to be keenly aware of how they correct
their students' oral errors and avoid using correction techniques that might embarrass
or
frustrate students. However, experienced teachers
choose the most effective techniques to treat
their students' errors in order to teach them that errors are a step towards better learning (see
Hendrickson, 1987; Larsen-Freeman, 2000; Santagta, 2005).
The most important step that precedes the correction process is that the teacher should try to
familiarise him/herself with the different types of errors, to know the sources and the reasons
behind those errors. Moreover, s/he should understand the ways of dealing with errors and s/he
be
locating
should
clear when
errors and very careful not to cause confusion, embarrassment
disappointment
to his students.
and
The most suitable manner and time of correction are very important for both the teacher and
the student. Teachers may correct any error either individually
or chorally, taking into
consideration the number of students committing the same error and the time of the lesson. For
instance, some teachers prefer individual
help
the
that
they
assumption
correction on
every
is
his/her
in
But
to
the
very time-consuming
student
error.
such a process
classroom
correct
(1978)
boredom
it
Broughton
et al.
state that:
and may create an atmosphere of
as
As a general principle it is best to avoid this where the error is not common
to a sizeable proportion of those present. It quickly leads to boredom in the
just
length
teacher
the
the
goes
on
at
which
one
about
mistakes
rest when
by
(141).
idly
has
the
whole group sitting
committed, with
person
Although, individual correction is necessary and important, it is obviously very difficult when
Hence,
i.
teachers
is
students.
some
with
prefer correcting group errors, e.
crowded
a class
by
is
the
that
many
students,
on
assumption
such a process
more
errors that are committed
in
terms of the time and effort required.
beneficial and economical
57
Moreover,
another important
point, which must be seriously considered at the time of
correction, is that teachers should not exaggerate an error by blaming or punishing students.
Accordingly, teachers should think that correction is helping
learning
to
their
students
support
and it should not be a kind of criticism or punishment, (Hendrickson, 1987; Edge, 1989;
Gettinger, 1993; Larsen-Freeman, 2000; Santagta, 2005).
The following
are some of the
widely used correction techniques:
2.6.1Repetition
Repetition is widely used by teachers adopting methods and techniques based on behaviourist
Students
views.
are asked to repeat the teacher's correction as a model. This technique gives
the teacher the opportunity to check students' pronunciation (see Larsen-Freeman 2000: 48;
Sheen, 2004: 279). Repetition can be either individual or choral.
2.6.1.1 Individual
Repetition
Individual repetition is a mechanical process, which requires no thinking as a single student

further
(see
Hancock
2003).
It
Conner
Fletcher,
1990;
the
teacher
and
may simply repeat after
involves no clear explanation of the types of the errors and their source. Hence, it is said to be
ineffective
simple and
correction.
2.6.1.2 Choral Repetition

Choral repetition is of great value because it makes the whole class benefit from the correction
(1981):
Rivers
Choral
to
repetition according
of an error.
thus
to
sounds,
making
practise
opportunity
ample
student
each
gives
...
develop
in
time
to
an
new muscle movements and
giving essential exercise
(132).
the
sound patterns
auditory memory of
The choral repetition
technique is more fruitful
find
difficulty
with shy students who
in
imitate
help
talk
This
to
individual
and
student
every
may
advantage
repetition.
carrying out
(1998)
Harmer
As
states:
stay
one
should
silent.
no
and
models
correct
The technique is useful because it gives all the students a chance to say the
language immediately, with the teacher controlling the speed and the
(where
immediate
individual
It
confidence
repetition
stress. gives students
58
might cause anxiety) and it gives the teacher a general idea of whether the
students have grasped the model (65).
However, Harmer adds that there are three things to
remember about choral repetition:
1. Clearly indicate by a gesture when the
students should start the chorus.
2.
Clearly indicate the correct stressduring the chorus.
3.
Stay silent during the chorus so that

you can hear how well the students are performing
(ibid).
Generally speaking, individual and choral repetition

be
can
more effective in the early stages of
the learning process when students are neither in a position to know the real cause of an error
nor have to struggle to find the correct model. Teachers may use choral repetition when many
find
difficulties in a particular sound, word or phrase in order to help them
students
produce
those items correctly.
2.6.2 Provision of the Correct Model

The teacher him/herself may provide the student who commits an error with the correct model
directly. This technique is preferred mostly as a last resort, when all students fail to give the
correct model. It is effective in terms of saving time and effort.
2.6.3 Practice
Some teachers, after locating the errors, explaining them, and providing the correct model, ask
their students to practise the correct model through drills and different exercises. From this,
they insist on accurate production from their students. Although practice as mentioned above
usually needs a lot of time and effort on the part of the teacher, it has been proved as a
in
(see
Lewis
Hill,
2002).
the
technique
correction of students' oral errors
successful
and
2.6.4 Selection out of Many Options

Some experienced teachers use the option technique because it may lead students to think and
forms.
Many alternatives are given to students to select the correct one
find
the
try to
correct
their
cognition
of
the
use
through
capabilities.
The logic behind given more than one
identify students' reactions and determine whether they will choose one or
is
to
alternative
As Gower et al. (1995) remind us:
more alternatives.
59
The basic principle is that

students learn more effectively if they are
guided in such a way that they eventually correct themselves
if
than
rather
they are given the correct version of
some-thing straight away. The
struggle to get it right also helps them understand why they were wrong
(165).
2.6.5 Writing
on the Blackboard
The technique of using written forms to

correct oral errors is hotly debated among the scholars
specialising in this field. The proponents of this technique as Fanselow (1992) claims is that
writing can hide the teacher's anger, which can be revealed by the tone of his voice (16). A
second justification is put forward by Savignon (1983) who insists on using written forms as a
matter of courtesy to the students (224). Gainer (1989) in an article entitled `Clozing in on Oral
Errors'. summarises the advantages of such a technique as follows;
1. It helps in locating errors precisely when the whole utterance is written
on the
board with
a blank left for the correct form.

2.
It gives students more time to think.
3.
It gives a chance to all students to participate.
4.
It helps students focus their attention on the error.
5.
It shows students which parts of their utterances are correct.
6.
It makes correction very explicit (45-9).
2.6.6 Using Teaching Aids

Teachers of the English language may use some materials to help students correct errors. The
board, textbooks, language laboratories, pronunciation
charts, some computer programmes,
in
instance,
be
For
this
cassettes and videotape recorders may
of assistance
respect.
computers
language
learning
in
formats,
they
are called assisted
and
are available
a wide variety of
including
tutorial
building
textprograms,
programmes, games and the Internet. There,
in
both
learners'
(see
Todd
1999:
errors
written
and
spoken
programmes
computers correct
88).
Native
Language
Student's
the
Using
2.6.7
in
NL
find
their
student's
Many teachers
an effective means to correct errors. As Gottlieb
language
learners
"English
should be encouraged to use their first language,
(2006: 42) said,
60
especially at the onset of second language acquisition, and the extent that the first language is
an instructional aid or tool should be reflected in classroom assessment practices". Although
limited use of the NL is recommended
within the context of FL teaching, so as to develop the
required FL skills, especially in the early stages of learning, such a technique is better avoided
at the advanced stages. When students commit errors in a structure, the teacher may use the
students' native language to correct their errors.
Example: A student may say; "I have a car blue"*.
Instead of "I have a blue car".
I. e. the teacher uses the students L1 in the correction of this sentence by saying in Arabic the
adjective comes after the noun not before the noun.
2.6.8 Using Non-Verbal
Communication
Most teachers, wherever they are, do their best to convey their messages during the classroom
interaction
either verbally
Accordingly,
or non-verbally.
non-verbal
communication
is
important
considered as an
element or tool to add global meaning and simplify any ambiguity.
Non-verbal communication can be used as visual clues and remind a student of the errors or of
correction form (see Stuart et al., 2002: 114-115). The values of non-verbal communication
how
(2004:
69)
large
Child
to
teachers
them
pointed out that a
rely
a
extent on
use
effectively.
teacher may use eye contact or a gentle smile to indicate approval. Teachers in their class use
The
to
their
way they stand,
convey
messages without using words.
nonverbal communication
the gestures they use and the expression on their faces can all tell the students something. Most
Jones
As
to
they
things
to
teachers
these
the
time,
say.
want
support and reinforce what
of
use
(1989: 21) stated "for instance, if speakers stand up straight with their heads high when giving
listener
it
to
the
accept more readily
talk
encourage
and
suggest
confidence
can
a
or a speech,
floor,
it
If
that
they
the
being
are
suggest
might
the points
at
stare
speakers
slouch
and
made.
listener
interest".
lose
don't
could
care, and
embarrassed or
2.6.8.1 Gestures
in
And
there are
to
they
order
reinforce and underline points
making.
Teachers use gestures
fist,
hand,
teachers
that
could
use,
such
gesturing
a
as
pointing,
a
making
raising
many gestures
head
be
blackboard,
(ibid).
However,
the
the
scratching
used
gestures should
to words on
61
appropriately and naturally as a part of the teacher's explanation, otherwise they might detract
from what s/he says rather than enhance it (ibid).
2.6.8.2 Facial Expression

Teachers use their facial expression in their oral error correction in
order to give greater impact
to what they correct and in order to support it. For instance, a smile, raised eyebrows, pursed
lips or an expression of distaste could help students in understanding and
accepting the way of
correction. As Jones (1989: 21) stated, "As a general rule, your face (and your body) ought to
mirror the mood of what you are saying or the intention behind it".
2.6.8.3 Eye Contact

Eye contact is another important non-verbal communication when teachers explain or correct
their students' oral errors. Eye contact gives the students the feeling that their teachers pay
much attention to them and this engages the students' attention and gains their confidence.
Therefore, teachers need to keep moving their gaze from one student to another to include
everyone. Having said that, eye contact may not be appropriate in some societies and maybe
interpreted differently
verbal communication
in
However,
Libyan
their
regarding
culture and customs.
culture, nonfacial
such as gestures,
expressions and eye contact can show the
build
In
they
towards
teachers
can either
emotions of
students' responses. other words,
positive
dissatisfaction
to
to
the
to
students
show
attitudes
enhance error correction or can send signals
(see
Stuart
2002:
114-15).
their
et
al.,
with
communication
2.7 Conclusion
This chapter introduced the importance of oral communication in the target language in the
in
for
fact
the
the
oral activities.
error correction
of making errors and
necessity
classroom and
This chapter also presented some different definitions of correction and the facts which affect
in
during
language
lessons.
I
foreign
the
the
classroom
also
presented
differences between accuracy and fluency
how
they may affect teachers' ways of
and
focused
the
taking
This
also
on
various
error
correction,
chapter
methods
of
oral
correction.
be
to
type
of errors
corrected and the one who gives the correction. The time
into account the
issue
in
is
the
to
psychological
which
students
also
may
react
positively
related
correction
of
62
pointed out. The techniques of oral error correction were explained and presented in a way that
helped distinguish between giving correction and techniques that facilitate correction with the
help of teachers.
The next chapter will highlight the term èrrors' and provide various definitions of it. It will
describe also the teachers' and students' attitudes towards errors and error correction and
differentiate between experienced and less experienced teachers in correcting students' errors.
63
Chapter Three: Errors and Certain Aspects of Error Correction

3.1 Introduction
Students encounter
enormous
difficulties
during
their journey
language and a considerable number of their difficulties

These difficulties
learning
of
a foreign
based
language
their
are
on
errors.
will be more serious and complex if the errors are difficult
from the speakers' performance i. e. fossilised errors

are more difficult
to recover
to be eradicated from
the speaker' performance and need much time and focus to be corrected (see Lengo, 1995;
Johnston, 2001; Kirchhoff
et al., 2005). Nevertheless,
languages and many researchers agree that making

(Bartram and Walton,
1998; Brown,
in
learning
errors are natural
is
learners
to
errors
common
all
1991; Edge, 1993; Ellis, 1995; James, 1998; Mitchell
Myles,
and
2000; Gass and Selinker, 2001; Johnson, 2001; Block, 2003; Baker and
Westrup, 2003). In order to help students learn a foreign language and overcome some
Johnston
(2001:
170-1) points out that students need time and practice if they want to
errors,
become capable of producing better quality TL in their communication.
This may indicate
that students' errors need to be corrected because students of L2 widely perceive that error
is
(ibid),
learners
thing
to
to master
correction
a good
as error correction provides support
the FL or SL.
It is also essential in the process of teaching and learning (Nassaji and
Swain, 2000: 34). However, error correction does not always succeed in making learners
in
fluency
is
be
learned.
For
to
exercise, correcting pronunciation
example,
aware of what
errors will
beneficial
be
not
fluency.
encourage
to the students' progress: continuant interruption
does not
That is why some researchers have a different perspective on error
256).
(Havranek,
2002:
correction
The last four decades have seen a dramatic change in researchers' and teachers' attitudes
in
foreign
languages
that
and towards the ways of error
towards errors
students make
correction.
This was a result of different points of view about learning and teaching a
foreign language after Chomsky's (1965) attack on the structural linguistic theory, which
dominated
learning
teaching and
a FL (see Lochtman,
2002: 273). Furthermore,
some
(see
how
how
beliefs
learn
FL
they
they
hold
not
on
should
should
and
a
some
people
beliefs
The
have
held
2004).
the
they
role
main
subjects
are
upon
which
al.,
Basturkmen et
(Bartram
2001).
Walton,
1991;
Johnston,
both
by
correction
error
and
and
errors
played
different
have
been
beliefs,
perspectives
raised and various arguments put
Regarding these
64
forward by researchers
of second language learning (SLL) and teaching (SLT) (James,
1998; Gass and Selinker, 2001; Havranek, 2002; Sturm
and Boves, 2005).
Consequently,
this chapter will
discuss the researchers' point of view and their beliefs
regarding errors and the manner and time of correcting students. It will shed light on the
differences between behaviourists'
and mentalists' theories in the way of error correction
and what advocates of each theory believe. I have chosen these two theories because these
are two extremes in language learning. This chapter will give a general background on how
behaviourists look at errors and their beliefs in correcting those errors. At the same time, it
presents the mentalists'
points of view towards errors and error correction. Moreover, it
will provide the reader with some definitions of errors and error correction.
In this chapter, the teachers' and learners' attitudes will
in
be
order to
also
explored
understand their effects on oral error correction. The findings on teachers' experience and
teachers' gender will
be
how
factors
two
to
these
also
explained
show
may affect error
correction.
3.2 Researchers' Points of View towards Error and Error Correction

Researchers of SLL and SLT have different perspectives on learners' errors and on the
effectiveness
learners'
of correction
(Havranek,
2002: 256). The traditional
errors represents undesirable and avoidable shortcomings
performance.
view
language
of
in the learner's SL
èrrors were often viewed as the result of bad habits' (Mitchell
Myles,
and
2004). Ellis (1996: 22) states, "errors, according to behaviourist theory, were the result of
non-learning
Behaviorists
learning".
than
wrong
rather
look at errors as a bad thing and
"At
(1978:
134)
Broughton
In
be
this
wrote,
et
al.
that
they
regard,
avoided.
should
suggest
in
breakdown
bad
thing
first sight it appears self-evident that errors are a very
and signal a
is
"like
to
(1964:
58)
Similarly,
Brook
learning
error
sin,
states,
the teaching and
situation".
be avoided
Behaviourists
influence
its
and
overcome
although
its presence is to be expected".
immediately
be
that
corrected
errors should
strongly recommend
otherwise
difficult
fossilised
habit,
fixed
to
and
eradicate.
become
a
they
(SLA)
language
by
has
been
acquisition
questioned
many second
This view towards errors
learning.
Hence,
in
field
have
to
the
of
shifted
accept
errors
some
and
researchers,
in
have
looked
L2
the
teachers
this
as
a
step
and
some
at
errors
opinion
of
advocates
55
learning process,
which results in learning progress. For example, Lengo (1995: 20) states,
"errors are believed to be
indicator
an
of the learners' stages in their target language
development. From the
errors that learners commit, one can determine their level of
mastery of language system". By the same token Johnson (2001: 39) states, "We don't need
to worry when a learner makes an error". He adds, "Indeed, errors can be
a good thing. As
the saying goes: `we learn through our mistakes' " (ibid).
As a large number of studies on language teaching
in
learners'
shows, errors occur
utterances when they produce language and those errors sometimes need correction (Edge,
1993; Ellis,
1995; Lengo 1995; James, 1998; Brown,
2000; Gass and Selinker, 2001;
Johnson, 2001; Sercombe, 2002; Block, 2003; Baker and Westrup, 2003; Hulterstrm,
2005). Lengo (1995: 21) explains that foreign language learners commit errors because of a
lack of knowledge of the target language and those errors are mostly accounted for in terms
of their learning stages (see subsection 2.3, factors affecting error-correction
Wheldall
Glynn
and
(1989:
28).
page
116) argued that teachers should expect their students to
in
itself
is
important
learning
Wheldall
the
commit errors which
an
part of
process.
and
Glynn also stated, "making mistakes is a good thing". They also added that teachers should
allow
students
to
initiate
error
correction
procedures
themselves
and make more
independent progress in learning (ibid: 99). They also emphasised that if teachers regard
errors
as opportunities
opportunity
for
immediate
corrective
feedback,
students will
have no
to notice they have made an error or try to correct that error (ibid:
167).
Therefore, the literature has shown that error correction has been treated in different ways
different
lack
have
been
The
views
of agreement among
raised.
and various points of view
leads
benefit
to confusion among teachers: the concept of
the
of error correction
regarding
between
is
difference
because
the
teachers
not always clear-cut
error sometimes confuses
level
the
(see
Lengo,
1995)
the
the
of
of
correction,
aim
as well as
error and non-error
learner to be corrected, which errors to correct, when and how to correct, and who should
issues.
that
to
there
these
I
to
are no simple answers
mention
need
correct?
Since the beginning
last
the
of
century, a range of methods, approaches and techniques
language
hold
door
key
teaching
the
to
to
the
to
been
claiming
of effective
have
applied
in language teaching and learning. During the 1940s and 1950s,
techniques
error correction
dominated
learning
language
the
teaching
theory
and
of a native
and a
the behaviourist
has
This
flourished
language.
formed
in
theory
basic
foundation
foreign
the
and
a
or
second
66
FL teaching and learning,

particularly
in the United States, during and after World War II
(see Block, 2003). It has

also focused on the way teachers correct students' errors when
they occur. Learning a language was thought to be
an imitation of others without errors
(ibid: 113). This theory did not last for
a long time but it faced a complete rejection by
researchers in the field of applied linguistics. Researchers' evidence has emphasised that
language is a mental rather than a behavioural
process.
In the late 1960s and in the early 1970s, voices were raised supporting the
new notions of
the mentalists' point of view towards teaching and learning FL. They believe that language
is a mental process mastered through time and committing
learning. The mentalists' theory found a large following
is
errors
a natural aspect of
among teachers of FLs. Mentalists
thought, as Johnson (2001: 39) says, "we do not need to worry when a learner makes an
error".
According
internalised
to Brown
understanding
(2001: 66), "Errors
in
fact, windows
are,
to a learner's
language,
the
of
second
and therefore they give the teachers
something observable to react to". Hall and Hewings (2001: 17) add that teachers can offer
feedback
in
learning-teaching
and seek
at appropriate moments
activities. Hence, students'
error correction has been rejected by some researchers and supported by others, and as Lee
(1997) reported, attitudes towards error correction changed from direct correction which
dominated before the 1960s, to condemnation of error correction in the 1960s.
In the 1980s, a more critical view of error correction was raised. Kubota (2001: 468) reports
from another point of view and
that Interactionalism
has looked at error correction
different
presented a
perspective of the need and value of error correction.
Interactionalism
(2004:
117)
Myles
that
clarify
and
Mitchell
Similarly,
proposes that correction can
is
the
negative evidence
take one of two ways: either positive or negative evidence where
for
the
acquisition
necessary
Interactionalists,
grammatical
feedback
evidence means
the
Negative
to
is
(ibid).
according
the
evidence,
rare
student's grammar
of
correction
indirect
Positive
language.
of core aspects of
does not mean correcting explicitly
form
but
it
is
feedback,
in
the
of recasts, which represents an
explanations,
form of correction (ibid:

èvidence'
surroundings
the learner's utterance or providing
178). Nassaji and Swain (2000) confirm that negative
is essential to L2 learners when positive
is insufficient
input
in the natural
to lead the learners towards the correct form of the target
help
L2
feedback
is
been
that
has
It
out
could
negative
essential and
pointed
language.
67
learners. It is more effective
for more advanced as opposed to less advanced learners
(Nassaji and Swain, 2000: 34).
According
to Mitchell
Myles
(2004:
interaction
is fruitful
22),
and
and the provision of
negative evidence is necessary and helpful for second language development. By negative
it
evidence,
means some kind of input that lets the learner know when a particular form is
not acceptable according to the target language forms. In second language interaction, this
different
forms,
by
from
formal
the teacher, to more
take
might
ranging
a
correction offered
informal rephrasing of a learner's second language utterance, offered by a native-speaking
conversational
controversy
partner.
Despite these findings
over error correction
and argumentations,
remained unresolved
in the 1990s, the
debates
continued
and
among
language
improve
learners
helps
L2
their
to
to
whether error correction
researchers as
Chandler,
2001;
Kubota,
2001;
Roberts,
it
is
just
(Ferris
time
and
consuming
accuracy or
2003; Havranek, 2002).
Some researchers took a strong position and reported that error correction is harmful and
ineffective
it
believed
They
be
was
abolished and abandoned.
should
in facilitating
the
This
1999).
in
(see
Truscott,
FL
in
of
point
essays
writing
especially
student's achievement,
field
in
teaching
the
lot
of
researchers
of argumentation and rebuttals among
view raised a
for
that
Dana,
Ferris
students
Among
reported
learning.
example,
these
researchers,
and
Given
50).
the
2004:
(Ferris,
for
above
desires
correction
error
strongly stated
for
building
findings
is
to
a
the
certain
offer
the
study
current
of
aims
controversies, one of
theory.
EFL
correction
error
more complete
from
learners
to
try
prevent
Behaviourists believe that errors are a bad thing and they
him/her
behaviourists
learner
correct
When
error,
an
commits
a
committing errors.
be
it
habit
fixed
become
will
and
a
immediately because they believe that the error will
believe
however,
that
Mentalists,
learner's
are
from
it
errors
the
mind.
difficult to eradicate
I
following
table
In
learning.
the
sum
the
learning
progress
of
show
may
and
towards
a step
behaviourists
and
between
errors
regarding
view
of
and
mentalists
points
differences
up the
error correction.
68
Behaviourists
"
"
"
"
"
"
Mentalists
Errors are like a sin and their presence can

reinforce wrong answers.
Teachers tend to impede errors from
occurring in students' performance and
avoid discussion when they occur.
Teaching goes by step-by-step acquisition
The teacher is the only one who should
correct students' errors in the classroom.
When errors occur, immediate correction
should be followed.
Accuracy in all activities is always needed.
"
"
"
"
Errors are unavoidable and a necessary part

learning
the
of
process.
Teachers encourage students to participate
and talk freely and plan discussion of errors
to facilitate students' methods of correction.
Teachers use different
strategies in
correcting errors rather than teacher's
correction which always remains as the last
resort.
The emphasis in oral activities is on fluency
rather than accuracy.
Table (3.1) shows some of the retain differences between Behaviourists and Mentalists points of view
regarding errors and error correction
3.3 Definitions of Terms Employed in the Study

3.3.1 Errors and Mistakes
There is a great variation
in
definition
their
among authors
èrror'
terms
the
and
of
`mistake' and as this study deals with oral error correction, it is worthwhile
attempting to
distinguish between errors, mistakes, lapses and certain other relevant terms. Corder (1981:
10) drew a distinction between two types of deviation: errors and mistakes. He associated
the term error with a failure in competence of the language learner and mistakes with
failure in performance. He has pointed out that errors are the result of incomplete control of
the language system and said, "a learner's errors, then, provide evidence of the system of
language that he is using" and added "the learner's errors are evidence of this system and
being
by
fact,
(ibid).
In
regular,
are
characterised
themselves
errors
systematic"
are
Norrish
to
time
practise and correct.
systematic and serious, needing much attention and
"let
by
definition
Corder's
footsteps
in
us
followed
saying
(1983: 7) also
the
of an error
of
`gets
learnt
has
learner
deviation,
it
and
consistently
something
not
a
when
call a systematic
has
learner
because
the
is
it wrong"'. He has emphasised that an error consistently repeated
form
learnt
the correct
yet.
not
learner
by
20)
the
(1991:
that
while s/he
reported
errors are caused
Bartram and Walton
focused
is
the
definition
it
Their
on
tries out something completely new and gets wrong.
the
than
consistency
and
systematisation.
rather
cause of an error
69
In 1998, James attempted to

enrich the views towards learners' errors. According to Edge,
mistakes are like an umbrella which cover all ways of being wrong. He divides
mistakes
into three types: slips, errors and attempts. He
stated:
We can divide linguistic mistakes, according to the teacher's
his
of
or her learners, into:
knowledge
"
slips, which a student can self-correct;
"
errors, which a student cannot self-correct, but where it is clear which

form the student wanted to use, and
where the class is familiar with that
form;
"
attempts, where students have no real idea how to structure what they
want to mean, or where intended meaning and structure are not clear to the
teacher (1998: 11).
Consequently,
Edge classifies mistakes according to whether or not he thinks that the
student could correct him/herself if the mistake had been pointed out and the student given
the chance of correction. Similarly,
James (1998: 79-80) pointed out that deviance is the
cover term for all ways of being wrong. He elucidated that an error is an instance of FL that
is unintentionally
deviant and is not self-corrected by the learner. He also added that the
be
errors can
grammatically
unacceptable and that errors can also be odd utterances which
by
the non-native speaker.
are produced
Additionally,
James (1998: 83), offers a practical classification of deviance namely, `slips',
`mistakes', èrrors' and `solecisms'. He says, "errors cannot be self-corrected until further
(to
input
(implicit
that
relevant
error)
or explicit)
has been provided and converted into
intake by the learner. In other words, errors require further relevant learning to take place
before they are self-corrected".
which
James's definition of errors is similar to Edge's definition,
focuses on the learner's
illuminated
inability
to correct his/her errors alone. He also has
four possible states of `knowing equation' as he coined it. 1. - acquired - learnt
of the TL = errors.
This means that a learner has not the surrogate knowledge of the TL
because s/he has neither acquired nor learnt it (ignorant of forms). The result will be errors
learner
2.
learnt
The
them
+
put
right.
acquired = mistakes.
and s/he cannot convincingly
has acquired the TL rules (s/he is not in a state of ignorance as in state no 1). S/he will not
because
but
his/her
distractedness.
3.
still
make
mistakes
might
of
acquired
make errors,
learner
In
be
this
the
by
to
equation
learnt
may
able
correct or avoid errors
+
= errors.
invoking
learnt explicit knowledge. S/he may not actually commit the error and can bring
form
is
This
because
is
know
its
easily.
or
to
the
utterance
s/he
able
error and
the alternative
70
correct equivalent.
4.
+ acquired + learnt = right forms and utterances. This shows the
outcome will probably be completely right because the learner knows the language well
(James: 1998).
Mistakes form the second type of faults that occur when learners fail to
perform to the best
of their competence. They usually result from performance deficiency. Consequently,
mistakes according to Corder (1975: 204) are "... the result of some neurophysiological
breakdown or imperfection in the process of encoding and articulating speech". To be
more
precise, mistakes are cases of wrong selection of language when the learner tries to
communicate or produce L2. They are of no significance to the process of language
learning, and the speaker is normally capable of recognising and correcting them (ibid).
Ellis
(1996) views
mistakes as performance
phenomena which
reflect
the processing
failures of language as a result of competing strategies and memory limitation. By the same
token, James (1998) mentions that mistakes can be corrected by their agent if the deviance
is pointed out to the agent. Mistakes dichotomise according to the agent's correction into a
first-order
of mistakes and a second-order of mistakes. If the agent corrects the deviance
after a sufficient
prompt, this is called a first-order mistake while a second-order mistake
happens if the agent asks for the exact location of the deviance and some hints will be given
to get him/her to correct the mistakes. By the same token, Sercombe (2002: 3) pointed out
that the form of language is only wrong when it is seen as deviating from the accepted TL
form in a particular
definition
Sercombe's
context.
important
facts:
1)
based
two
on
was
in
2)
TL
the
the
particular
and,
was
wrong
accepted
what was not
context was very
important because what is accepted on one occasion might not be accepted on another. This
is
did
he
to
the
term
be
the
term
mistake, which
not refer
error and
may
pointed out
why
really
difficult
for teachers to distinguish
between when students participate
in oral
for
first
the
time.
activities, especially
Given the definitions of errors and mistakes, researchers differ in their opinion though there
have
they
may
a
common
agreement and some conformity
where
are points
among them
1975;
Bartram
Coder,
(see for example,
and Walton, 1991; Ellis, 1996; Edge, 1989; James,
but
discusses
2002),
issue
the
everyone
Sercombe,
1998;
according to their point of view.
hand,
Corder
the
one
emphasises that errors are a result of competence
For example, on
failure in performance; on the other hand, James and Edge believe
indicate
while mistakes
71
errors and mistakes are different in the way in which the learner corrects him/herself. By
contrast, Bartram and Walton (1991: 21) points out that errors are a result of inadequate
in
the language. They also refer to mistakes as wrong language which a native
practice
speaker would not usually produce but only the L2 learners of the language produce.
In this thesis, errors are defined as a failure in the performance of the L2 learner, which
both
in
literature.
differences
the
them
the
covers
errors and mistakes regardless of
among
The reason for this decision is due to the fact that sometimes there is no clear-cut definition
is
is
is
it
is
i.
this
to
an error and that
an error and what
of what
a mistake e.
not easy prove
is a mistake in a speaker's communication (see Lengo, 1995).
3.3.2 Teachers and Error Correction

A considerable number of teachers assume that error correction is important while their
students practise new activities.
They frequently
worry
about whether their students'
development
language
in
their
the
positive effect
negative affective reactions may outweigh
(Havranek,
2002: 256). Teachers are more interested in practical
application
of error
64).
But
1998:
Lioyd,
(Heubusch
as
theories
and
than
opinions
and
researchers'
corrections
learners,
different
the
of
ability
and
attitudes
the
and
researchers
among
conflict
of
a result
They
in
oral activities.
teachers are still confused as to when to correct students' errors
Renandya
Richards
different
and
fluctuate
of
view.
points
researchers'
among
vacillate and
during
feedback
is
class
the sole source of
(2002: 213), pointed out that the teacher
believe
I
that
during
by
teacher
the
practice.
alone
corrected
are
errors
conversation and
important
to
aspects
teachers' attitude towards errors and error correction are very
84)
(1996:
Katz
friends
states,
feel
their
as
that
to
are
errors
encourage students either
their
feel
and
that
(students)
enemy
are
friends",
errors
they
upset
"errors are our
may
or
of
way
a
The
and
correction
teachers'
them.
error
of
to
methods
soft
close
cannot come
feel
in
motivated and unthreatened, are
developing positive support,
which students
to the lesson in oral
to
contribution
to
a
positive
students
make
encourage
essential parts
believes
that
if
But,
teacher
the
teachers'
their
error
correction.
accept
and
activities
feels
they
their
when
angry
always
achievement
poor
and
she/he
show
students' errors
fear
for
the
be
to
of
will
unwilling
or
communicate
speak
students
errors,
commit oral
Muijs
(2001:
Reynolds
21-3)
teachers
that
and
argued
correction.
of
method
teacher's
because
kind
the
to
of
personal
criticism
of
errors
student
who
makes
any
resort
should not
72
personal criticism is ineffective and may be harmful rather than helpful. If teachers believe
that errors are necessary and a part of language learning, they
will consider correction as
another part to support students in their learning process (see Mitchell and Myles, 1998;
Nassaji and Swain, 2000; Brown, 2000; Gass
and Selinker, 2001; Johnson, 2001; Block,
2003). Lewis and Hill (2002: 90-3) argued that correction is
a necessary and important
in
aspect the learning process and it helps students to improve their performance. However,
teachers should always balance between errors and error correction because too much error
correction does not always succeed in making students aware of what is to be learned and
does not encourage them to learn more.
Many L2 teachers would disagree that correction is not necessary (Truscott, 1996: 12) and
doubtlessl agree that poorly done error correction in L2 does not help students' learning and
may even mislead them (Ferris, 1999: 4). By the same respect, Sercombe (2002: 16-8)
argued that error correction is required to minimise students' production of errors and it is
essential for students to practise the corrected forms in order to help them. By the same
token, Ferris (2004: 54) emphasised that error correction
facilitate
to
necessary and essential
the student's
is not only helpful but also
accurate production
of language.
Successful teaching includes organising and managing the way of error correction in which
learning
by
developing
their
students participate
processes, as well as encouraging students
to become attuned to errors and error corrections and give them opportunities to practice in
in
here
is
important
It
that,
to
oral communication, a
mention
also
classroom oral activities.
meaningful
ideas
better
than
are
context with a corresponding emphasis on representing
605).
2005:
(see
Hedgcock,
correcting students' minor grammatical errors
Teachers are responsible for teaching students in their classrooms (Pettersson et al., 2004;
Devereux, 2001; Munro, 2001; McBer, 2001). They determine and choose their way of
correcting
students'
"Some
As
(2005:
their
Hall
405)
teachers
use
may
errors.
says,
knowledge about subject matter, teaching methods, and student learning to guide what they
learn
Despite
how
best
they
teach
their
believe students should
and
subject matter".
should
knowledge
hold,
it
is
beliefs
that
that
teachers
their
of
are more
may
the types and amounts
in
hold
However,
the
their
teachers
dictate
actions
classroom.
on to their old
may
likely to
information,
with
contradictory
beliefs, even when presented
or shown that their beliefs are
Error
is
incorrect.
topic
to
correction
a
crucial
related
creating a positive,
and/or
incomplete
73
effective climate during language lessons and

choosing error correction strategies which do
not put the student in an embarrassing or singled-out
position. It is a way to make the
student feel comfortable enough to participate in the foreign language
activities. Schrum
Glisan,
(1994 cited in Kristmanson 2000: 4),
and
pointed out that "the research generally
indicates that overt error correction by the teacher is ineffective
and may actually impede
students' progress". Language teachers are the main figures who can create a positive
environment for their students, either to develop, or impede learning. Teachers who are
authoritarian
are no longer accepted by their students because teachers are expected to
encourage their students in building up their confidence and expressing their opinions (see
Cullingford, 1995; Tsui, 1996/2003; Harkin
et al., 2001).
Accordingly,
Dunn (2005: 51-2) goes further than that when he emphasises the
role played
by praise. He believes
that praise is an important
achievements and reinforces their participation.

in
the vicinity
make everyone
trigger
which
affects students'
He argues that praise has the power to
know what the teacher wants to happen. Praising encourages
students to engage in learning and build a positive relationship
towards error correction
techniques used by their teacher. It builds students' confidence to participate positively to

gain better understanding. Dunn concludes his argument by stating that all students like
praise and none of them likes being told off! (ibid). Teachers' ways of how they correct
errors are as important as what they teach. In fact, the `how' is largely determined by the
is
effectiveness and
strongly related to the teacher's ability, attitude and techniques of error
correction. The how is also related to the close relationships between teachers and students
in which the latter are encouraged to build up their self-esteem and confidence. These
encourage students'
in
learning
language.
Good
enthusiasm
relationships
in particular
between teacher and students are considered as an essential technique related to `how' the
teacher treats students (Humphreys, 1993; Dunn, 2005).
Teachers believe that they cannot stop teaching and wait for researchers to tell them how it
believe
to
Teachers
done
be
that
correct
whether
students'
errors
or
also
and
not.
should
learners
blunder
help
they
is
through a range of communication
job
support
to
as
and
their
Chandler, 2003). Some teachers may also deny Truscott's idea in
1999;
(Ferris,
scenarios
her article
"The case against grammar
correction....
" which has led to a great deal of
has
Truscott
is
In
this
that,
pointed
article
out
discussion.
not only
grammar correction
ineffective,
but also it is actually harmful to students and teachers (Ferris, 1999: 1). Ferris
74
(2004) contradicts
Truscott's
idea about error correction
and states, àlthough students
clearly want grammar correction that does not

mean teachers should give it to them' (50).
On the other hand, Chandler (2003
cited in Rilling 2005: 6) found that students who
received error correction and are asked to act on those corrections
are less likely to repeat
the same errors when they use SL. This
could be an indicator to encourage teachers to be
more concerned with the goal of helping students to avoid the same error by
correcting their
oral errors (Lee, 2003: 220). Teachers rely on their own L2 learning and teaching
experience (Sato and Kleinsasser, 2004: 809) in their way of error correction. They also
believe that vocabulary, translation,
and grammar are focal issues of their teaching priority
(ibid: 810). Rilling
(2005) also confirmed that a focus on error and the

way of correction
may stem from the teachers' experience during their studies as pre-service teachers.
Generally speaking, teachers' positive attitude towards their
in
teaching SL or FL is
role
useful to encourage students to learn more accurately. For instance, McNamara (2001: 266)
pointed out that the teacher's attitude lies at the heart of their work. They can make errors
for
their students rather than against them (see Harmer, 2001a: 42-3). Teachers
work
recognise and believe that students are different in their intelligence, needs, motivations and
psychological
feelings
towards learning L2 (Mitchell
emotional
and Myles, 2004; Wterson,
2002). Teachers also confirm that they need to build successful relationships with students
in order to help them understand and develop L2 learning.
This may build the students'
confidence and positive attitude to encourage learning and practise language. The teacher's
job
then is to support
communication,
their
students as they work
through
a stream of language
badger
forget
to
them
they
a grammatical
not
when
feature. I believe
teachers deal with their students' oral errors in different ways and with different techniques.
Those techniques depend basically on their beliefs, experience and attitude towards errors.
Borg (2003: 81) in his article "Teacher cognition in language teaching... " refers to the
teacher cognition in language teaching as what language teachers think, know and believe
in
language
do
is
the
teaching
teacher's
teachers
classroom
not
a
result
of
a
and what
beliefs, but a result of the relationships of all mental constructs. He also adds "teachers'
cognition
in
lives"
(ibid).
Teachers'
teachers'
role
pivotal
a
attitudes towards error
plays
influenced
be
by
factors
institutional
other
also
such as
correction may
instructions; Libyan
inspectors'
importance
the
the
under
pressure
of
overstress on
of
teachers are sometimes
limited
The
lesson,
time
final
the
the
the
the
of
syllabus.
size
of
classes and
course
covering
behaviours
teachers'
towards
These
affect
error
correction.
also
are
reflected
on
may
exams
75
teachers'
ways of correction
and even on students' achievement. Therefore, teachers'
attitudes towards error correction may affect their way of

correction. Experienced and less
experienced teachers and their attitudes towards errors may also bring about differences in
their way of correcting their students' oral errors. The teachers' techniques
of oral error
correction may be reflected in the students' ability to contribute to classroom discussion or
become reluctant learners and disengage from
participation. Therefore, the next section is
given over to the role of teachers' experience in teaching.
3.3.3 Teachers' Gender

Societies everywhere look at gender from different and diverse
In
the past,
perspectives.
they tried to restrict
individual
every
(man or woman) by imposing
some rules and
regulations to be followed in society. However, there has been a traditional belief, dominant
in many societies for a long time, which consider a man as creative, active, an inventor, a
successful businessman and political leader which does not consider a woman in the same
way. These societies were looking at women as housewives, mothers confined to the home
and caring for their husbands and children (see Browne, 2005: 78). This also indicates that
a man's job was outside the house while a woman's was indoors and, even when she was
given a chance to work outside the home, the jobs were limited and restricted; such jobs as
receptionists,
kitchen
teachers,
cleaners, or
secretaries, nurses,
improvement
gradual
inequalities,
major
Despite
the
assistants.
in women's position during the twentieth century, women still face

especially
in some Arab countries. The inequalities
from
the
arise
human
life,
between
which puts women at
men and women across
unequal power relations
disadvantage
a
(see Subrahmanian,
2005: 397; Diez-Rico,
2008: 343). However,
the
blossoming of feminism involved women in public and private spheres. It is an undeniable

fact that nowadays many women hold positions in different fields of social life such as
local authority, higher education, law, medicine and even in military
(see
Fraser,
services
1995: 24-5).
females
in
differences
have
the
that
there
use
Some studies
ways males and
are
shown
2/3/2000),
in
(presented
Ohara
For
their
on
example,
et al.
paper
English to communicate.
language
in
female
than
teachers
the
they
that
are
more
use
polite
and
softer
way
mentioned
As
than
to
techniques,
women
usually
resort
are
more
polite
a
rule
which
male teachers.
instead
Females
to
to
the
prefer
ask
of
giving
role of
orders
and
resort
use.
those that men
the nurturing
have
however
Other
studies
shown that women, especially younger
parent.
76
women, may change and start to use many more linguistic terms
used by males (Okamoto
and Sato, 1992; Okamoto, 1994/1996; Eckert, 1989). When
in
women work
a job, such as
in the military or in a male
environment, they may learn or imitate men's ways of talking or
behaving. In teaching language, Edwards (1994)
stated that female teachers provide more
oral feedback and more explanations than male teachers do during conversational activities
in order to encourage and facilitate
participation (201). Byrene and Shavelson (1988 cited
in Bacon 1992), found that females had higher
a
self-concept of verbal ability and higher
verbal
achievement.
Similarly,
Gaine and George (1999),
found
that females were
motivated and were eager to learn and speak the target language more than male learners
were. The same theory was emphasised by Al Moghani (2003) who pointed out that female
students showed their desire to know more about life and customs in EL speaking
countnes.
According to Holmes (1998), women and men are different in the way they use particular
speech patterns to express politeness. In her paper, she found that women gave and received
significantly
more compliments than men did and her results showed that women gave 68
per cent of all the compliments
between males were relatively
contrast, compliments
account of women's
recorded, and they received 74 per cent of them. By
compliments
9
uncommon, only
per cent taking
to men. The results also showed that males received
overall considerably fewer compliments than females. From this evidence, complimenting
appears to be speech behaviour occurring much more in women's interaction than in men's
(105).
Holmes also suggested that women's ways of interaction and their compliments
behaviour.
be
This
the
to
could
regarded as
approved
serve as encouragement
continue with
inside
language
in
device
to
the
the
classroom
use
a positive
which encourages students
communication
(ibid).
By the same token, Maltz and Borker (1998: 417), pointed out that when men and women
in
interaction.
listed
do
They
interact
they
the
to
also
same role
as equals,
not play
attempt
in
in
in
language
difference
females
features
oral communication
males and
using
of
some
do
facilitate
display
tendency
the
to
to
a
greater
ask
questions
and
more
such as, women
flow
of oral communication
ensuring communication
than men do. They use interrogative
forms as a way of
(see
Coates,
1995:
Goddard
22;
continues
also
and Patterson,
from
fellow
in
Women
their
99).
responses
encourage
speakers and are more active
2000:
in oral communication.
engaging
However, they are more likely
77
to adopt a strategy of
silence when they are interrupted during the conversation. Maltz

and Borker (1998: 418),
pointed out that men are likely to interrupt the speech of conversational
partners and
challenge or dispute them. Men are also more likely to ignore the comments of
other
speakers and make more direct declarations of opinion or fact than women do.
However, Talbot et al. (2003) reviewed the differences between
females
in using
males and
oral language. They argue that there is a similarity between males and females using oral
communication.
behave differently
They believe that men and women are equally human and a
person can
depending on who s/he is talking to, from what position and for
what
purpose. They believe the differences between males and females are stereotypes and are
not facts. By the same token, Pavlidou (2003) also pointed out that regarding men as active
agents and being interested in truth, whereas women were passive recipients and devoted to
trivialities,
is a stereotype. Sunderland and Swann (2007) pointed out that the difference
between males and females is strongly related to culture and social behaviours. They also
reported that women's and men's language is different but not unequal. They also pointed
in
that
out
many third world countries the difference between men and women arose from
the dominant position and the power relations between males and females (ibid).
Personally, I do not completely agree with Talbot et al's conclusion because it seems that
most research tends towards the point that there are differences between males and females
in terms of oral communication
(see Edwards, 1994; Holmes, 1998; Maltz and Borker,
1998). My research is actually a contribution towards settling this controversy.

The position of the Libyan woman was not different from other women in other societies
but might have, in fact, been worse. They faced many problems and were treated as goods
for
had
breeding
by
to
They
treated
children,
as
servants,
cooks,
used
were
controlled
man.
husbands'
The
do
indoors
they
their
permission.
woman's
got
anything unless
stay
and not
job outside the house was only to help her husband in his private business. This was the
in
1950s
the
surfaced
when a minority
case until small changes
of society allowed their
daughters/sisters to go out and study. The majority were still against this and they looked at
disrespectful
in
in
In
1969,
Libya
took
a
way.
place
after the
rapid
changes
those women
1st September Revolution,
equality.
when a constitutional
proclamation
guaranteed women total
The race against time to involve women in education and to develop Libyan
life
has
been
is
high
The
taken
of
to
standard
seriously.
education
of
women
now
a
society
78
seen to be essential and more than necessary for

constructing a new modem society. During
the last four decades, and through the
growing sense of equality, women in Libya attained
considerable
progress in different
fields of life; they have become teachers,

engineers,
doctors, pilots, soldiers, lecturers

and politicians.
Abubaker (2006) states that girls should
be encouraged to pursue their

education, as they will be the women of tomorrow who will
have to be on an equal footing with

men. She also adds that Libyan authority does
everything possible to promote women, to ensure equality with men. Although this is in
theory the status of women in Libya, they are still not equal to men.
The percentage of females at all educational levels (as
students or as teachers) has increased
to even exceed the percentage of males in the education system. In this respect, the number
of female teachers has increased and formed a percentage of 77.3% at the basic educational
level of the total number of 188,552 teachers in 2004, from both
(see
A National
sexes
Report to the International Conference on Education, Culture and Science 2004). The number
of teachers at the intermediate level has reached 47,268
from both sexes and the female
teachers formed a percentage of 64.7% of this number (ibid).

Some studies have shown a difference between men and women in their methods of
communication,
verbally
differently
women communicate
Hargei and Dickson
As emphasised in verbal
and nonverbally.
communication,
compared with men, as Coates and Johnson (2001 cited in
2004: 29-30) who say that females interact at closer interpersonal
spaces. They make greater use of eye contact and touch than men. Women smile more and
facially,
are more
gesticularly
and vocally expressive. By the same token, Argyle (1994:
30) stated that women have better verbal skills, more fluency, better grammar, and more
females
language
indicates
differently
This
that
educated accents.
males and
use
in
discussing or explaining issues. Every speaker of language, whether male or female, affects
the listener's attitude by his/her smiling, gazing, the pitch, and the tone of communication.
Similarly,
Holmes
(2001:
297) pointed
out that women
are more
cooperative
in
feedback
to
their
than
more
encouraging
provide
conversational
partners
and
conversation
do.
men
level
be
it
is
female,
teacher
in
a
at
secondary
Since
could
either male or
most societies,
how
both
into
interact
behave
take
consideration
to
sexes
important
and
with their students
is
find
It
if
differences
to
in
there
also
essential
the way
out
the
are any
inside
classroom.
79
teachers correct their students'

oral errors during classroom activities. Spender (1989 cited in
Rodenburg (1993: 96) states, "Most teachers do
not consciously want to discriminate against
girls and boys. They say that they want to treat both sexes fairly, but our
society and our
education system are structured in such a way that "equality"
men are accorded more attention".
Senior Education:
and equal values mean that
Corson (1997) in his study, "Gender, Discourse

and
Ligatures for Girls, Options for Boys " found that there
are strong general
indications that male and female teachers tend to

less
pay
attention to girls than to boys from
different levels from primary to the university. In the
he
found
that girls receive
same study,
less behavioural
criticism,
girls from participating
fewer contacts and less praise than boys do, which discourages
in whole-class work during activities (153).
Duffy, et al. (2001: 580) stated that, although little research has been done on the effect of
teachers' gender in the way of correcting students' errors, teachers tend to react differently
with male students than with female students in secondary and elementary levels as in
Greece; female teachers at elementary schools were more sensitive and gave more warning to
their students about behavioural problems than male teachers in the same schools. They also
found that female teachers interact more with male students than with female students (ibid).
By the same token, Krieg (2005: 2-3) pointed out that a teacher's gender impacts differently
on the teacher's relationship with male and female students. Male teachers tend to be more
authoritative, whereas female teachers tend to be more supportive of their students.
Hence, as there are differences between males and females in their communication and
teaching, there may also be differences between them in their ways and techniques of
issues
is
This
this study will attempt to address.
the
their
one of
correcting
students' errors.
Gender in the Libyan Context
In Libya, a woman's business, duties and jobs are not regarded as the equal of a man's. In
for
funding
is
be
Arab
to
and
countries a man's role
responsible
work and
most of the
family,
his
while a woman's primary responsibility
taking care of
is usually interpreted as
her role as a wife and mother. Women in Libya are often treated as 2"d if not
,
3rd class citizens, with few rights, needing their husbands' permission to engage in
fulfilling
even
home.
Libyan
husband's
the
their
outside
married women must receive
certain activities
home.
Libyan women were neglected during the
be
the
outside
to
employed
permission
in
lived
"dark
They
the
to
ages"
as
slaves
men and not equal to each
Italian occupation.
so
other. Keeping women away from the field

of education was affected by different facts
such as the ignorance of fathers, poverty in families
and the restricted customs and culture
(see Barakat, 1993; Allen, 2006). E1-Gmati (1984)
pointed out that in Libyan society; the
woman had one essential role which could not be changed. This
is
the identity of her
role
motherhood and she is responsible for both her husband and children (117).
The demands
of
family
life
and the expectations
husbands
of
still
mean women
traditionally
stay at home. Needless to say, the burden of work there is enormous. On one
hand, there is a traditional culture that a
married woman's role is as a homemaker, having a
heavy duties to do, such as cooking, looking
after children and taking care of their
husband's parents when they reach old age if they
are living with them (see Allen, 2006
five).
On the other hand, the father has authority and responsibility
chapter
in the family.
He is spends most of his time outside the home and after work, he comes home for
a short
while and then departs to a friend or a cafe where he spends hours chatting and exchange
news. Men regard themselves as superior to women and the latter are evaluated in terms of
their roles as a mother, sister or a daughter (see Barakat, 1993).
Culturally,
in
the Arab world do not like women to work and spend a whole
many societies
day outside the home. They do not let women travel and spend days or weeks alone. Obeidi
(2002: 171) stated, "traditionally,
the division between women's and men's roles was very
fixed.
best
for
The
clear and
place
women according to this view was at home, to practice
their duties as wives and mothers away from any significant
role outside the home".
Although modern life encourages women to be equal with men in all facets of life for the
in
is
development,
Libya
the
sake of social
role of women
still subject to certain conditions
such as working
opportunities
discrimination
discrimination
in
in jobs which
Education
(see United
suits their abilities.
and employment,
Nation
Development
but
Women in Libya have significant

they
still
Programme,
face substantial
2002).
social
This substantial
in
leads
inequality.
the
to
social
workplace which
still exists
Many women are engaged in teaching and nursing which are considered more appropriate
jobs.
Libyan
Hourani (1991) states "[women ] could
than
in
the
for women
society
other
in
but
in
clinics,
women's
not
government
offices
or
or
other
places
where
teachers
as
work
they would mix with men"(440).
81
In education women
are the majority of public employees. Teaching is considered to be
such a female-dominated job which seems to be more
suitable to women in the Libyan
society (ibid). This maybe due to the following reasons:
1. Men and women do not socialise
very much.
2. In teaching there is less opportunity for
contact with males who come from outside the
field of education. This is preferred by husbands
and parents.
3. Female teachers may take their children to where they
work.
4. Female teachers do not spend all working hours at
but
they go home as soon as
school
they finish their lessons.
In fact, the majority of Libyan men do not allow their wives or daughters to
engage in jobs
such as military
services, policing,
bus
driving. Men do not prefer and do not
taxi
and
or
encourage their female relatives to mix with men at work. Moreover, males in general do
like
to work under a woman's management and they prefer men. Libyans differentiate
not
between men and women in the role played in their society and these differences may be
due to the cultural and religious beliefs dominant within the country.
3.3.4Teachers' Experience
Educationalists
consider experience as a vital aspect in developing the skill of teaching.
Experience comprises the mastering of subject matter, building
a collection
of teaching
strategies and techniques, such as planning lessons, managing classrooms and ways of
is
(Field
built
developed
Latta,
2001;
Tsui,
2003).
Experience
assessment
and
and
over
field.
is
in
It
the
teaching
constructed through undertaking the practical
years of practice
involvement
in the job itself. Hence, a teacher can change or reinforce his/her way of
teaching over time, as Dewey cited in Fraser (1995: 10) when he stated "Experience does
integration
Teaching
teacher,
in
the
of
experience
represent
processes
a vacuum".
not occur
students and the technique
contribution
of teaching. All
these united elements make an effective
to the students' achievements (Gray et al., 2000: 212). According
to Munro
(2001) experience is a valuable aspect which guides subsequent teaching actions (211). It
difficult
to
helps teachers
overcome
journey.
face
that
them throughout
situations
Oja (1989 cited in Burgess 2001: 334) states, "Recognising
their teaching
the value of past
in
development
has
been
linked
these
terms
of
use
of
career
making
often
and
experiences
development".
is
in
Experience
the
teaching
adult
result
of
practical
with
stages
to ages and
82
different
types of learners in different situations. It assists

teachersin taking decisions and
in
acting
situations which are similar to the ones they have worked on in the past. Similarly,
Harkin et al. (2001: 38) reported that the teacher's
is
developed through
experience
working
in the classroom to make learning enjoyable for

students and to
interaction.
promote
They also saw experience [in teaching] as a compendium of all that
continuous
happens to teachers and influences them. Teaching

experience yields a lot of good teaching
techniques and can lead to the development of close relationships
with students. If the
relationship is close between teachers and students as members of a family, lessons would
be
more
enjoyable
Correspondingly,
and
students'
achievements
would
be
better
(ibid:
127).
Thiessen (2001: 325-6) pointed out that experience is constructed to
in
the
enhance
ways
which teachers and students already work together but it may go
beyond matters of determining students' interest and encouraging active learning. Burgess
(2001: 335) contends "The professional learning experience this teacher gains, comes from
dealing with the situation in practice and thinking through afterwards what happened and
how she felt". Turner (2001: 94) confirmed that expert teachers have a broad knowledge
and understanding
of classroom context which
helps them to promote best possible
learning.
The experienced teacher can, for example, create and manage students to achieve a climate
less
is
learning
to
the
that
to
experienced
comes naturally
not something
which
conducive
teacher. Wragg (1984 cited in Cohen et al. 1996) describes experienced teachers as:
describe
hesitate
did
to
their
not
classroom rules;
usually very clear about
`proper';
`right'
the
thought
massive
they
of
conscious
were
and
was
what
their
to
eyes a
class;
used
a
new
with
relationships
establish
effort needed
deal
individuals;
look
to
deal
to scan the class or
were quick
at
great
`formal'
than
infraction
their
usual; were
more
were
rules;
of
publicly with
in
businesslike;
the
brisk
their
corridor
presence
established
and
especially
before the class even entered the room; introduced themselves formally
(299).
Similarly,
Trigwell
in
Ùniversity
(2005)
teachers' experiences of
their
entitled,
study
et al.
have
that,
taught',
the
they
reported
in
of
subject
matter
their understanding
change
in
did
their
found
teachers
the
that
not experience change
who
It was
likely
the
transmission
to
teaching
as
more
experience
were
understanding
in
their
the
teachers
knowledge,
who
experienced
change
and
of
that
the
or
experienced
change
as
reinterpretation
who
and
understanding,
questioning of knowledge, were more likely to experience teaching as

changing or developing students' conceptions (251).
Experience, according to Trigwell
his
is
and
colleagues,
a useful practical aspect in
the field of teaching and learning. Teachers can learn from their experience and
develop their methods of teaching. It also helps them to
understand and focus more
on the subject matter
they teach. Moreover,
Crookes
(2003:
5-6) argued that
experienced teachers often know their role better than newly trained teachers do and
emphasised that teaching is not a technical exercise but a moral enterprise enacted
through different means. Similarly,
Noodles':
conclusion
Andrews (2003) in his article "Just Like Instant
L2 teachers and their beliefs about grammar pedagogy"
in
the
stated
that years of teaching experience influence teachers' beliefs, they also
develop
the teacher's personal practical knowledge
shape and
context. He pointed out the strong relationship
in the pedagogical
between teacher's experience and
teacher's beliefs in order to build the teacher's wide knowledge in the subject field of
teaching.
Similarly,
`Retired Teachers Reflect on Learning
Ben-Peretz (2002) in her article
from Experience',
have
teachers
that
the
emphasised the great
all
retired
pointed out
different
learning
in
by
is
teaching
and
experience
played
role which
aspects of
knowledge. It has been summarised as follows:
1. Learning from experience is a process which takes time. Through time experience
inside
turn
teachers'
the
which
minds
accumulates particular and specific events
into rules. The accumulation of experience leads to knowledge growth which later
behaviour.
the
teachers'
reflects on
2. Problems,
difficulties
failures
and
play
in
the processes of
essential roles
those
devise
to
They
to
teachers
overcome
ways
alternative
assist
experience.
in
failures
transfer
they
difficulties
of
experience.
parts
which
and
problems,
basic
the
that
has
to
aspects
3. The article
some participants,
also shown, according
focused
from
learning
on successes and achievements.
for
experience were
4. From the article,
have
the
teachers
cooperative and
emphasised
retired
some
from
learning
This
that
teachers
need
means
experience.
of
interpersonal aspects
in
their
to
teachers
experience
on
and
experts
order
reflect
interaction with other
in
form
Ben-Peretz
the
of
rules
and
principles.
generalizations
possible
and clarify
P4
has concluded that "Learning
from experience does not necessarily

mean that we
continue to act in ways that proved to be

successful in the past, or refrain from
repeating unsuccessful action. It may just as
well mean that we view our
experience from new perspectives" (322).
Similarly,
Borg (2003: 87-8) pointed out that teachers learn

a lot about teaching through
their vast experience and also emphasised that

prior learning experiences shape teachers'
ways of teaching in their classroom practice. Teachers may also reflect their experiences in
learning L2 in the way of teaching their
students. The teachers' own beliefs and methods of
teaching language may be based largely on the methods and the techniques
learning
of
experiences, as Numrich (1996 cited in Borg 2003: 88) contends that "... the teachers noted
that they avoided teaching grammar or correcting errors because their own experiences
of
these aspects of L2 instruction had been negative". With respect to the negative experiences
Numrich added that:
Error correction was most often cited as a technique that had been used
by their language teachers and that had inhibited them from speaking. In
it
had even turned them off to [sic] language learning
some cases
because they had felt so humiliated and uncomfortable being corrected.
Because of negative experiences of being corrected, several teachers
interrupt
to
their students' flow of speech in the classroom to
chose not
(139).
correct errors
This indicates that correcting
students' errors may be a result of the teacher's own
being
learner.
L2
Therefore, a teacher's experience has been
experience of
corrected as a
in
learning
teaching
and
operations and this may also make
emphasised as a crucial element
the difference between experienced and less experienced teachers in their way of error
it
differences
in
(2001:
"Students'
81)
As
Harkin
responses show
put
correction role.
et al.
the communication
less
different
levels
Teachers
teachers
of experience.
with
with
styles of
leadership
less
10
(under
years) are often
and more uncertain and
strong on
experience
dissatisfied than their more experienced colleagues".
Teaching could be more beneficial if teachers and teacher educators would deepen their
understanding
diverse
institutional
the
pedagogical
and
of
classroom activities.
influence
that
conditions
may
This does not come at once but may be built and increased over time
For
be
teachers
example,
more
experienced
work.
may
aware of their
during years of
less
The
than
more
requirements
experienced
ones.
and
more
experienced
needs
students'
85
teachers may also realise that their

role and learners' roles are defined as dynamic rather
than static dimensions of communication taking into
individual
the
account
students'
needs.
Mifsud (1996: 283) pointed out that teachers'
skills develop more by working over time in
actual classroom teaching. He also added that there is a significant difference between the
teacher's first year experience and the more experienced teachers (ibid). According to my
opinion, teaching experience is built up from an accumulation of different situations and
inside
the classroom. Experience is built from practical situations and different
views
circumstances of teaching which a teacher has dealt with. Regarding the term experience in
Libyan context, the education authority gives especial attention to teachers who are more
experienced than those who are less experienced. In other words, teachers who design and
write
final
general
exams are those who have over ten years' teaching experience.
Moreover, teachers who want to be inspectors of English language are supposed to have
eleven years and more. Teachers with more experience are more respected among their
be
levels
Students
to
their
students and among
at education system prefer
colleagues.
at all
taught by teachers who spent more years (over ten years) in teaching field more than less
less
experience
ones.
Personally, I do not believe that experience is accumulated only through years in the field,
but by dealing with different practical situations and different circumstances. Experience
in
difficult
deals
behaves
in
influences
the
teacher's
situations
the way
with
and
which
also
in
their
Experienced
think
teachers always
students' achievements a way
the classroom.
of
learning.
their
which enhances and encourages
3.3.5 Teachers' and Students' Different Genders

Gender plays an important role in the characters and behaviour of students at primary and
in
for
large
the
gender
to
which
Teachers
way
extent
a
responsible
are
secondary schools.
activities.
communication
oral
negatively,
or
affects, positively
different
from
how
the
react
teachers
important
sexes
to
is
or
same
it
understand
However,
Oral
communication
inside the classroom.
inside the classroom varies among teachers and
do
how
but
teachers
talk,
talk
Sometimes
teachers
students
sometimes
and
their students.
by
differently
their
have
treated
Studies
that
talk?
are
students
shown
students
react when
in
differences
These
during
their
to
activities.
classroom
gender,
teachers according
86
teachers' behaviour and treatment towards their

students in relation to gender, may affect
students' participation and achievements (see Hopf and Hatzichristou, 1999). Researchers
such as Brophy (1985); Meece (1987); Swann and Graddol (1995); Hopf
and Hatzichristou
(1999) pointed out that teachers tend to
give more time and attention to male students and
those students themselves tend to monopolise the
physical and verbal space. Teachers
differentiate between male and female
students in certain behaviour forms which are
acceptable from boys, but not from girls, such as calling out, paying more attention to
topics of discussion that reflect boys' interests, giving them more public response
opportunities and praising them more frequently.
Regarding the students' reaction inside the classroom and how they engaged during oral
activities, Swan and Graddol (1995: 136) pointed out that boys participate and raise their
hands earlier than girls. However, girls do not like to participate and they only raise their
hands after the teacher directs his/her gaze towards another student. They also added that
direct
teachers
their talk towards male students and they are more consistent in
male
looking at male students whilst forming questions. Similarly, Clarricoates cited in Altani
(1995: 151) reported that teachers of both sexes pay much attention and give priority to
in
boys'
interest
in
to
the
the classroom.
to
male students
order
retain
and
retain quiet
Altani (1995: 152) found that male teachers consider that boys are by nature more spirited
boys
by
believe
less
disciplined
teachers
that
than
are
nature more
and
girls, while male
feel
inside
boys
believe
impatient;
they
the
that
they
classroom show
also
aggressive and
they are the stronger sex and impose themselves in every situation.
As a teacher, I agree neither with Swan and Graddol (1995), nor with Altani's
(1995)
because
do,
frequently
in'
than
boys
`chip
often you
girls
oral activities more
opinions that
find girls participate in communication
like
do.
Girls
boys
to communicate with
than
more
less
if
do.
boys
I
that
they
think
than
may agree
teachers and ask more questions
them
feel
tease
female
that
at
teachers
and
aggressive
more
are
students
male
experienced
is
level,
the
of mixed sex, otherwise girls act
classroom
especially when
the secondary
it
is
However,
1999).
boys
(see
Hatzichristou,
Hopf
than
better and are more active
also
and
by
different
here
the
treatment
that
potential
students
alters
received
to
out
point
essential
influence
teachers
therefore
may
students' competence regarding
for their achievement
failure,
i.
teacher
to
e.
a
a student's error with
responds
when
and/or
their academic success
is
help,
likely
lack
that
to
the
to
student
more
attribute
errors
of
unsolicited
or
pity, praise,
87
ability and s/he is willing to do better, but if the correction

of errors seems to be more
critical and shows the teacher's anger it may convey the message that the student's
performance is poor and lacks success(see Diaz-Rico, 2008: 92).
Morgan (1986 cited in Goddard and Patterson 2000)

stated that a number of western
believe
that males are seen as logical, rational, aggressive, exploitive, independent
societies
and competitive, while females are thought to be intuitive, emotional, submissive, empathic
and co-operative. Although what Morgan stated had some truth in it, and might be
associated with every sex, it is no longer accepted nowadays because the roles of males and
females in most societies have changed greatly and differences between male and female
roles are considered as socially constructed beliefs.
The distinction between males and females is clouded by stereotypical beliefs held about
follower,
dependent and an inferior person (see Goddard and Patterson
women as weak, a
2000; Talbot et al., 2003). It is useful to mention that, if some people still think that there
differences
inequality
in
between
females
in
the
they
their
are
and
males and
play
roles
barriers
These
they
those
thoughts.
societies,
must eradicate and abolish
and all negative
beliefs about women should be removed and changed.
3.3.6 Learners and Error Correction

Oxford (1990: 140) states "The affective side of the learner is probably one of the most
important influences on language learning success or failure". The affective factors which
FL
in
learner's
the
of
are
especially
performance
may react positively or negatively
teacher-student
the
relationships
and
attitude
empathy,
motivation; self-esteem, anxiety,
(see Shumin, 2002; Fraser and Walberg, 2005). All these factors may affect students'
For
in
in
committing errors and receiving error correction.
oral activities and
participation
in
field
important
be
the
in
of
part
an
can
teacher-student
classrooms
relationships
example:
learning in order to improve student outcomes. It can also encourage students to contribute
him/her
to
build
to
in
and
encourage
self-confidence
activities,
classroom
positively
107-8).
2005:
(see
Walberg,
Fraser
and
their
weaknesses
overcome
in
their
found
have
SL
the
challenge
greatest emotional
speaking
Many students of
1,
for
feel
they
talk
to
are
very
worried
they
as:
such
various
reasons
shy
and
classroom
being
fear
3,
lack
they
2,
they
are
afraid
of
and
making
errors,
confidence
failing,
about
S8
laughed at and hesitate

when they come to participate in oral activities as a result of their
poor pronunciation (see Hilleson, 1996; Tsui, 1996; Shumin, 2002). Moreover, students
may not involve themselves in communication activities as a result of their previous
experience because they are not used to speaking freely in front of their colleagues.
It has also been argued that students have different reactions towards
error correction. They
have in fact different attitudes to correcting errors but do
not seem to be against receiving
correction of their errors. Havranek (2002) stated that studies of learners' attitudes towards
error correction have not shown any evidence to indicate that learners have the same
feelings and the same attitudes, but it may be elicited that the majority of SL and FL
learners regard error correction as essential and want to be corrected regularly, even though
many others find error correction embarrassing to varying degrees (256). Chouinard and
Clark (2003) noted in their analyses of longitudinal data from five children two of whom
French
were acquiring
and three were acquiring English, that adults reformulated
children's erroneous utterances more often than they replay or repeat error-free utterances.
Their reformulations were `phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic'. They also
important
information
that
added
adult reformulation offers children an
about
source of
how to correct errors. However, children themselves infer that adults are offering a
(637).
correction
Chandler (2003) reported that direct correction is best for producing accurate revision and
learners prefer it because it is the fastest and the easiest method for both teachers and
learners. He also argued (ibid) that students may feel they can learn more from direct error
literature
In
less
time.
teacher's
the
shows
addition, pedagogical
of
correction and may take
because
better
is
teachers'
than
that students' own error correction
error correction
much
the former does not result in any negative reactions, whereas teachers' error correction may
have a negative effect on the learning process (see Rydahl, 2005). Nevertheless, White, J.
(1998 in Cook 2001), writes that sometimes indirect correction is more worth-while than
is
itself.
This
the
confirmed
also
out
error
error,
without
pointing
the
student's
correcting
did
i.
indirect
found
teachers
that
(2005)
not give the
by Rydahl
error correction, e.
who
by
by
helping
but
themselves
by
preferred
themselves
were
students
correct
correction
does
for
being
indirect
the
that
in
that
not
reason
correction
activities,
oral
teachers
most
do
(11-3).
indirect
Self
they
the
error
not
get
right
and
answer
when
the
students
embarrass
beneficial
due
fact
to
the
that students rely on
and
effective
more
are
techniques
correction
89
their own abilities to monitor and correct their

errors (Lalande, 1982; Lynch, 1996;
Bourdillon and Storey, 2002). In brief,
students seem to prefer to correct their own errors
by themselves and feel proud of this
Kubota (2001: 469) points out that the students all agree that error correction is extremely
improve
to
their proficiency. However, Sturm and Boves (2005: 290) argue that the
useful
idea of correcting all errors is not welcomed by all students; moreover, errors are not
always the same and thus cannot be given similar ways of correction or treatment. Teachers
are advised to correct errors that hinder communication and affect meaning of the message
to be conveyed.
According
to my personal beliefs, error correction is a very sensitive issue that teachers
know
how
deal
in
to
should
with,
order to encourage students to accept their teachers' oral
fact
indicators
On
hand,
that
the
the
teachers
and explain
error correction.
one
should give
Students
language.
is
to
acquire a
a result of a student's struggling
is
kind
idea
the
that
a
of punishment
should also abolish and eradicate
it
hand,
On
in
language.
learning
the
their
appears that students
other
weakness
and shows
fossilisation
be
there
to
the
maybe a risk of
errors otherwise
aware of
need
where the
2000:
192).
Lockhart,
(see
in
Richards
their
them
to
and
speech
change
students are unable
Having said that, another reason for fossilisation
communicative
proficiency
is that some students reach a level of
that is sufficient for their needs and therefore do not attempt to
correct their errors.

It is also believed that teachers' positive attitude towards errors and error correction can
help students to build
a more positive
by
their teachers, especially
affected
knowledgeable
learning attitude in learning ESL. Students are

those who are kind,
encouraging,
friendly,
and
(Devereux,
forgets
`Nobody
teacher'
the
a good
saying
and they confirm
investigate
I
to
whether oral error correction
In
2001).
this study,
will make an attempt
have
female
/
teachers
less
by
experienced, male/
experienced
techniques which are used
during
towards
their
correction
error
attitudes
and
participations
students'
any effects on
it
how
(3.3.3)
discusses
the
teacher's
However,
might
and
gender
section
oral activities.
difference.
to
contribute
3.4 The Importance of Error Correction

A procedure that is normally
is
errors
correction.
followed in the hope of minimising
students' committing of
The latter is necessary if students are to

achieve success, since
correction means providing
the erring student with the correct form of the language which
he does not know. As Havranek and Cesnik (2001: 99-100)

pointed out, error correction is
considered a necessary means of making students aware of cases where their language does
not match the native
speaker's. They also added that error correction
is considered
successful if it elicits a correct version of the utterance from the student who committed the
error. Correction is also the way of giving the right information
to the students to support
their learning. Edge (1993: 27) states "The more the students are involved in correction, the
have
they
to think
more
about the language used in the classroom".
The value and
pertinence of error correction depends on a number of factors, such as the teaching and
learning
foci, perhaps with regard to fluency
institutional
requirements
`Second Language
and accuracy; speech and writing;
and
(see subsection 3.3). Moreover, Karra (2006: 2) in her article
Acquisition:
Errors
Error
and
Correction
In language Teaching',
in
that
three ways:
pointed out some major concepts
errors are significant
1. They help teachers to know every student's progress in learning or acquiring language,
2. Errors help researchers ascertain how language is acquired, emphasising what strategies
learners
techniques
and
use,
3. Errors can help learners to learn from his-her errors.

Karra is completely in agreement with Corder (1967 cited in Ellis 1994: 48) when he
by
learner
functions
three
stating:
errors
of
specifies
major
1. They provide the teacher with information about how much the learner has learnt,
2. They provide the researcher with evidence of how language is learnt, and
3. They serve as devices by which the learner discovers the rules of the target language.
is
Error
important
in
learning
the
Correction, therefore, plays an
correction an
process.
part
integrated job between a teacher and students to overcome the difficulties which may
impede learning. Error correction may help students to recognise their problems which they
Sheen,
language
(see
to
the
and
more practice
correct
produce
need to give extra attention
2004). Teachers, therefore, should consider error correction as a way which assists students
is
beneficial
in
terms
the
However,
not
always
effective
and
correction
of
students'
learn.
to
(2000: 6) argues, repeating the correct target language form does
Karolina
As
oral errors.
91
not necessarily mean that the student has noticed that the error correction has taken place.
Teachers could build a bridge
of co-operation and helpfulness with their students to let the
latter understand when their teacher
expects them to be accurate. This may also help
students to accept and receive their teacher's oral error correction.
In brief, oral error
is
important
to reinforce students' ability of language learning and assists their
correction
achievements. It shows and evaluates teachers' techniques and methods of correcting and
teaching the target language. Teachers'
techniques should build
students' confidence, respect their emotions, and improve their ability to memorise in order
to elicit student self-correction.
Error correction may give better results if teachers take into
account several techniques when implementing
in
error correction
oral activities: who are
the learners? Teachers need to know who the learners are because adults are different from
in
dealing with error correction techniques (see Rydahl, 2005). What types of
children
be
deal
Teachers
to
the
types
they
errors should
corrected?
with,
need
understand
of errors
intonation
How
such as correction at sentence-level of grammar, or stress,
and utterances.
information
much
is
important
help
be
the teacher to gain the
to
should
provided
an
aspect
benefit of error correction i. e. whether students need implicit
or explicit error correction
(see subsection 2.3).

This chapter started with an introduction of problems that students may encounter during
their
language learning journey
between
differences
it
has
the
also shown
and
behaviourists' and mentalists' points of view towards errors and error correction. The
in
have
behaviourists
conflict among researchers
resulted
and mentalists
points of view of
Behaviourists
look
their
in
how
they
ways of error correction.
at errors and
and teachers
have considered errors as a bad habit which needs immediate correction, while mentalists
have
that
languages
learning
they
out
pointed
have shown that errors are a step towards
and
learn
learner
deemed
have
that
learners'
They
can
a
also
progress.
of
result
a
errors occur as
from his/her errors.
identified
èrrors'
`mistakes',
the
the
terms
has
researcher
although
and
also
This chapter
both
in
èrrors'
to
this
term
and
mistakes.
errors
cover
study
as
a
general
term
the
will use
in
learning
importance
its
highlighted
term
the
has
a
correction
and
error
also
This chapter
describe
towards
to
teachers'
has
error
It
and
errors
attitudes
attempted
also
language.
As this study is concerned with differences between experienced and less
correction.
02
experienced teachers in oral error correction, this chapter has also explained the differences
between teachers in their ways of teaching
and methods of error correction techniques in a
foreign language. In addition, as it seems that the difference
in
teacher's
the
of a
gender
way of correcting students' oral errors is under-researched, this chapter also dealt with
gender differences in teaching and communication. This study is an attempt to contribute to
boundaries
the
expanding
of oral error correction techniques used by teachers in relation to
the differences between male and female, experienced and less experienced teachers and
how these issues affect students' participation.
The next chapter will
include the
methodology and research design through which this study has been conducted, in order to
present the methods and the research tools of data collection, as well as the aim of using
triangulation techniques. The next chapter will include the research questions, the pilot
study, the participation of teachers and students, the procedure of data collection and the
be
in
data
methods which will
used
analysis.
n1%
Chapter Four
Methods and Instruments of Data Collection
4.1. Introduction
The Previous chapter highlighted the term èrrors' and provided
definitions
various
of it. It
described also the teachers' and students' attitudes towards errors
and error correction and
differentiated between experienced and less experienced teachers in correcting students'
errors.
This chapter is concerned with a description of the methodology adopted in this study and its
framework. The methodology is designed to produce a description of data gathered through
different methods (semi-observation, semi-structured interviews and questionnaires) employed
in this research. In addition, it elaborates on synchronisation and the use of a variety of data
collection methods through the triangulation technique.
This chapter will present the methods of selecting the sample and the benefit of using the
triangulation technique in this study. This chapter also explains how the researcher conducted
the pilot
feedback
he
the
study and
gained. Finally,
it discusses the procedures of data
has
data,
data
in
To
the
this
the
analyse
researcher
analysis employed
research.
collection and
data
the
to
the
theory
collected through classroom observations
style
analyse
grounded
adopted
interviews,
SPSS
software was used to analyse questionnaires.
while
and semi-structured
4.2. Research Questions

The purpose of the study is to explore the oral error correction techniques used by Libyan
teachers in order to answer the following questions:
1. Are there any differences between the ways in which male and female Libyan
teachers
if
differences,
What
these
any?
are
correct students' oral errors?
1. Do experienced teachers pay more or less attention to the process of oral error correction
how
If
teachers?
less
and why?
yes,
than
experienced
in
in
oral activities
2. How do teachers' gender and experience affect students' participation
the classroom?
94
4.3 The Methodological Approach

4.3.1 Design of the Study
The epistemological aspect is an essential part in understanding the
from
the
nature of
study
the research standpoint. It shapes the framework
of the methodological
approaches, the
methods of research and the instruments of data collection.

The basic research approach adopted in this research is interpretivism, which is one of the two
main research paradigms (interpretivism
and positivism) used in social science research. The
believe
that social science should reflect a clear depiction of the social world and
positivists
be
reality can
captured through research instruments such as experiments and questionnaires
(see Bryman, 2001; Cohen et al., 2000). Positivists stress the importance of objectivity
derived
from
social research methods
physical sciences. The positivists'
in
is
method
mainly
deals
quantitative, which
more or less with figures and numbers. The interpretivists' methods
are mainly qualitative which deal with words, sentences and open a range of deep discussions.
Having said that, both positivists and interpretivists may apply both research methods.
The interpretivism
justify
tried
to
the
of
positivism
and
scientific methods
paradigm rejected
their point of view and opinions as follows: Interpretivists consider interpretations of the social
be
historically
They
derived
that
think
constructed
reality can
situated.
and
world as culturally
by means of conceptual system and objective reality does not exist, due to the fact that
different cultures and people in their institutions have different conceptual systems (see Blaxter
Interpretivists
2003:
16).
et al.,
help
for
the use of qualitative research methods which
call
the
information
the
studied,
people
of
and
actions
to
concerns
values,
about
obtain
researchers
by using observation interviews and interpretation to analyse meanings. The advocates of the
by
is
be
believe
that
rejected
which
value-free,
should
research
paradigm
positivists'
is
be
facts
interpretivists, who point out that
separated and social science
and values cannot
different
by
affected
cultures and different
Positivists'
systems.
conceptual
belief is a
believe
Interpretivists
that
than
practical
a
one.
subjectivity, at some point,
theoretical rather
in
first
This
the
the
topic.
the
compels
researcher
step
of
choosing
a
researcher
integrates with
direct
distinguish
between
to
through
normal
and
abnormal
situations
have
the
opportunity
to
in
the
to
to
the
participants
order
give
a
clear
picture
reader.
with
and close contact
95
Some epistemologists
epistemologically
be
interpretive
that
and researchers contend
a researcher can
by applying
both the qualitative
and quantitative
in
their
approaches
research. This is due to the fact that an interpretivist researcher makes an attempt to discern
different explanations and interpretations concerning each phenomenon (see Cohen et al.,
2000; Bryman, 2001). In this regard, I am more interpretivist rather than positivist to discern
different interpretations of the topics under discussion. I have tried to further provide an insider
in
order to represent an emic view.
perspective
In this study, I am going to adopt the interpretivist standpoint to approach my qualitative data
analysis of semi-structured
positivist
interviews
and semi-structured
observations. I will
use the
believe
data.
I
these are appropriate and
to
standpoint
approach my quantative
both
have
because
for
I
qualitative and
mixed
my research
suitable methodological techniques
data
collection.
quantitative ways of
In this research, qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to address the research
the
to
instruments
the
The
research
the
explore
researcher
enabled
current study
of
questions.
by
the
find
the
to
deeply
to
using
questions
to
answers
some
make an attempt
and
questions
in
this
Therefore,
study
used
the
are
which
approaches
methodological
triangulation technique.
diagram:
following
in
be
the
succinctly summarised
can
Epistemology: Interpretivist
Methodology: Qualitative and Quantitative
Research
Data collection instruments:

Observations
Classroom
"
Interviews
Semi-Structured
"
Questionnaire
Teacher's
"
Questionnaire
Student's
"
Data analysis approaches:
Analysis
Data
Theory
Grounded
of
"
" SPSS programmes
Means
Arithmetic
Weighted
"
Figure 4.1: An overview of the research design and methodology
96
4.3.2 Triangulation
Triangulation
is knowing
how to make use of more than one method

or source of data
collection and analysing social phenomena. It is sometimes known as multi-strategy research

which may provide a better understanding of those phenomena than if just one method had
been used in the investigation (Bryman, 2001: 456). The triangulation techniques
are used to
explain the phenomena of the study from more than one standpoint (Cohen et al., 2000: 112).
The value of data is bound up with the methods of collecting the data. All methods have
strengths and weaknesses and researchers seek to match the strength of data collection tools.
Accordingly,
different
one main strength of data collection in the current study is the opportunity to use
sources of evidence (direct classroom observation,
semi-structured
interviews,
questionnaires for teachers and questionnaires for students). Using various methods of
exploring concepts naturally results in greater confidence in the findings (Bryman 2001: 274)
doubts
in
findings
and may reduce
which may arise from using only one measuring method.
be
can
operated within
Triangulation
instruments
methods and among
questionnaires. The triangulation
triangulation
the cross-checking
such as observations,
of qualitative
semi-structured
and quantitative
interviews
and
technique employed in this study was the methodological
is
by
which
widely used
researchers to achieve validity
and to compare the
differences and the similarities of the findings which were collected by different instruments.
As Cohen et al. (2000: 115) puts it, "methodological
triangulation
is the one used most
frequently and the one that possibly has the most to offer". Triangulation methods enable the
data.
through
the
the
to
collecting various
study carried out
researcher
precision of
ensure
4.3.3 Reliability
Validity
and
Reliability and validity are the two words that are encountered repeatedly in every social study.
They are used in connection with measurement instruments. They help the researcher to check
be
his/her
should
tools, which
effective and helpful, will answer the research questions
that
Researchers
both
in
consider
reliability
and
validity as cornerstones
consistently and precisely.
In
following
in
the
I
research.
these
terms
section,
quantitative
will address
qualitative and
detail.
more
97
4.3.3.1. Validity
This is concerned with the accuracy and the
effectiveness of the measuring instrument (Leedy,
1997; Nick, 2000; Walliman, 2001; Bryman, 2001; Graziano
and Raulin, 2004). Leedy (1997,
33-34) pointed out that there are several types of
validity: six types are the most commonly
used to prove the validity of the research: (1) face validity relies basically on the subjective
judgement of the researcher. It focuses on how the researcher
will answer the research
by
questions
asking if the instruments measure what they are supposed to measure, and
whether the sample being measured is a representative trait or not. This indicates that face
is
intuitive
(2)
Criterion validity means relating the performance
validity
an essentially
process.
of one measure to the performance of another measure and the essential component in this
validity is a reliable and valid criterion- a standard against which to measure the results of the
instrument doing the measuring. The data collected by the measuring tool should show a
substantial relationship with equivalent data of the criterion. (3) Content validity, which is
face
to
close
validity,
information
is concerned with how accurately the questions asked elicit the
(4)
Construct
sought.
validity
investigate
to
aims
correct operational measures
(5)
Internal
to
the
closely related
original concepts.
validity aims to test explanatory studies
through certain conditions that lead to new unpredictable conditions. (6) External validity
focuses on establishing a new situation in which certain study findings can be generalised (3334).
In view of the fact that the current research applied both qualitative and quantitative methods,
honesty,
depth,
be
in
the
through
the
and richness
achieved
qualitative research might
validity
be
in
data
the
achieved through the
quantitative research, validity might
of
collected, whereas
data
instruments
the
the
collected
appropriate
used and
suitable
careful sample selected,
(Cohen et al., 2000: 105). As it is believed that validity depends on various components, it is
impossible for the research to be 100% valid because the participants'
beliefs
and
opinions,
degree
be
bias.
degree
Hence,
rather
seen as a matter of
of
validity could
attitudes contribute a
(ibid).
than an absolute state
it
is
be
in
important
to
is
and useful strategy
any social research,
worth
used
Since validity
an
(questionnaires,
instruments
semi-structured
observations
and
semi-structured
these
that
noting
by
in
then
tested
to
colleagues
my
and
out
order
recognise to what
checked
interviews) were
98
extent they were valid. Therefore, the researcher piloted the instruments to see
whether they
were accurate enough to answer the research questions (see subsection 4.5). To ensure that
my
data collection tools have internal
validity, I checked the structures of the question items, used
simple language and avoided any ambiguity. The internal validity
is, then, essential in the
current study because it shows whether the semi-structured observations, semi-structured

interviews and questionnaires are precise enough to
data
collect
so as to answer the research
questions. External validity refers to the generalisation of findings to similar contexts. The
researcher in this study emphasises the role of external validity through careful randomisation
(see subsection 4.6). The triangulation method which is employed in this research is
also
another technique contributing to the validity of this research.
4.3.3.2 Reliability
Reliability
indicates how well the instrument(s) the researcher has chosen in his/her research
consistently yield similar results if the research is repeated (Leedy, 1997; Burns, 2000; Cohen
et al., 2000; Graziano and Raulin, 2004). Somekh and Lewin (2005: 348) maintain that
"reliability
is the term used to mean that the truth of findings has been established by ensuring
that they are supported by sufficient and compelling evidence". Researchers should describe
instrument
in
its
data
details
terms
type
any
of
appearance,
of
generated and all pertinent
about
its use which forms a mental picture of the instrument (see subsections on semi-structured
interviews, observations and questionnaires on pages 105,109,117).
4.4 Ethics of the Study

Ethics refers to rules of conduct; typically,
to a code or set of principles related to the
fields
in
the
Researchers
are
concerned
about
ethical
social
research
all
researcher's work.
issues that arise at a variety of stages when conducting research. The ethical issues require
because
their
to
they
conduct
researchers
with
whom
people
relate
extra special consideration
distinction
is
1988).
Nevertheless,
Jolley,
2001;
Mitchell
(Bryman,
sometimes
a
and
research
bad,
is
is
both
between
good and what
are concerned with what
ethics and morals; while
made
do,
to
to
the
ought
while
a
researcher
general
principle
of
what
taken
referring
as
are
ethics
is
of
accepted
notions
whether
or
specific
act
consistent
with
with
not
a
concerned
are
morals
66). Consequently, ethical and moral terms are subsequently
2002:
Robson,
(see
right or wrong
is
important
for
in
It
the
the researcher to realise that every
study.
also
interchangeably
used
99
has
its own beliefs, customs and culture in the way of conducting a study. Some the
society
of
main principle rules of ethics are summarised in Clark (1997) as follows:
1. Beneficence: the promotion of good and the minimisation of harm.
2. Respect: being aware of the participants' dignity by treating them as

in
ends themselves and not simply as means to researcher's ends.
3. Justice: being fair to all concerned.
4. Truth: endeavouring to tell the truth and being committed to the
pursuit of truth.
5. Freedom: advance individual liberty consistent with the maximum

liberty for all (160).
4.5 The Pilot Study
Believing that pilot studies are very important for any survey design, the researcher has applied
this notion to his study in order to refine all the procedures before conducting the main study. It
is a preliminary step in the main study, mirroring the method, approach and questions. The idea
of the pilot study is not to gain data but to learn how to gain data properly and accurately (see
Bums, 2000: 428). It gave me a clear idea and impression about the study, through the
feedback of participants, by asking for clarification and explanation. It helped the researcher to
in
items
the
to avoid confusion, misunderstanding,
teachers'
questionnaire
make modifications
if
(2002)
(see
&
4.11
4.11.1).
Robson
that,
pointed out
subsection
misinterpretation and errors
(383).
As
be
first
in
data
`dummy
the
run', a pilot study
collection should
a
stage
any
possible,
it has been suggested that the pilot study should be administered personally by the researcher in
order to secure swift
feedback from respondents (Edwards and Talbot,
1999: 41), the
Sunderland
University
to
the
check and reat
study
pilot
administered
researcher personally
The
he
to
that
the
pilot study was conducted with
carry out.
wanted
actual measurement
check
four subjects in order to refine the methods and verify the validity of the tools. The participants
both
The
from
different
students were non-native
sexes.
experience and
were teachers with
has
foreign
Piloting
language
in
through
English
their
gone
as
a
countries.
speakers who use
the following
stages and steps:
Before running my observation I have consulted my supervisor about the possibility of

is
for
for
EAP
(English
Academic
Purposes)
the
because
at
responsible
help
she
courses
her
letters
for
her
I
in
to
the
teachers
to
the
gave
pass
summer
courses
the university.
100
them on during their weekly meeting. All
of them showed their willingness
and
expressed their wish to co-operate in my current study.

"
The first observation took place at 11.15 am on Monday the 18th July 2005 in
room 103
in Forster Building. I tried to conduct the primarily direct
personal observation to focus
on what the teacher actually does when s/he corrects students' oral errors, how the
teacher acts when encountering oral errors, and even changes of facial expressions,
gestures and movements which might indicate a message to the student(s) about the
correction of their oral errors.
During the pilot study, I realised that tape-recording one classroom observation is not
do
I
enough, as
not know if the teacher will do any oral error correction or not. In order
to overcome this problem, I have decided to record three observations of each teacher.
"
The subjects were supportive and helpful in giving me permission to record all the
observations, which produced 12 cassette-recordings for the sample, and consisted of 4
teachers and 31 students.
"
From the piloting,
I learnt that the transcription of each classroom observation took
hours and days; besides which, each observation was transcribed in 24 pages which was
too long for the main study. Practically, it is unfeasible to transcribe 20 teachers'
24
three
times
takes
and
each
observation
pages which yields the
observations
following
20
x3=
equation
60 and 60 x 24 =1296 pages, which requires too much
time and effort. Hence, I have extracted the parts which related directly to my study, for
the purpose of feasibility. I began extracting from the point of the student committing
the error until the correction operation finished. Thus, the unit of analysis is the
beginning and the end of committing
it.
Moreover,
to
correcting
an oral error and
these
transcription
units,
a
completed
sample
contextualise
has been added to the
help
how
the
to
the
to
reader
recognise
unit of error and error correction
appendices
learning
in
Libyan
EFL
the
teaching
see
context
and
secondary
of
and
was extracted
(see Appendix I).
her/himself
for
schools
"
interview,
after I finished the observation, I prepared some
For the semi-structured
interviewing
for
questions
the same teachers. The questions were built upon the 12
directly
Therefore,
to
the
and
related
observations
research
questions.
after
classroom
finished, the teachers were notified by individual letters asking for
had
the observation
101
an appointment
to run the semi-structured interviews.
I received some feedback
regarding the semi-structured interviews which made me modify some interview items
to abolish confusions. Accordingly,
I have made some changes as in the following:
1)
question number two, `what degree do you hold in teaching English? Changed into;
what qualifications do you hold in teaching English? ' 2) Question number four `do you
accept your students to commit errors during oral activities? Why? ' Changed into `do
you allow your students to commit errors during oral activities? Why? ' 3) Question
number five, `who corrects your students' oral errors? Why? ' Changed into `who
corrects your students' oral errors? Why do you do it this way? ' 4) question number
do
`how
feel
six,
you
when your student commits an error? Why? ' Changed into `what
steps, if any, do You take when your students commit an error? How do you feel? ' 5)
Question number 12 `do you correct male and female students in the same way or
differently why? and how? ' changed into `do you correct male and female students
differently? please give me examples and any reasons'. I added another question, which
is number 15 in the list of semi-structured interview questions as follows: are there any
changes in the way of correcting your students' oral correction from starting your job
If
until now? yes, could you explain the changes?
The questionnaire items were built upon the observations and the semi-structured
interviews
to gain more information
instruments
from the participants
(observations and semi-structured
interviews).
to support the other

On the one hand, the
from
feedback,
has
the
any
confusion
students'
students' questionnaire
not registered
but on the other hand, the teachers' questionnaire has recorded some changes on the
in
instance,
32
items.
For
the teachers' questionnaire,
statement number
questionnaires
Ì correct errors to motivate students to learn' is replaced by Ì correct oral errors to
help students to learn' and statement number 35, Ì ask another student to correct
his/her friend 's error' is replaced by Ì allow another student to correct his/her friend 's
errors'.
However, question number 39, (have you taught the basic grade? ) was
it
because
Therefore,
to
the
the
the second
was
unconnected
of
rest
questions.
omitted
five,
instead
the
consisted
of
of six questions.
questionnaire
part of
102
4.6 The Sample of Participants

In a lot of research, it is not only
vital, but also necessary, to select carefully the sample of the
study because it is often less possible to observe whole populations, and if the sample is
not
large enough it will fail to serve its
purpose (Lynn, 2002a; Graziano and Raulin, 2004).
Therefore, selecting the sample properly,
probably helps researchers to obtain valid and
accurate results, as Graziano and Raulin (2004: 202) say, "appropriate sample selection
enhances external validity, allowing researchers to generalise their results". Having realised the
importance of having a suitable sample which bears the
characteristics of the population, the
researcher used tables of random numbers at each step of the sampling procedures (see table
4.1 page 103).

It is worthwhile mentioning that the total number of secondary schools in Ajelate is 20,
which
distributed
throughout the city. All schools were involved in the current study. Then, the
are
multi-stage sampling method was applied to choose for sample for the research. The whole
population of each school was included in the sample and within the 20 schools, 20 teachers
(from
were randomly chosen
a population of 65) by writing the names of teachers on pieces of
in
basket
them
paper, putting
a
and then 20 names were randomly selected. In each school, a
number of classes was randomly selected and out of those classes, a random sample of 200
students was selected (out of a population of 800). The same process in randomisation of the
teachers' sample was followed in selecting the students' sample. Therefore, in each school, a
from
10
200
the different classes, to be
sample of
students was chosen, which yielded
students
by
the researcher. Furthermore, after the samples of teachers and students were
observed
randomly selected, their participation in the study was voluntary and they could withdraw at
any time.
The number
The number
The number
The random
The number of
The random
of schools
of English
of the
sample of the
the teachers
sample of the
in the city
teachers at
in
students
teachers
answering the
students
20 schools
Ajelate
65
800
20
questionnaire
20
65
Table 4.1 shows the whole population and the randomised samples
103
200
4.7. Population
There are various types of population but the
most common ones are the three following types:
1) the general population, which is the large
group of all persons, animals, events, and so on, 2)
the target population is the subset in which the researcher is ultimately interested, 3)
accessible
population
or survey population
from which the researcher selects his/her sample (see
Graziano and Raulin, 2004; Lynn, 2002b). The

goal of identifying
these different kinds of
populations is to assist the researcher in deciding the size of the sample that represents the
population. Therefore, I have decided to choose my sample as follows: in the observations and
the semi-structured interviews, the sample was 20 teachers, 10 males and 10 females which
represented 32.52% of the participants from the whole population (65) who voluntarily
participated, while all of them were involved in the teachers' questionnaires (see subsection
4.6).
4.8 Teacher Participants
In order to answer the research questions, which are focused on the teachers' differences in sex
and experience, the participants were chosen equally from both genders (male and female).
Teachers sought for involvement
were those who were teaching the English language in
secondary schools in Libya, in Ajelate city. Twenty secondary schools yielded twenty Libyan
(males / females, ten from each gender) teachers, who worked full-time
different
with
experiences (from two to twenty seven years) in teaching in Libya at secondary schools. A
for
20
teachers
the current study to provide the researcher
sample size of
seemed appropriate
data
interviews.
through
with
observations and semi-structured
I started the observations by writing the names of teachers who were willing to participate in
this study by putting their name in a basket and then I shook the basket well and randomly I
be
interviewed.
After
the
the
to
those
process,
randomisation
observed
and
chose a name of
teachers expressed their willingness by signing the consent form which was designed for this
Al).
Appendix
(see
purpose
The participants were aged from 25 to 60 and they were given
for
The
the
to
instead
their
teachers'
name
real
sake
of
anonymity.
age
requirement
of
numbers
levels
is
between
21
22
normally
and
years.
start teaching at secondary
104
The participants
were Arabic
native speakers holding
Teachers' Institute Certificates in
Teaching English Language or Bachelor Degrees (BA) in Education

or Arts. All the teachers
from
the same city and there was no significant difference in the spoken Libyan Arabic
were
among the teachers and their students. Besides that, they were from the same social, cultural
and religious backgrounds. Consequently, teachers who were from other Arab countries (a
minority from Iraq and Palestine) in the same schools were excluded from participation for the
following reasons: 1) the nature of the education system in their
own countries could be
different, 2) teachers could have learnt or been taught in countries where English is the first
language, 3) they do not represent the Libyan sample, 4) there might be cultural differences.
4.9 Student Participants
Students involved in the practical study were those at the same schools as the participants (they
by
taught
the same teachers) and studying English at second year secondary level; the
were
twenty secondary schools yielded two hundred students. The participants were sixteen years
because
and over
students' age at the secondary level normally
from
starts
sixteen. The
education system in Libya allows a student to stay at the same level for another year if s/he
does not pass the final exam which is held each year. If s/he does not pass the exam the next
time the school does not let her/him study as a full time student but they can enter exams only
(see the Libyan National Commission for Education, Culture and Science, 2001). After the
Libyan
the
students who willingly
randomisation,
in
to
participate
volunteered were allowed
the current study while students from other countries were excluded for different reasons (for
reasons of reliability
and validity
4.3.3.2).
The
4.3.3.1
number of the
and
see subsections
females
between
divided
there
in
this
of
which
were
and
males
equally
study was
participants
female
hundred
hundred
students.
one
male and one
4.10 Observations
Observation is an instrument which is widely used by researchers to gather data from real
how
be
for
teachers
to
to
the
It
actually
observe
study
suitable
current
seemed
situations.
(1999:
82)
in
Talbot
Edwards
that
out
pointed
real
classrooms.
and
correct students' oral errors
how
Hence,
is
by
find
teachers
them
teach
observations
at
work.
to
watching
out
way
a good
They
hear,
they
think
their
about
sample.
not on what
depend on what researchers see and
for
looking
to answer their research questions.
they
are
focus on what
105
Observation is one of the important instruments in

gathering data and is considered as the only
instrument with which one can gain what
instruments
other
cannot. As Bell (1999: 156) states,
"it [observation] is a technique that can often reveal characteristics of groups or individuals
which would have been impossible to discover by other means".

According
to Rea-Dickins
and Germaine (2001),
classroom observation
gives us the
opportunity to observe teachers in action using their knowledge, ideas, beliefs, strategies, and
experience to help the students' learning. It shows what teachers do and to some extent what
they know (258). In the same way, Graziano and Raulin (2004: 136) point out that observation
is always considered the central phase of any research project. It gives the researcher a clear
picture of the objectives that he has observed in real situations. It involves the researcher
studying the phenomena in natural settings. However, the researchers can only focus on issues
with which they are concerned within their study: "They [the researchers] are free to shift their
behaviour
interesting"
(ibid: 51). In this study, non-participant
to
that
attention
any
seems
has
been
observation
used to describe how teachers correct students' oral errors and how the
teachers' genders and experience affect students' participation in oral activities. Consequently,
the direct classroom observation serves as the main source of collecting data in this study.
Observation of twenty Libyan English classes was carried out to help the researcher observe
focus
The
during
was on the research question variables
oral correction.
what goes on
(male/female, experienced/less experienced and students reactions) while teachers correct their
happened
in
illuminated
The
the classrooms
what actually
observation
students' oral errors.
during
All
interacted
how
teachers
observed
and students reacted and
and
lessons were tape-recorded. Non-verbal actions of the teachers and students were noted down
(see Appendix
D). The observations took place during the second term of the school year
2005-06. Each participating teacher was observed for three or four lessons and recordings were
lessons
60
A
total
teaching
of
were observed
second year students.
made while they were
lasts
(Each
lesson
16 weeks: see
45
Each
takes
during the researcher's visits
course
minutes.
Appendix G).
106
It is believed that participants

behave
differently to what they might normally do because
may
they know that they are being observed. This is
pointed out as `reactivity' (Graziano and
Raulin, 2004; Mitchell and Jolley, 2004; Jones
and Somekh and Lewin 2005). To minimise
reactivity effect, I repeated the observation several times until the sample was accustomed to
my presence and acted naturally. Mitchell
and Jolley (2004: 155) suggest, "you can let
participants become familiar with you, hoping that they will eventually get used to you. Once
participants are used to you, they may forget that you are there and revert back to normal
behaviour". This is why I chose to observe
every teacher at least three times. I was also aware
that observation could be subjective and impressionistic and the researcher might not be able to
control his/her bias (ibid: 88). The semi-structured observation was emphasised in the
researcher's definition, understanding and interpretation of the situations captured through the
eyes of the observer; and consequently subjectivity could not be avoided (see Cohen et al.,
2000; Robson, 2002). I have done my best to avoid subjectivity in this study in order to present
a more realistic picture of what was going on inside the class during oral activities.
The researcher's decision to utilise classroom-observation as a main instrument for gathering

information relied heavily on his experience as a teacher and an inspector of teaching English
foreign
language.
The researcher believes that direct observation gives him the opportunity
as a
to observe error correction as it appears in real situations. The researcher watched what was
happening and recorded events on the spot. Primarily, he conducted direct personal observation
to see what teachers actually did (correct) when a student committed an error. Observations
basis
the
were also
of semi-structured interviews which were based on the things that the
researcher could not see for himself, and then the observations and semi-structured interviews
designing
for
focus
foundation
The
the
questionnaires.
researcher's
were a
was on correction
with regard to the teacher's gender and experience. Additionally,
the focus was also on the
in
Consequently,
in
the
the pilot study, the
operation
of oral correction.
students' participation
designed
behaviour
in
the
task
the
to
the
the oral
validity
of
elicit
subjects'
researcher assessed
All
by
these
the
that
the
techniques.
points
support
validity
checking
observations
correction
data
findings
be
the
the
to
which
answer
research questions and
could
gain
are suitable
(external
internal
The
area
and
validity).
researcher was also aware
generalised over a wide
findings
depended
the
large
to
of
classroom
observation
validity
extent on
a
that the external
107
the sample being representative. The more representative the

sample, the more confidence the
researcher can have in the generalisation of the observation findings. Thus, generalising the
results of the classroom observation relies heavily on the randomisation of the sample and its
percentage of the population, which I have taken into consideration (Mitchell and Jolley, 1988;
Graziano and Raulin, 2004).
"
Observations and Ethical Issues
Observation always has some kind of impact on the subjects who are being observed but the
researcher can minimise the effect of the observation if s/he follows the ethical steps and
understands the context of those who are being observed (see Jones and Somekh and Lewin
2005: 140). Semi-structured observation was used to describe how teachers correct students'
how
the teachers' sex and experience affected students' participation in oral
oral errors and
activities. Therefore, ethical practice is here defined as not causing any harm to the participants
(teachers and students). In addition, if the participants show a willingness and enthusiasm to
in
help
In
this
the
they
the
to
participate
study,
will probably
researcher gain reasonable results.
following
issues
traced
the
to gain consent:
the
ethical
study,
researcher
"A
letter from the University
issued
Sunderland
of
was
explaining that the researcher
belongs to this university, and was to do a field study in Libya as a requirement of his
degree. This letter was presented to the Secretary of Education in the Shabeet Al-Nigat
Al- Kams; which accordingly issued a letter in Arabic permitting
and explaining the
Popular
Committee
letter
This
to
the
taken
the
theme and the procedures of
was
research.
letter
issued
in
City,
to
the
Ajelate
Education
schools which were
another
also
which
of
Committee
The
Popular
the
the
current study.
purpose of
under their authority explaining
formal
Authority)
(Local
Education
the
in
Aj
Education
researcher with
provided
elate
of
letters addressed to the head teachers of schools, encouraging them to help the researcher
his
This
data
from
to
their
their
teachers
to
study.
at
schools, relevant
to gain access some
letter gave the researcher permission to visit schools and arrange meetings with the
headmasters.
0
intention
his
headmasters
the
target
to
the
schools and explained
The researcher visited
English
his
He
the
also
of
research.
arranged
many
of
meetings
with
the
aims
and
been
had
in
informed
taken.
those
the
that
schools, who were
steps
of
language teachers
108
In addition,
importance
the researcher began by introducing
himself
of this study to encourage them to contribute
participation.
The researcher gave a general introduction
and briefly
stating the
to the study by their
about the overall project and
explained the aims and objects of the visits. The agreement of the teachers was essential
if they wished to take part in this research
voluntarily and the participant could withdraw
whenever s/he wished to. The researcher gained the teachers' permission for taperecording and explained the necessity of audiotape recording of the observations, which
helped the researcher with the transcription because he could
not just rely on his memory
of what happened. The researcher also gained the teachers' consent in order to observe
their classes. To reduce the reactivity effect, the researcher observed three classes of each
teacher.
"
When the classroom observation was taking place, I sat at the back or in a quiet corner
out of the teacher's direct line of vision but able to see all, the teacher and her/his
students, without
causing any kind of noise or distracting students' or the teacher's
attention.
0
The researcher confirmed the confidentiality

explaining
the following
to the participants:
data
the
and anonymity of
collection by
1. During and after gathering data the
kept
files
the
researcher
all
within his personal office stored in a private locked box
which would only be opened when he needed personal access to files, 2. The researcher
for
he
dispose
keep
the
thesis,
then
after
submitting
will
recordings
one year
will
of them
burn
files
have
been
dispose
3.
To
tapes
that
them,
the
all
and
researcher will
securely,
of
himself.
interviews,
All
during
questionnaires
observations and
used
semi-structured
these things have been done to protect the participants and encourage them to act as
do.
they
usually
naturally as
4.11 Interviews
The interview is one of the common instruments which are employed in social research for
interviews
data
Personal
data collection.
are an effective method of
collection and they are
individuals'
(Devault,
Odendahl
McCoy,
2002;
learning
for
experiences
about
and
and
sources
forms
kinds
There
various
2002).
are
and
Shaw,
of research interviews, such as structured
interview,
interview,
(Bryman,
intensive
interview,
semi-structured
interview, unstructured
etc
109
2001; Odendahl and Shaw, 2002). Although there

are many forms of interview, there are some
common features which are shared among them, such as eliciting information from the
interviewee and the explicitness of the
conduct of the interview. In this study, the researcher
employed the semi-structured interview because it is more flexible for both the interviewer and
interviewee (Simmons, 2001: 85). The interviewer is
not constrained by a fixed interview
schedule but he can ask questions in the words he prefers and can ask new questions that
follow up interviewees' replies. The flexibility
interview
the
of
semi-structured
encourages the
interviewees to add or comment on related topics that have not been mentioned by the
interviewer (Odendahl and Shaw, 2002: 309,312-313).
In other words, the interview is not
based upon a set of rigid, predetermined questions but the interviewees can raise additional
issues related to the topics of discussion.
4.11.1 Semi-Structured
Interviews
The semi-structured interview helps the researcher to meet the interviewees face to face and
is
It
them
to
to
the
ask
some questions
obtain answers
research questions.
referred to as
for
data.
The
the
triangulation
choice of
multistage research and supports
approach
collecting
time and place of the interview was left to the interviewee. The interviews were audio-tapefor
during
help
the transcription
the
tape
times
to
the
checking
many
researcher play
recorded
for analysis (Blaxter et al., 1996).
In the current study, the semi-structured interviews
classroom observation.
Twenty
data
to
after the
collect
were used
teachers were chosen randomly,
from
teacher
each
one
having
different
both
from
balance
in
They
sexes, each
were chosen
secondary school.
do
how
is
they
teachers
to
This
to
act
and
tool
what
gain
answers
of measurement
experiences.
differences
investigated
it
Also,
there
were
whether
while correcting their students' oral errors.
in the way male-female/experienced-less
experienced teachers correct their students' errors or
not.
in
his
to
to
the
target
the
the
order
study
aims
of
samples
and
purpose
The researcher explained
freely,
by
their
their
them
to
to
opinions
consent
and
encourage
express
give
them
convince
is
for
the
they
that
only
say
and
confidentiality,
and
ensuring
whatever
anonymity
emphasising
110
purpose of the current study. The questions of the semi-structured interviews were translated
into the Arabic language in order to avoid
ambiguity and misunderstanding in interpreting the
meaning of any question. This technique was also useful to save the researcher's and
interviewees' time and encouraged the interviewees to
respond in more detail because
sometimes they might not have enough vocabulary to express themselves clearly. Likewise, the
answers of the subjects were translated into English, and if there were any difficulties
in
translation, the researcher consulted translators or experts to find a suitable equivalent. For
example, item No. 23 says "I single out the student who has committed the error in order to
prevent the class from committing the same error" was difficult for me to find the equivalent
in Arabic therefore, the translators gave this translation.
4.11.2 Validity
and Reliability
The source of reliability
of the Semi-structured
Interviews
in the semi-structured interviews is definitely the researcher because
s/he has conducted the interviews with the interviewees through direct verbal interaction and
data
(see
is
Cohen
Manion,
1994:
272).
It
the
confirmed
acquired
and
also valuable to compare
the interview result with result measure that has already been shown to be valid and the best
bias;
i.
is
the
to
sources of
e. the researcher's attitude, race,
way of achieving validity
minimise
religion,
(ibid:
social class and age
281). Interviews
which
decrease the amount of
by
the researcher through elaborating on the questions,
misunderstanding and misinterpretation
her/his
from
for
by
respondents, are regarded as
and
more explanation and verifications
asking
lack.
In
be
is
judged
that
to
this
contrast to
other methods
a great advantage
more accurate
because
did
interviews
the
that
the
of
accurate
result
not
yield
an
semi-structured
criticism
fact,
in
the
third
they
of
methods used and produced a
one
of
only
consisted
small sample size,
88;
2001:
110).
2002:
Bryman,
findings
(see
Warrner,
in
to
the
overall
relation
significant result
be
interviews
from
findings
that
is
It
can
semi-structured
which emerged
worth mentioning
by
by
findings
them
methods
other
comparing
revealed
reliable
with
and
valid
more
made
(observations and questionnaires) to check validity and reliability.
Consequently, it is necessary to ensure that the pilot study eliminates any weakness of the
semi-structured
interviews
and to prepare them to be appropriate for the main study. For
interview
the
to the participants,
in
semi-structured
questions
the
were
given
pilot,
example,
111
who were asked to give their
feedback about misunderstandings
or ambiguities.
The
feedback actually showed that there

were some questions which needed to be
reconstructed. Therefore, validity and reliability of interviews were tested out through the pilot
by
study
asking the respondents, after the interview, whether the questions were clearly
participants'
understood and whether they were appropriate to gain rich and useful data. In summary, in the
pilot study, I made specific checks on reliability and validity and I asked participants if they
had understood the questions in the way the
intended.
The results of the pilot study
researcher
showed that the questions needed to be modified. For example, question number 3. Please tell
me if you are concerned about error correction or not? ' Question number 6. `How do you feel
and act when your students commit errors? ' Question 9.. `To which errors do you give more
focus? Why? ' Question number 10. Àre you satisfied with the techniques
you use in correcting
your students' oral errors? ' Question number 12. `Do you correct male and female students in
the same way or differently?
Why? How? ' I modified them in the following way: question 3
`Please tell me whether you are concerned with oral error correction or not? Why? '. Question
9 `What steps do you take when your students commit an oral error? How do you feel? '.
Question 10 `What techniques do you use to correct your students' oral errors? Why? '.
Question 12 `Do you correct male and female students differently? For example, If yes, why? '.
Moreover, I have added another question which was related to teaching methods and teachers'
during
he/she
the
affect
studying experience when
was a student as follows, "Are you affected
by your teachers' way of correction or any method of correcting oral errors when you were at
the university or institute? ".
4.11.3 Power Relation in Interviews

Interviews are used to elicit information from the interviewees which researchers cannot obtain
through observation or questionnaires. Patton (1990 in Hughes 2002: 209) contends that, "The
interviewing
purpose of
is to find out what is in and on someone else's mind. We interview
from
directly
However,
find
them
those
things
to
cannot
observe".
people may
we
out
people
be sensitive and prefer not to be interviewed, especially when they feel the interviewer is in a
in
be
For
interviewees
this
the
different power relationship.
example,
concerned
research
may
holds
degree,
inspector,
BA
MA
the
fact
that
researcher
qualifications
as
an
a
an
with the
hold
PhD
Training
Institute
Teachers'
them
is
student,
while
most
of
a
either
a
degree and now
112
Certificate or a BA degree. These factors

may affect the interviewees' participation and they
may give unreal data due to the asymmetric power relationship between the interviewer and the
interviewees. Therefore, the researcher has kept in
mind such issues and tried to tackle them
practically
and psychologically:
techniques of interviewing
practically by running his interviews through the steps and
people by asking questions, and psychologically,
by creating
friendly relationships with the interviewees and emphasising that

what they are doing is a great
favour to him/her (see subsection 4.11.4). In
addition, the questions of the semi-structured
interview were put in an easy format by choosing words carefully to
interviewee
the
encourage
to understand the question clearly and comprehensively. As Thomas (1996) advises, "Use
vocabulary of the level used in the tabloid press. It is often better to use four simple words than
one abstract Latinate word". The tone of voice, facial expression, smile and the body language
bridge
to
the gap between the interviewer and the interviewee. Hughes (1996: 173)
were used
says, "Body
language plays a significant
in
interviews"
role
friendly
"...
and
smiles are
important to allay any fears of a forthcoming inquisition".

It is also worth mentioning that ordering questions is an important step in conducting the semiinterviews
because
influence
introduced
I
the
the
structured
sequence of questions can
results.
innocuous questions at the preliminary stage of the semi-structured interview to make subjects
frankly
(Mitchell
feel
to
the
to
questions
respond
relax and
comfortable enough
and Jolley,
1988: 299). Moreover, I was very attentive to what the interviewee was saying and gave
her/him the opportunity to reflect and express his/her opinions and ideas without interruption.
4.11.4 Interviews
and Ethical Issues
In this sub-section, I will discuss what some researchers have concluded about ethical issues in
interviews,
I
then
will
and
followed
have
I
the
steps
explain
in order to help the reader
is
interviews.
in
Interviewing
issues
the
how
the
people
researcher respected ethical
understand
beliefs,
intelligence,
feelings,
different
in
because
job
they
emotions,
are
moods,
not an easy
opinions,
ideas,
understanding,
cultures,
behaviours.
and
In
conducting
interviews,
interview
be
interpersonal
factors
these
interviewers should
aware of
which might affect any
interviewing
in
Muslim
For
be
their
societies,
when
example,
careful
subjects.
they
should
and
inside
interviewer
interview
the
to
a
woman
a
closed
when
room alone, especially
it is not easy
Women
be
interviewed
to
that
woman.
are
not allowed
without permission.
is not a relative of
113
Furthermore, the permission is not given directly by the

woman but by her husband if she is
married, by her father if she is single, and by her son if she is a widow.
That is probably why Wenger (2002: 273) states, "it is important that interviewers be
sensitive
to the different values, concerns, and expectations of respondents from different cultures,
ethnic groups, and religious traditions, whatever the age of the respondents". Consequently, the
researcher might create a mystique about interviewing people before initiating the interview.
This would indeed demand a lot of techniques and diplomatic
steps to ensure that the
interviewee is able to say what s/he wants and to say it freely. Hence, smiling, head-nodding,
eye contact and careful-listening
to the interviewee are essential features to create a shared
environment and encourage the interviewee to concentrate on the subject. As Dreyer (1995:
59) stated, "there are various verbal and non-verbal tactics that allow you to exercise control
dominating
without
or leading". Consequently, the researcher needs to be friendly in order to
encourage people to participate and talk positively. As Dreyer mentions, people talk to the
researcher if s/he avoids exacerbating and irritating them (ibid). Wenger (2002: 272-3) stated,
"Friendship can develop, with the accretion of the norms and responsibilities associated with
that relationship.
participation
Greater familiarity
leads to an expectation
interviewer".
the
the
on
part of
disclosure
of more
and
That is why I built up a rapport with the
interviewee by showing that I was a friend and not a foe.

Paying attention and listening carefully to the interviewees' answers could encourage them to
talk about their feelings, underlying
in
beliefs,
order to
experiences and values
attitudes,
(2001:
To
Wisker
(Moore,
Leedy,
1997).
2000;
interview
this,
the
the
achieve
achieve
aims of
172) says, "Don't
and responsive
friendly
he
bored",
to
threatened
appear
and
advises researchers
or
appear
when meeting
interviewing
and
the interviewees
(ibid).
Flexibility
is
interact
interviewee
to
dynamic
the
and simply
element which encourages
considered a
311).
This
Shaw,
2002:
(Odendahl
interviewer
information
that
the
can
and
needs
produce the
be achieved by behaving carefully and gently with the interviewee and not solidifying
the
frames
interviewer
flexibility
if
for
decision;
the
takes
reand
place
example,
researcher's
in
interviewees
have
the
that
the
to
other
questions;
frames the questions
ensure
understood
hints,
(see
An
Dreyer,
1995:
23-4).
prompts,
and
should
use
probes
the
researcher
words,
interview
from
to
the
the
interviewer
alter
shape
of
stimulus and response
manages
intelligent
114
to the interactional
interviewee
accomplishment
interviewer
and
in order to minimise and bridge the gap between the
(see Gubrium and Holstein, 2002: 17). The interviewer

could
involve
some prompts and probes in order to encourage the interviewee to complete the
interview with full enthusiasm. S/he could
offer a specific prompt, when the subjects
misunderstand the issue, by repeating the question, explaining difficulties,
clarifying
any
ambiguities and helping the interviewee to express his/her ideas. Likewise, probes ask for an
be
developed and confirmed by the interviewee, clarified by giving more detail
to
answer
or
connected to some other ideas they have just mentioned (see Dreyer, 1995: 23-4). Prompts and
probes may induce a special atmosphere to the interview and encourage the interviewees to say
more about the same issue. They may begin by confirming
clarifying
the interviewee's
words and
answers and move on to explanations and connections by avoiding challenging or
leading the interviewee (ibid).

Wisker (2001) clarified
that the researcher needs to ask for permission by contacting the
sample in advance, agreeing on a time and place that is equally suitable, explaining carefully to
in
the sample exactly what s/he will do with the interview material and agreeing to
anyone
before
the
transcript
to
them
send
using it (168-69). Besides that, the researcher should not
keep,
loses
integrity
is
It
that
make any promises
s/he cannot
otherwise s/he
as a researcher.
interviewees
important
be
the
the
that
also
researcher should
polite and pleasant with
and thank
them for their time. In this way, the researcher builds good relationships with his/her subjects
by respecting them, calling them by their names and encouraging them to speak confidently in
in
is
knowledge
that
to
the
needed the study.
order
elicit
I started every interview with a preamble which reminded the interviewees of what they had
in
It
letter
invitation
initial
the
to
the
they
study.
gave me a
participate
accepted
agreed when
found
letter.
in
The
the
that
they
to
clarify any misunderstanding or any ambiguity
chance
for
idea
the
to
the
to
research and
give
general
and
explain
reason
me
a
preamble allowed
in
interviewing
I
It
them.
to
the
would use
were
also
explained
what
purpose
aims
specify what
5.3.2).
(see
data
the
subsection
introduction
following
interviewee:
for
`Thank
to
I
the
every
you very much
In this study, gave
in this study which aims to find out if there is any difference between maleyour participation
115
female teachers in their manner of

correcting their students' oral errors and how students
participate in English oral activities. The information from this interview will be used for the
purpose of this study. Consequently, all records of the content and whatever you say in this
interview will be held in strict confidence. The
interview
this
completion of
will take
approximately
hour'.
However, the researcher did not read the introduction
one
in a solid
chunk but he paused and used eye-contact to ensure the interviewee followed every step and
understood the purpose of interviewing him/her.
There was a mutual agreement between every interviewee and the researcher to conduct the
interview at a chosen place; e.g. at school or at the interviewee's house. We also decided that
the interviews
be
to
were
audio-recorded (Blaxter
1996).
Contrary
to structured
et al.,
interviews (quantitative and positivist), the semi-structured interview exhibits qualitative and
naturalist orientations. Warren (2002: 83) suggests that qualitative interviews' epistemology is
more constructionist
because they seek to "derive interpretations, not facts or laws, from
In
respondents".
addition,
interviews
semi-structured
have an interview
follow,
to
guide
interviewer
fluctuates,
the
otherwise
oscillates and swaps the stable consistency steps of the
interviews.
Consequently,
the researcher conducting
semi-structured
interviews
his
with
teachers has a better opportunity to explore topics, notions and ideas in-depth, and to also
factor.
the
observe
consistency
In brief, when I employed the semi-structured interviews, I followed these steps:

"I
followed the same negotiation process in the observation starting with permission from
Local Education Authority (LEA), the school and the participant (see subsection 4.10).
91
interview
by
for
the
well-formed
prepared myself
interview;
before
starting the
outline questions
in
between
I
fluctuate
I
the
questions
rehearsed
notions.
might
otherwise,
interview.
before
to
the
coming
advance
"
The participant and I chose a private place where there were no telephone calls, student or
distractions
break
fluency
interviews.
to
the
of
staff enquiries, visitors or
"I
how
long
interview
because
interviewee
the
take
would approximately
s/he might
told the
later.
do
things
to
other
be planning
116
"I
"1
brought a good sensitive Sony tape-recorder

to record the interviews and did not depend
on poor ones, in order to avoid poor recordings.
acted normally and informally to encourage the interviewee to feel free. I started the
interview with a warm welcome to the teacher
and a joke or brief humorous story to put the
interviewee at ease. Then I clarified the
purpose of the interview and explained the stages
of it to give an idea to the interviewee of what would come next. That was to avoid any
influence
the interview might have had on the interviewee's responses.
stress or
"I
showed and expressed my attention and curiosity to all the interviewees by using facial
expressions and nods. That was to give more opportunity to the interviewees to express
themselves in depth and to make them feel that what they said was important.
91
led the discussion by directing the questions, in case the interviewee jumped from notion
to notion, in order to gain clear focus on the research questions.
91
followed-up
questions by asking the interviewee to elaborate on his/her answer, such as
`could you say some more about this point? ' Or `What do you mean by this point? ' in order
to help me understand what exactly he/she had in their minds.
"I
asked the interviewee to specify his/her answer at the end of every question to ensure
he/she
what
meant exactly by his/her words.
"
At the end of the interview, I thanked the interviewee for his/her participation and again
in
his/her
them
the
that
that
they
that
assured
all
records are anonymous,
order
understood
in
be
This
there
this
participation
study was valuable and
would
no come-back.
might also
in
them
to
other studies.
encourage
participate
Finally I transcribed the interviews while the events were still fresh in my mind.
4.12 Questionnaires
The literature review has helped the researcher's thinking about aspects of his project and
his
design
tools
him
to
the
the
to
research
and
as
one
of
choose
questionnaires
encouraged
questionnaire.
The questionnaire as a tool of data collection
can be seen as a suitable
instrument
in the current study to obtain data from a large sample. It is used to elicit
information
to triangulate other instruments, namely semi-structured observations and semi-
interviews.
structured
117
Questionnaires are used in this

research to help the researcher to save time, due to the fact that
they can be easily distributed and are easy to
analyse. Bell (1999: 119) says,
"Questionnaires are a good way of collecting
certain types of information quickly and
relatively cheaply as long as you are sufficiently
disciplined to abandon questions which are
superfluous to the main task"

Throughout the questionnaires, the researcher intended to explore if there were any differences
between the way male and female teachers correct their students' oral errors during
oral
activities. The questionnaire was also designed to find out if there were differences between
experienced and less experienced teachers in the way of correcting students' oral errors.
Edwards and Talbot (1999) argue that, despite questionnaires being easy to distribute and
analyse, they are not easy to design (86). They need much time and care in forming items
should
focus
which
on the research questions. Then, the first step in designing a questionnaire
is to have clear research questions which help the researcher to focus and direct his attention to
form
find
designing
In
to
to
the
the questionnaire of
ask questions or
statements
answers
study.
the current study, the researcher made use of the following:
1.
Literature
relevant to the procedures of constructing
(for
questionnaires
example,
Edwards and Talbot, 1999; Bell, 1999; Cohen and Manion, 1994/ 2000; Mitchell and
Jolley, 1988; May, 2001).
2.
Utilising the researcher's experience as a teacher and an inspector of EFL.
3.
Consulting experts and experienced people in research.
4.
Literature relevant to errors and error correction; e.g. Walz (1982); Edge (1993); James
(1998); Nassaji and Swain (2000).
The preliminary stage of designing the questionnaire was begun by drawing a chart (Cohen and
Manion, 1994: 93) (see Appendix B) to plan the questions by putting forward the research
large
for
A
theme
and
questions
number
of
and
a
core
starting.
central
a
as
questions
brainstorm
draft.
On
the
technique
the
grouped
a
researcher
as
chart
written
were
statements
issue.
dealt
The
repeated,
with a specific
together the questions and statements which
in
the
to
to
ones
were
omitted
order
complete
encourage
respondents
unnecessary or confused
Secondly, the researcher checked and rechecked the structural form of
questionnaires.
118
statements and questions to avoid unnecessary and overlapping items. The researcher also took
into consideration techniques of designing
a questionnaire, such as the issues that repeat
questions should never be asked, double negative questions should not be included, each
question or statement should contain one idea, a clear and simple structure should be provided,
and ambiguous and lengthy questions should be avoided (May, 2001: 108).
The Likert-type items were chosen because they give respondents' the freedom to choose their
answers among five point scales rather than nominal-dichotomous
interval
data which
items. They also yield
be
can
analysed by statistical tests programmes. The questionnaire
consisted of two parts: The first part consisted of 37 questions. They were rated according to a
five point scale, namely àlways', òften', `sometimes', `rarely' and `never' and were clustered
according to related topics. The questionnaire included the teachers' sex and experience, which
important
in
for
The
this
the
teacher
are
study.
anonymity and
name of
and school are optional
confidentiality
but they could help during analysis for the researcher's use only. In designing
this questionnaire, the researcher adopted the rated point scale pattern, enabling the sample of
teachers in the study to state their opinion with less difficulty.
The second part consisted of six multiple choice questions and the participants were asked to
design
fact,
In
the
their
tick
of the questionnaire was carefully
own choice.
against
put a
done
it
This
before
the
to
tested
and
accuracy
of
ensure
validity
was
was
used.
considered and
To
data
the
instrument(s)
to
achieve
research questions.
which could answer
collect
research
in
Sunderland
University
laboratory
language
friend
in
I
the
at
this requirement, asked my staff
feedback,
her
brainstorm
Education
School
which
to
the
my questionnaire and give me
of
forced me to reformulate some items of the questionnaire. Later on, pilot studies were used to
test the questionnaire and find any weaknesses so that the researcher could reformulate and
(always)
25
Ì
For
marks
before
add
it
number
the
question
example,
study
started.
main
revise
does
into
Ì
to
the
student who
add marks
to the students who commit errors' was reformulated
(never)
26
Ì
in
to
the
students
add
marks
and
question
number
practice'
oral
errors
not commit
low
into
Ì
to
the
commits
who
student
a
mark
was
reformulated
give
errors'
who commits
errors.
119
A letter was attached to the questionnaire to

provide the participants with as much information
instructions
to help them complete it. To prepare the letter, a draft letter was shown to a
and
few friends who were asked to give their opinions. The
covering letter contained the school
and the name of the university to which the researcher belongs. The aims of the questionnaire,
some notes, and the return date were also mentioned (see Appendix C)
Drnyei, (2003) points out some limitations of the questionnaires and argues that the major
problem with regard to the questionnaire is that people do not always tell the truth about
themselves and thus deceive the researcher. He also added that when respondents are unsure
and ambivalent about any item(s) in the questionnaires, they sometimes acquiesce in becoming
he
has
`yeasayers'
what
called
which means that the respondent is ready to go along with
anything
that sounds good (12-13). However, to minimise such problems, I emphasised that
all respondents should be voluntary and willing

confirmed the confidentiality
to participate. In addition, the researcher
information
the
the respondents would provide.
and anonymity of
All these, I believe, should encourage them to give accurate data and take the questionnaires
data
Triangulation
to
that
the
are precise and comprehensive.
seriously.
was also used ensure
It is postulated that the questionnaire instrument has the advantages of providing vast amounts
information
of
is
how
important
But
the
thing
the
the
most
phenomena.
researched
on
findings,
be
to
the
as
achieve accurate
valid and reliable
current study can
questionnaire(s) of
Bell (1999) reported that whatever procedure for data collection is selected, it should always be
(103).
To
it
is
to
achieve
reliable and valid
what extent
examined and measured to understand
reliability
in
I
to
in
them
avoid misunderstanding
order
piloted
my questionnaires,
and validity
The
items
in
the
the
reliability
questionnaires.
of
or confusion
was achieved as some of the
in
but
the
field
in
same words
also used
the
study gave, not only similar answers,
participants
some of them.
"
The Questionnaires
and Ethical Issues
from
information
instrument
the
to
extra
gain
used
as
a
support
were
The questionnaires
fact, in designing and implementing the questionnaire, the researcher followed
In
participants.
in
he
has
done,
in
that
the
semi-structured
observations
and
approach
ethical
the same
120
interviews, to gain the subjects'

consent. He explained the aims and the significance of his
in
study
a covering letter and handed the questionnaire to the volunteers after randomisation
(see
only
subsection 4.3). The researcher added a sheet of paper attached with the
questionnaire for the teachers to write their comments and opinion on the questionnaire. The
same thing was used with students.
4.13 Procedure of Data Collection and Data Analysis
4.13.1 Procedure of Data Collection

The data of this study was collected in a variety of ways, so that data from one type of source
be
can
checked against data from another. A triangulation
technique was used for data
collection in the current study, such as classroom observations, semi-structured interviews a

for
teachers and a questionnaire for students (see subsection 4.3.2). Therefore,
questionnaire
the researcher used the following procedures:
The initial step taken after arriving in Libya was to gain the education authority's permission to
access schools, meet teachers and students. I handed the letters which I had brought from my
director of study, the Libyan Popular Office and the Student Union in London (see appendices
M). The secretary of Libyan
Education committee in Shabeet Al-Nigat
help.
his
to
wish
accommodating and expressed
Al-
Kams was
A day later, a permission letter to visit
(see
I).
teachers
appendices
and students was received
schools, meet
Before carrying out each observation, a standard procedure was followed. Firstly, I approached
formal
headmaster/headmistress
the
the
the
permission of access, and
school, showed
of
kind
the
tools,
the
the
of co-operation
as well as
research
study and
explained the objectives of
After
from
teachers.
needed
the negotiations with the headmaster/ headmistress, I was
introduced to the English language teachers of each school. The teachers were given a clear
interviews
the
and
the
and
aim
of
semi-structured
classroom
observations,
study
about
picture
the questionnaires.
in
for
During
the
these
the
subjects
each
convenience.
with
school
sake
of
met
The researcher
the
the
to
the
and
aim
of
study
explained
assess
subjects'
were
the
purpose
meetings,
121
willingness to participate. Although it was stated that the teachers'

participation was voluntary,
all the subjects were willing to participate. As soon as the guarantee
of anonymity and the
possibility of making available the results of the study were offered, the subjects
showed their
agreement and the timetable for visiting classeswas arranged.

The researcher made daily visits to the schools in
order to collect data. These visits were
arranged by dividing the schools into four groups related to their location (see table 4.1 page
102). As it was planned that one teacher
was randomly selected from each school, the
technique of grouping schools helped the researcher to visit more than one subject daily.
Group One
Schools number 1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7
Group Two
Group Three
Schools number 8,9,10,1land12

Schools number 13,14 and 15
Group Four
Schools number 16,17,18,19 and 20
I able 4.1 grouping the schools regarding the location distance
In fact, the data was gathered in three stages; the first stage lasting two months (FebruaryMarch 2006), the second stage involving one and a half months (April-to the middle of May
2006) and the third stage ran from the middle of May and was completed by the end of May
(see table 4.3).
February & March
20 teachers at 20 different secondary schools were
2006
observed
April until 15 May
The same 20 teachers were interviewed
2006
The rest of May
2006
Questionnaires for both teachersand studentswere

distributed
Table 4.3 time matrix of data collection
In this study, classroom observation was considered the main data-collection instrument to
how
behave
during
inside
lessons.
English
how
they
their
act
and
subjects
classes
show clearly
As Wisker (2001) argues, observation can be a rich source of information for the researcher
do
(178).
Direct
him/her
to
capture
what
subjects
actually
classroom observation
and enables
disadvantages.
As
Yin
(2003)
lead
to
has
and
argued,
may
observation
events
problems
also
because the sample is being observed (86). I did my best to minimise these
differently
proceed
during
break
by
to
the
the
such
time,
normally
as
smiling,
speaking
acting
difficulties
students
(usually
inconspicuous
back
from which to
the
place
the
corners
of
an
classroom)
and selecting
122
observe and record verbal and non-verbal behaviour. Accordingly,
for the audio-recordings a
tiny Sony TCM-2000 DV was used. Moreover, another strategy, such as calling
students and
teachers by their names was adopted to allow the researcher to have informal and friendly
relationships with teachers and their studentsin order to let them perform naturally.
I believed that direct classroom observation would help me to gain clear
understanding of what
inside
was going
classes. The classroom observations allowed me to gain live, insider views of
reality and allowed me to catch the subjective meaning which is placed on situations by the
teachers and students. It provided evidence of what teachers did and how they behaved when
students made errors. I concentrated on and gave more emphasis to the events which were
relevant to the oral error correction techniques (see Campbell et al., 2004: 94). Meanwhile, the
observations enhanced my understanding of the objective meaning of the different situations
helped
describe
interprete
to
them as they occurred. All
and
me
and
observations were
recorded, the result of which was 60 tapes recorded from 20 teachers in 20 schools. I also
considered that the teachers' nonverbal communication
during oral error correction was
important. These movements and facial expressions were important in terms of how teachers
decided
for
As
I
to
that,
their
a result of
nonstudents' oral errors.
retain note-taking
correct
verbal communication
during oral error correction because teachers', as well as students'
down
form
kept
be
important.
I
Thus,
to
to
all
write
a prepared
always
gestures seemed
had
I
facial
that
observed.
expressions
gestures and
During the data-collection
I took special care of recording and keeping the data. I made an
for
The
transcriptions
were made
observation
safety
reasons.
classroom
extra copy of every
during and shortly after the recording when everything was still fresh in the researcher's
first
in
I
diary
to
kept
I
and
my
which
each
observation
recorded
notes
related
a
also
memory.
impressions of what was going in the classes.
The semi-structured
interviews
with the teachers started after the classroom observations
initiated
interviews
by
introducing
the
the purpose and the aim
the
researcher
finished. Usually
importance
the
the
the
placed
on
views
of
respondent
and
stressing
emphasising
of research,
The
interviews
information.
the
the
semi-structured
were
conducted
with
of
confidentiality
in
In
facilitate
their
to
the
classes.
order
observed
smooth
of
were
operation
who
same subjects
123
the interviews, every interviewee was asked to choose the time

and the place of the interview.
Every interviewee was given options to
choose the language of communication in the
interview, (English, Arabic or a combination
of English and Arabic). Each interview lasted
approximately forty five to sixty minutes. The researcher did his best to explain any point that
the interviewee did not understand in order to facilitate clear answers regarding the target
questions. Meanwhile, the researcher carefully avoided giving an opinion on the issues
discussed. All interviews were audio-tape recorded to avoid the loss
information
of
and to aid
transcription and analysis of each interview.
4.13.2 Procedure of Data Analysis

Since I have followed qualitative and quantitative approaches in data collection, there has been
a need to use both quantitative and qualitative analyses. The analysis also occurs as an explicit
step in conceptually interpreting the data set as a whole, using specific analytic strategies to
transform
the raw data into a new and coherent depiction of the topic being studied.
Accordingly,
grounded theory style was chosen in order to analyse my raw data. As Robson
(2002) argues, the grounded theory style is the preferred and appropriate method for studies
which are exclusively
qualitative.
It is both a strategy for doing research and a style of
from
data
(191).
This also encouraged the researcher to adopt
the
the
analysing
arising
research
the procedures and techniques in data analysis taking into account the attractive features of
follows:
(2002)
by
1.
features
Robson
These
the
theory
as
are summarised
grounded
research.
in
it
2.
for
theory
theory
research;
presents a
generating
provides explicit procedures
grounded
it
in
3.
for
doing
a systematic and co-ordinated way,
provides explicit procedures
study
scheme
for analysing qualitative data, 4. it is useful in applied areas of research, and novel ones, where
be
is
is
5.
There
to
selected
not clear,
now a wide range of examples of
the theoretical approach
its use in different fields (192). On the other hand, there are some problems in using grounded
Corbin
(1997)
ignored,
Strauss
to
in
and
such
as
start a research study without
theory
which
ideas and presuppositions. Grounded theory has particular types
theoretical
some pre-existing
for
the
theory
components
of
as
a
which
appropriate
may
not
appear
categories
of prescribed
in
difficult
decide
is
It
to
practice
or
also
when
when
categories
are
structured
study.
particular
(ibid).
developed
is
adequately
the theory
124
As this study is concerned with understanding what is going inside the

classrooms at Ajelate
secondary schools in order to find out how teachers correct their students errors during oral
activities,
taking
into
account the differences
experiences, the qualitative

analysis is concerned with
between teachers' gender and teachers'
and quantitative analysis methods were used. The qualitative

deep and novel understanding of the phenomena, whereas
is
quantitative analysis
used to measure collected data to yield statistical outcomes. Bell (1999)
believes that whichever approach is adopted depends on the nature of the inquiry and the type
information
of
the researcher seeks for in order to answer the research questions (6). Strauss
and Corbin (1990) propose three major components of qualitative research. First, the raw data
which
from
interviews.
can come
various sources such as observations or
Second, the
interpret
data.
These
the
that
the
to
usually consist
researcher
can
and
organise
use
procedures
of conceptualizing and reducing data by coding including sampling the writing of memos, and
diagramming.
The written and verbal reports make up the third component. (12). Similarly
Robson (2002) proposes three analytical sets of coding in grounded theory studies namely:
Òpen coding', Àxial coding' and `Selective coding' (see subsection 4.13.2. b). In this study, I
followed the four types of coding in order to focus on the selective ones. The following section
in
data
the
discuss
the
analysis
adopted
current study.
qualitative
of
processes
will
4.13.2.1 The Qualitative Method of Data Analysis

in
is
literature,
there
analysis
qualitative
According to the
no single method or approach of
is
Altinay,
2004).
That
Mehmetoglu
to
2002;
Robson,
1993;
and
say,
qualitative
(Dey,
research
data,
theory,
corpuses
grounded
studying
of
e
g.
of
ways
various
encompasses
research
large
depending
to
a
extent on the researcher's aims and
discourse analysis and text analysis,
is
because
between
This
is
interplay
data
the
analysis
analysis.
of
their evaluation of methods
data
(Strauss
interpretations
the
in
of
to
and
sense
present
data
make
order
the researcher and
duty
have
to
their
a
monitor
own
analytical
The
and
report
13).
1998:
analysts
Corbin,
and
have
I
data.
Regarding
have
this,
how
analysed
qualitative
they
fully
to
show
procedures
because:
theory
grounded
of
the
style
chosen
by
in
their
is
(GT)
researchers
methods
who
qualitative
use
used
widely
Grounded theory
1.
data analysis.
2.
for
useful
guidelines
analysis.
effective
general
theory
me
gives
The grounded
125
3.
4.
It always keeps the researcher close and familiar

with the data by reading and rereading.
It generates a theory from the data the interpretation
of which matches the course of the
research project.
(see Strauss, 1987; Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Strauss and Corbin, 1997; Silverman, 2001;
Cohen et al., 2000).
Grounded theory has main principles, aims and procedures that should be used to conduct it.
Robson (2002) lists some instructions in the grounded theory style of analysis. The target aim
is
GT
to generate a theory to explain what is central in the data. The researcher has to find a
of
from
the data that s/he collected and analysed. This is done in three
central core category
find
1.
stages:
conceptual categories in the data; 2. find relationships between these categories;
3. conceptualise through finding core categories (493). Furthermore, throughout the systematic
is
built
interaction
theory
through
analysis, a
with the data and by making comparisons and
asking questions of the data. Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Hammersley and Atkinson,
Strauss 1987; Walliman,
2001; Bryman, 2001 and Mehmetoglu and Altinay,
1995;
2004 suggest
include
listed
below
in
in
data
the
theory
steps
analysis could
which the overall aim
grounded
from
hypothesis
data:
develop
is
the
theoretical
to
the
a
process
of
1.
Data analysis is ongoing and should begin as soon as the data collection begins.
2.
Keep tabs on what you have collected -get it indexed.
3.
Create codes and themes and combine and modify as you go on.
4.
have
found,
literature
the
Use comparison and contrast about what you
even with
review.
5.
how,
how
by
data
why,
where, what, when,
Interrogate the
who,
much.
asking questions:
6.
develop
the
the
concepts-they may change as you
The researcher needs to generate
analysis.
7.
in
is
of
categories
a more generalised and abstract
The ultimate aim to reach a stable set
form.
8.
9.
from
together
them
through
down
again,
then
data
micro
macro.
put
and
Break the
linked
be
with appropriate categories.
Memos about emerging theory should
in
data.
following
to
procedure
the
adopted
obtain
was
order
observations
In the classroom
(approximately
between
four
in
three
to
times)
than
once
more
observed
was
Each subject
him
familiar
the
between
and
the
participants
and
make
with
the
observer
lessen
gap
to
order
126
the setting and to give the researcher the opportunity to choose the lesson in which the most
oral error correction operations took place. All classroom observations were audio taperecorded and one of each three tapes was transcribed verbatim when all notes were still fresh in
the researcher's mind. Every transcription was read several times in order to encode it. The
same steps were applied to the semi-structured interviews. The procedures employed in
data
encoding
were adopted from the grounded theory style of coding.
4.13.2.2 The Stages of Analysing the Data
1.1
checked the transcriptions with my wife and daughter who both hold qualifications in the
English language to prove the accuracy of each transcription.
2.1
read the transcription line by line for coding, which means: I discovered and named the
categories which emerged from the data, came out from the literature review or were
by
the researcher.
created
I started coding by using òpen coding', which aimed to
fit
data,
including
knowledge
literature
the
to
the
produce concepts which seemed
of
brought into the inquiry. During the open coding stage, the researcher asked questions of
the data, such as, `what category does this incident indicate? ' `How does this category
been
has
'
These
'
`Why
types of questions
this
to
the
category
chosen?
study?
relate
in
data,
by
forcing
lost
the
the generation of codes that
the
researcher getting
prevent
relate to other codes.
I connected the concepts and the categories in new ways by
develop
together
to
the
and
subcategories
main
related concepts, categories
grouping
information
differences.
I
to
the
I
explore similarity and
ones. compared and contrasted
find
in
to
the
to
to
the
related
main
study
answers
order
categories
core
concentrated on
my research questions.
3.1
transcriptions
to
the
in
of
the
remind
of
notes,
a
summary
of
me
margins
wrote memos
filed
literature
in
I
them
and
theories
notes
and
compared
with
to
related
coding
categories and concepts.
4.
5.
6.1
during
developing
the analysis.
were
though
changed
some
I generated the concepts
found
the
to
and
most
relevant
ones
answer research
concepts
I compared and contrasted
findings.
to
explain
questions and
in
build
together
theory
to
categories
order
a
rigorous
and
the
concepts
core
employed
from the raw data.
generated
127
4.13.3 Quantitative
Data Analysis
I have used the quantitative methodology approach as well as the qualitative approach in order
to support each other, because dealing with both gives more accuracy to the study (Robson
2002,388).
Bryman
(1988/2001) presented a clear distinction
between a qualitative and
i.
the
the
quantitative approach regarding
research position of
research phenomena, e. in the
is
inside
the
the phenomena, while in the latter, the researcher is
qualitative study,
researcher
hard
data.
Bryman
the
outside
phenomena collecting
and reliable
went onto conclude that the
be
tends
to
qualitative approach
unstructured, allowing concepts and theory to emerge, whilst
the quantitative approach begins with concepts and theories and tests them.
In the analysis of questionnaires used in this study, the SPSS (the Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences) software was used. This programme of quantitative data analysis is widely
SPSS
in
The
programme saves the researcher's time and gives more
social sciences.
used
by
SPSS
data
through
The
the
various
goes
package
using
analysis
process of
accurate results.
by
data
by
the
the
coding
onto
computer and continuing
entering
steps and procedures, starting
broad
into
divided
data
findings.
The
types:
two
in
exploratory
to
them
commonly
gain
order
data
try
399)
the
2002:
(Robson,
the
to
and
explore
seeks
exploratory
where
and confirmatory
to
data
the
find
establish
the
tell
seeks
analysis
the
while
confirmatory
researcher,
to
out what
he
has
find
(ibid).
to
has
expected
actually got what
whether the researcher
it
to
they
the
to
complete
participants and
were asked
The teachers' questionnaire was given
by
it
to
the
Similarly,
the
given
asked
return
questionnaire
and
were
students
within a week.
himself
by
the
The
day.
students' questionnaire
researcher administrated
the end of the same
their
that
target
to
the
first
make
sure
students
returned
all
for two main reasons: the
reason was
to
the
The
that
limit.
reason
responses
was
confirm
students'
second
time
the
responses within
flattering
by
teachers'
their
to
answers.
presence
by
and
giving
obligation
were not affected
in
into
Arabic
to
translated
order
were
questionnaire
the
students'
The teachers', as well as
(see
how
4.13.3
subsection
and
over
on
ambiguity,
ambiguity
any
or
avoid misunderstanding
the
Accordingly,
two
to
staff
questionnaires
were
given
avoided).
were
translation
under
department
Zawia
English
department,
language
one
and
member
at
English
in
the
members
items
the
to
translated
department,
check
English
accuracy
of
questionnaire
Zwara
the other at
F).
E
Appendices
(see
and
them
distributing
before
128
After
I had received the students' responses, I classified them into groups according to
in
students' sex
order to make a balance between the two sexes. Then, I gave numbers to each
from
hundred
for
both
questionnaire,
student's
starting
number one and ending at number one
boys and girls. This means that the total number of the students who participated in this
in
hundred.
drew
items
Then
I
two
part one of
questionnaire was
a master sheet containing all
the questionnaire and counted every student's answer to each item. In the same way, I did part
two which, was different to the master sheet because the scale of choices was different. From
the initial
look at the sheets, the differences in the students' responses to each item was
(the
item
by
following
Then
I
the
number of responses x
equation
weighted every
apparent.
100 = number of items) by using a calculator. The weight is used to test the negative and the
The
third
the
teachers'
towards
correction.
oral
error
process of
positive attitude and reactions
SPSS
by
data
into
the
is
the
to
opening
computer
enter all
an essential one, was
step, which
in
is
SPSS
The
from
data
inserting
the
used
the
programme
questionnaires.
all
and
software
differences
the
the
find
similarity and
out the conclusion of participations' responses,
order to
between their responses in their items and variables.
described
has
It
the
this
methods
has
the
This chapter
of
research.
part
methodological
outlined
in
semi-structured
been
observations,
have
this
semi-structured
namely
study,
used
which
data
been
has
the
Observation
collection
main
considered as
interviews and questionnaires.
times
three
with
Observations
repeated
and
recorded
audio-tape
in
were
the present study.
tool
the
to
interviews
the
method
supporting
as
considered
The
were
semi-structured
each subject.
data
the
the
and
been
collection
have
of
second
method
as
They
classified
observations.
The
in
had
been
the
draw
observations.
missed
designed
what
to
out
questions were
for
designed
(B).
(A)
The
(A)
was
into
and
questionnaire
divided
two
parts:
questionnaire was
for
designed
the
teach
teachers
(B)
who
was
the
questionnaire
and
second year students
Both
these
at
administered
were
of
questionnaires
English language at secondary schools.
in
English,
they were
the
Although
were
written
questionnaires
twenty secondary schools.
in
Arabic.
The
to
this
sure
make
was
of
value
instructions
explained
were
translated and the
had
the
clearly
questionnaire.
understood
teachers,
the
that the students, as well as
129
This chapter has also described the participants and the steps which have been taken for
limiting, selecting, and randomisation of the samples. In addition, the methodology issues such
as validity, reliability
feasibility
have been discussed. This chapter has also explained and
and
accounted for ethical issues in the current research process. Piloting the instruments has also
been explained with special emphasis on the benefits of piloting
the instruments before
has
This
dealt
the
conducting
main study.
chapter
also
with the use of the triangulation method
of gathering data and how important this method is for comparing and complementing the
data
in
findings.
has
dealt
It
the
analysis
observations and semialso
procedures of
study
with
data
The
interviews
based
theory
the
analysis.
grounded
style of qualitative
on
structured
SPSS
data
to
the
software package were also
analysis related
questionnaires and procedures of
discussed in this chapter.
The next chapter will contain a detailed descriptive analysis of the participants' responses,
is
through
behaviour
taking
observations,
place,
correction
error
oral
while
reactions and
interviews and questionnaires.
130
Chapter Five
Results and Analysis (Qualitative Data)

5.1 Introduction
In this chapter, I will analyse the data
collected by qualitative instruments (the direct-classroom
observations
and semi-structured
interviews)
but I will
analyse the data collected by
quantitative instruments (teachers' and students' questionnaires), in the next chapter.
5.2 Research question 1

1. Are there any differences between the ways in
which male and female Libyan teachers
correct students' oral errors? What are these differences, if any?
Research question 1 was approached by direct classroom observation
of 20 Libyan language
teachers of English, 10 of whom were males and 10 of whom were females. Every individual
participant was observed teaching three lessons, to observe how they correct their students'
oral errors.
The following general characteristics were noted:
1.
All participants were paying attention to grammar and pronunciation errors and corrected
students' errors during oral communication or reading.
2.
Although most of the participants shared some correction techniques, they varied in the
way they corrected students' oral errors.

3.
Most participants acted differently with the opposite sex.
4.
Male teachers seemed less anxious than female teachers to correct students' errors whereas
female teachers faced problems while correcting male students because these students
disrespected female teachers if being corrected (see page 254 paragraph 2).
5.
Teachers allowed more time to girls when they were correcting them than they did to boys
for the following reasons, which I drew from the analysis of observations:
boys
feel
they
than
to
were
more
sensitive
and seemed
shy when they
a. girls showed
(see
8
183).
the
teacher
also
errors
extracts
of
no. page
committed
b. girls worked harder than boys.
boys
if
front
in
teachers
than
their
they
more
questions
were corrected
of
c. girls asked
others.
d. boys did not comment on the ways of teachers' correction.
131
6.
Female teachers corrected
male students with patience, softness, and more leniency than
female
with
students.
7.
Participants praised boys more than

girls
According to these observations, I

adopted the following
procedure to analyse the data for
1. The direct classroom observations and the

semi-structured
while each individual participant was performing, the two tasks were used to
research question number

interviews:
investigate whether there were any differences between

males and females in correcting
5.2.1Observations
It is noteworthy
that although teachers paid much attention to students' oral errors and
correction, they used different techniques and methods of correction. Every teacher had his/her
different
individual
own
and
ways of using particular techniques. In the following, I attempt to
look at each correction technique used by the participant, by male/female
and experienced/ less
experienced teachers. These techniques are; direct correction technique, correcting errors
within
a sentence as a direct correction, self-correction, peer correction, and using recast
technique, which emerged from analysis of observations.

5.2.1.1 Correction
This is the technique which may be used by the teacher or somebody else in order to prevent
(Lynch,
1996: 117). The following were techniques of correction used by the
students' errors
participants and observed by the researcher during classroom observations: however, arrows
and italics will be used to indicate direct participant's quotations.
5.2.1.1.a Direct Correction Technique

Most teachers of English language used direct error correction technique in correcting their
during
lot
Although
tasks.
there
especially
reading
was not a
of reading
students' oral errors,
in
handbook
help
develop
the
teacher's
to
were
required
students
aloud, short pieces of reading
their reading skills. Direct correction was the technique which was the most widespread among
(see
Gottlieb,
2006:
51,149).
for
be
The
different
in
this
to save
schools
reason
teachers
might
132
time, or they might forget to correct student's

errors at the end of a reading task. This was
clearly observed during different observations as the extracts show below:
Participant number 14 in school N who
was female and had two years' experience, corrected
her student directly and immediately in the
mixed class. She was standing in front of the girls'
row and asked a student to continue reading. The students were sitting in three rows two for
girls and one for boys. The number of the students was eighteen (seven boys and eleven girls).
The students were in second year secondary and the lesson
started at ten and ended at ten forty
five.
-
T. would you like some

S. would you like some good of time, I can't say
T. I can 't easily
S. I can't easily sent you some
T. I can 't send you some not sent
S. I can 't send you some, what iles /als/
T. what else
S. what else do I do in my fary/fceri/ time
T. free time
S.free time I like music and Spain and lot on CDs so much
T. yes ok thank you
-4
T. we live
S. we live in a small farm, very neter /ni: tr/
T. very near
S. very near the city of college
Looking at these extracts, the teacher seemed to focus on correcting the wrong pronunciation
She
during
activities.
was observed correcting the
reading
of words within clauses or phrases
for
by
herself
directly
self correction or peer correction as you can
without waiting
student(s)
in
line
TI
three
see
line
free
line
fourteen
T
T.
line
T
't
time,
nine
seven what else,
can easily,
line
in
them
However,
teacher
the
as
sometimes corrected errors and commented on
very near.
five T. I can 't send you some not sent. She seemed to correct grammar errors by saying send
not sent.
The following
in
from
P
female
16
taken
and
school
number
who
was
participant
extracts were
front
looking
in
She
the
the
at
row
was standing
middle of
had twenty years' experience.
133
students in all directions with a smile on her face. The number of the
students was twenty six
(twelve boys and fourteen girls). The
students were sitting in three rows (two for girls and one
for boys), all of them were in
second year secondary. The observation was during the first
lesson which started at half past eight
and finished at nine fifteen.
S. please teacher, please teacher
T. yes Manal
S. in the 1920 century member of the American unit's
society supported the cifitition
/cifeteayiii/
T. civilization
S. of the aaaaafiacal
T. yes
/vakal/
S. how writing with you? Go to all places.

T. going to all these places
S. going to all these places without all my old friends seems really strangely, it is
great chance but I do miss everyone, I've enclosed a clock of
T. a couple of
S. a couple of photos with this latter
T. letter
S. letter so you can see what it is like here, the person studing next to. The student
committed a pronunciation error and pronounced it as /stodir /
T. standing next
S. standing next to me in the foring /f rIij/ of the as naversty /navirsti: /
T. in front of the university
S. in front of the university is Tarq, by the way I've told him all about you I think we have
/xktoali/
friends
in
common, actoaly
good some
T. actually
S. actually as he knows Hassen Monsef a britly /Abarintli/
T. apparently
S. apparently you want a school with their cooseun /kuzir /
T. cousin
/sAn/
S. cousin Rashed, well, I'd better
to
me
sun
write
now,
...
T. soon
S. write to me soon, as I like getting letter from whome /homi/
T. home, from home
S.from home tell every one also to write to me as well, I'm looking forward to seeing you
/akabl/
and a coply of
T. a couple of marks
S. a couple of marks take care, Mohammed
T. ok.
focused
immediately
by
herself
the
teacher
student's errors
corrected
and
In these extracts, the
by
in
lines
five
T
the
correcting
exact
word
only
as
civilisation,
errors
the
pronunciation
on
134
fourteen T. letter, twenty one T

actually, twenty three T apparently, twenty four T cousin and
twenty six T soon. The teacher sometimes corrected the student's errors within clauses
or
phrases as in lines nine T going to all these places, twelve Ta couple of, seventeen T
standing next, nineteen T in front of the university, thirty T home, from home and thirty three
T. a couple of marks.
The following
extracts were taken from participant number 19 in school S who was a male
teacher with ten years' experience and who corrected second year students' oral errors with a
large smile on his face without commenting on students' errors. The number of the students
(eight
boys
fifteen
lesson
during
The
twenty
three
third
the
was
and
girls).
observation was
finished
in
forty
five.
The
ten
three
ten
which started at
o'clock and
at
students were sitting
(two
for
for
boys).
rows
girls and one
--4
body
language
S.
the
tolled
read
some
...
T. someone (with a smile)
S. poun punsters how you know whoever
T. however
--4
S.first of all as give tick as

T. take
S. (with smile) take a deep breath and you enter the room and to make you calmer sheek
hands
T. shake hands
S. shake shake hands (with a smile)
-*
S. juealary /jwailary/jewellery
T. jewellery
S.jewellery or belt as it makes you seem very narves /narvs/
T. nerves
S. obvious
T. obviously
S. obvious obvious
T. obviously
S. obviously
T. yes
during
to
reading
others
In these extracts the teacher's ways of error correction are similar
himself
for
by
his
or
peer
self-correction
He
without
waiting
students
corrects
activities.
135
correction. He seems to correct the pronunciation errors by correcting the exact word only as in
the extracts line two T someone, line four T. however, line six T take, line twelve T jewellery,
line fourteen T. nerves, and line sixteen T
obviously. The teacher also corrects the student's
grammar errors within phrases as in line nine T shake hands.
5.2.1.1. b Correcting
Errors within a Sentence as a Direct Correction
Some teachers corrected their students' errors by repeating the clause, or the phrase, in order to
emphasise the importance of words in a sentence, rather than words in isolation.
The following
from
taken
extract was
a female teacher, number 16 in school P, with twenty
seven years' experience. The number of the students was twenty six (twelve boys and fourteen
The
girls).
students were sitting in three (rows two for girls and one for boys), all of them were
in second year secondary. The observation was during the first lesson which started at half past
eight and finished at nine fifteen.
The teacher corrected the student's oral errors by repeating the whole sentence and produced
the correct form without pointing to the error. The teacher asked some questions in order to
initiate students' responses to these questions. The teacher asked Asma to participate but she
did not say anything.
-
T. Eighteen eighty three 1883, ok, question number c, what the connection between rachian
discrimination disability and urgencies? What is the connection, what relating them
together? What do they have in common? What is connecting them?
S. please teacher
T. yes Asma
S. (o
T. ahha yes
S. some group wanted to use eugenic to aliment disability and create certain races of
human beings then,
T. some group wanted to use eugenics tic to aliment disability and create certain races of
human beings then, they also wanted to rise disabilities disable people and those from
disability
is
to
the
to
answer
some people wanted
aliment
use eugenics
racial group, so
human
beings,
disabilities
to
they
and
also wanted
rise
and create certain races of
from
racial group.
those
136
From this extract, the teacher tried to involve

a shy student by calling her name using an
encouraging tone as in line five T. yes Asma and as in line seven when she said: T. ahha yes.
The students attempted to participate but she
committed some errors as in lines eight and nine.
However, the teacher did not interrupt the student
until she finished. Then the teacher corrected
the student's pronunciation
and grammatical errors by repeating the whole sentence without
pointing to the location and the type of an error as in lines, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen and
fourteen.
5.2.1.1.c Self-Correction
Some teachers from both genders gave a chance to the student who made the error to correct
him/herself. They did that in order to give the student the opportunity to think and rethink of
the correction. That also gave the student self-confidence if s/he did the correction. Selfis
(see
Lee, 2003).
the
technique
correction
most effective
The following
in
from
12
taken
school L with eleven
extracts were
male participant number
by
The
illustrate
in
the
teacher.
technique
to
used
a self-correction
years' experience
order
boys
All
(thirteen
thirteen
twenty
the
of them were
girls).
and
six
were
students was
number of
in second year and it was the fifth period which started at eleven thirty and finished at twelve
fifteen.
--4
S. how how however it is true that body is an important in the communication

T. of communication
S. confidently but it better to make your hand sheeke too handshake toofer, /fer/
T. too far
S. or it makes you think very nervous obviu obviously you your show showing chow ok
T. gum
S. he do not play with your jew jew jew jewelries
T. he don't
S. he doesn 't your you don 't play with your jew jew jewelers
T. ok don't play with your jewellery
in
line
herself
to
the
to
number one
as
student
correct
In this extract, the teacher gave a chance
line
in
how
how
however
`however'
S.
is
it
that...,
true
the
hesitated
to
word
read
the
student
when
herself
the
the
to
to
word
read
student
she
correct
when
a
chance
gave
teacher
three the
/fer/.
The
hand
handshake
better
but
it
toofer,
to
too
make your
sheeke
`handshake' S. confidently
137
same technique was repeated in lines five, seven and nine. This extract seemedto indicate that the
teacher focused on student's self-correction more than other techniques. In this extract the teacher
focused on pronunciation errors as in lines, four and six, and in grammar errors as in lines, two,
five, nine and eleven.
5.2.1.1. d Correcting
Students by Giving a Chance for Peer Correction
Some teachers gave students the chance to correct classmates' oral errors. This might engage
the whole class in the operation of error correction and encourage students to follow up what
in
during
2006).
(Lynch,
Gass
Mackey,
1996:
118;
the
was going on
class
and
oral activities
Students might feel happier about asking and checking each other rather than admitting errors
in front of the class (see Dairies et al., 2006: 90). This might also change the old traditional
following
is
does
The
that
teacher
the
the
the
one who
correction.
perception
extracts were
taken from the male participant number 19 in school S with ten years experience who corrected
face.
his
The
number of the students was
on
second year students' oral errors with a smile
fourth
lesson
during
The
four
boys
(eight
the
twenty
which
observation was
and sixteen girls).
in
The
finished
three
forty
five
rows
ten
sitting
were
students
o'clock.
at
eleven
and
started at
(two for girls and one for boys). The teacher was moving between the students' rows and
below:
corrected students' errors as
-*
S. don 't to look out of the weather

T. no this is not correct (pause) yes Ramia (Ramia wanted to correct)
S. smile try try try not to look out of the window
T. again
S. try not to look out of the window
look
the
the
look
to
try
ok
window,
the
out
of
T. very good, yes, try not to
not
window,
out of
--4
T. what is discovers?
S. (O)
discover
between
invent
difference
before
and
the
have
T. we
explained
other one space
Ss. (ekhteera-, invent)
-*
T. shampoo yes what else?

S. catch up
T. catch up
S. Kangroo
138
Ss. Kangaroo
T. Kangaro
S. lean a lange a langg

T. a language
S. a language without
Ss. without
S. as thinking as talking
Ss. talking
T. talking without talking
S. (laa tastatea talam alloga bedown tahadth--learn
't
language
the
ou can
without
talking)
T. thank you
These extracts show that the teacher gives chances to the students to correct each other instead
him
of
correcting them. For example, in extract number one, line two, the teacher comments on
grammar that the answer is not correct. He does not supply the student(s) with the answer and
waits for another student to give the answer. In extract number two line three, the teacher does
not give the answer when the student in line two does not answer. The teacher reminds the
students of the meaning of discover by comparing it with the word ìnvent' in order to help
students give the answer and he focuses on meaning of these words. After this the students give
the answer as they did in line five Ss. (ekhteera-* invent). The teacher's technique by giving
is
in
line
five
Ss.
the
three
students a chance of peer correction
also clear
extract number
Kangraroo
four
line
four
in
line
in
Ss.
Ss.
the
talking the
and
extract number
without and
six
teacher focuses on pronunciation.
5.2.1.2 Feedback
Feedback is one of the methods used by teachers as an indicator for students to pay attention
towards the activity that s/he has already done. It could be another chance for the learner to do
finished
(2006:
10)
has
Jackson
As
Johnson
he/she
the
the activity after
and
reported,
attempt.
feedback comes after student's actual performance and seems necessary for his/her language
improvement.
Feedback may take different
forms and expressions in the way a teacher
feedback
is
less
Lochtman
(2002:
274)
that
a
points out
comments on student's performance.
feedback
four
techniques (see also Lyster
direct way of error correction and
may encompass
2005; Rydahl 2005).
139
1.
Clarification requests such as `sorry' creates the

opportunity for students to clarify their
erroneous utterance by rephrasing or expanding;
2.
Metalinguistic feedback by which the teacher warns students,

using comments and
explicitly indicating that the error has occurred, such as `that is wrong', `no no', `not that';
without correcting the error;
3.
Invitation used to elicit the correct utterances from the student who committed the error, by
pausing to allow him/her to fill in the blank;
4. Repetitions, the teacher may repeat the student's error in isolation using rising intonation.
Oliver and Mackey (2003) mention that feedback can include clarification requests, recasts and
forms
other
of negotiation to clarify meaning. The teacher uses a clarification request to alert the
fact
to
the
that there was a problem with his/her utterance. The following were different
student
techniques of teachers' feedback observed by the researcher.
1- Using a recast technique,
2- Asking, questioning,
3- Repeating the student's answer,
4- Rejecting,
5- Encouraging, and
6- Praising.
5.2.1.2.a Correcting by Using a Recast Technique

From direct classroom observations, some teachers did not depend on direct correction
help
but
to
by
their
to
students correct
preferred
technique
students,
giving the correction
(1999),
Rydahl
Spada
(1996),
Lightbown
Lynch
Some
and
and
themselves.
researchers such as
(2005) consider recast as a form of feedback because the teacher does not give the correction
form.
but
him/herself,
by
s/he reformulates a student's
of errors
The following
C
in
from
3
twenty
the
teacher
taken
with
school
male
number
were
extracts
between
The
teacher
students' rows and encouraged them
four years' experience.
was moving
four
boys.
The
thirteen;
number of students was
nine girls and
to participate in the activities.
during
lesson
the
the
third
observation
was
which started at
in
the second year and
They were
forty-five.
in
but
The
they
ten
finished
students
were
were
not
sitting
rows
at
ten o'clock and
140
sitting in a semi-circle with girls were sitting in the front while boys
were sitting behind the
girls.
-4
S. I tray to
T. I
S. tray
T. try
S. try
T. yes
-4
T. yes you
S. you can not as
T. you
S. you can aaa not as
T. You can 't
S. you can't aaa
From these extracts the teacher tries to help students by facilitating them to correct the error.
For example, in line number one the student makes an error when the female student says; I
tray to. The teacher corrects the student by using the recast technique and lets the student
herself
but when she does not get the correct form, the teacher gives the correction of
correct
the error. From these extracts the teacher seems to correct the student's pronunciation errors as
in extract number one line four and pronunciation and grammar errors as in extract number two
line five.
5.2.1.2. b Asking Questions

With regard to the observations, some teachers asked questions of students who committed
had
It
they
the
to
think
to
them
said.
was a questioning
of
word(s) or a phrase
errors
allow
technique used by teachers in order to give the student a chance to recheck his/performance,
(see
2005:
5).
Rydahl,
listening
teacher's
the
to
than
correction
rather
The following
from
in
8
H
taken
male
participant
number
school
with seven
extracts were
blackboard,
facing
he
the
The
the
was
standing
near
class,
while
participant
experience.
year's
it.
He
which
was
written
on
the
corrected
second
oral
to
year
students'
sentence
was pointing
face.
The
fourteen
(five
boys
his
the
number
of
students
was
and
nine
on
smile
a
with
errors
141
irls).
The observation was during the
g
lesson
finished
seventh
thirty
which
started
11
at one
and
at
two fifteen. The students were sitting in two rows (one for girls
for
boys).
and one
-*
T. now show me where is main verb in this

(wheen
sentence
elfail elfee eljomla)
S. has
T. what?
S. explain
T. explain, ok. We have to change the sentence into the present perfect only.
--4
S. the teacher have

T. the teacher
S. have
T. have what?
S. have explained
T. the teacher have explained, the teacher have aaa, but what the word teacher
Ss. has
T. the teacher, the teacher has explained.
takes?
From the extracts, the teacher uses question words such as what as in the extract number one
lines one and three and in extract two lines four and six in order to help the student to become
involved in the activity and give the correct answer.
5.2.1.2. c Repeating the Student's Answer

Classroom observations had shown that some teachers repeated the student's answers to
indicate
had
there
to
that
the
that
was an error
correct,
or
said
was
student
emphasise
what
(Lynch, 1996: 117-18). The following extracts were taken from a male participant 9 in school I
boys
(thirteen
The
two
four
thirty
the
students was
number of
years' experience.
with twenty
lesson
first
during
thirty
The
the
and
at
eight
started
which
observation was
and nineteen girls).
finished at nine fifteen. The students were sitting in three rows (two for girls and one for boys).
All the students were in the second year.
T. yes
S. number two some people are afraid of plying
T. some people are afraid of
S. playing
-*
S. Some people are are afraid of tiger

T. of
(asad
Ss. Tiger tiger tiger
---tiger)
142
T. some people
S. (elfal--- a verb)
T. some people
S. some people afraid of tiger
T. afraid of
S. tiger
T. tiger
S. I mean is it suitable or not
From the extracts, the teacher corrects a student's errors by repeating what the student says
he
until
reaches the error as in extract number one line three, T. some people are afraid of or by
repeating part of a sentence such as extract two lines four and six. From these extracts the
teacher focuses on word meaning as in line three and four in extract one and lines two, three,
six, seven and eight.
5.2.1.2.d Rejecting (No)

During classroom observation, the researcher observed that some teachers used rejection words
disagreement
feedback
(Gass
2006:
It
Mackey,
7).
to
their
their
or gestures
show
and
within
female
by
This
teachers.
the
that
techniques
new
was one of
were clearly observed and used
technique indicates that the teacher's feedback is strongly negative towards the student's
This
technique
performance, which might minimise students' self-confidence and self-regard.
do
(Daines
foolish
feel
frustrate
to
that
they
them
et
well
were unable
students and make
might
103,176).
2006:
al.,
Most of the time a student does not attempt to correct his/her errors after
this feedback.
The following
in
N
14
female
from
two
taken
school
with
number
participant
extracts were
boys).
The
(eleven
The
the
girls and seven
students was eighteen
number of
years' experience.
for
boys).
The
for
(two
in
three
participant was
girls and one
rows
rows
left
boys
She
looking
the
in
front
whispering and
girls.
at
of the girls' row and was
standing
during
fifth
lesson
twelve
The
the
at
started
which
was
observation
smiling at each other.
in
forty
five
the
finished
twelve
second
year.
and
all
students
were
at
o'clock and
beautiful
for
in
the
long
comparative
example
T. yes,
adjective,
FS. the beautiful
143
T. no, more beautiful

--
T. S.Ok, danger, who can

answer? Yesyou
FS. dangerer
T. no, who else
dangers
more
T. more dangers, ok
T. fast who can answer?
FS. foster
T. not foster, it is faster, yes ok, happy, yes you
S. happy
T. no, change `y' to ì' and add èr'. Ok it becomes happier, hard
S. hard
T. no, harder add, èr'
T. yes children, child in the plural children, okperson you please, what is the
a person?
FS. people
T. no, it means one person not many
meaning of
The teacher rejects the student's answer when she commits an error by saying `no' as in extract
line
beautiful,
T
in
line
T
three
two
three
number one
extract
no, more
no, who else, in extract
line
foster,
faster,
T
happy,
line
five
T.
it
is
three
three,
number
not
yes ok,
yes you,
no, change
`y' to ì' and add èr'. Ok it becomes happier, hard and line seven T no, harder add, èr'. In
four
female
by
in
line
four
`no'
T no,
teacher
the
the
extract number
student
saying
as
rejected
it means one person not many. From the above extracts, the teacher focuses on correcting
in
lines
five,
in
line
in
two
three
three
extract
and
extract
and
grammar errors as
extract one
three lines five and seven. She also emphasises the word meaning as in extract five line one.
However, this technique was also used by a female teacher number 16 in school P with twenty
in
half
first
lesson
It
the
past eight
which started at
seven years' experience with students. was
boys
fourteen
All
(twelve
the
twenty
the
class was
and
girls).
the morning and
six
number of
(who
bright
in
the
teacher
participated
corrected
students
the students were
second year and
differently
by
for
is
"no
in
that
the
activities)
saying
example,
not
correct
oral
than
others
more
is"
form
the correction.
form, the correct
and
she
gave
...
144
---
T. First what kind of words is it?

S. please teacher
T. yes
S. a noun
T. very good, it is a noun, what does it
mean?
S. treating people differently because colour
of their skin
T. treating people differently because colour
of their skin, no that is discrimination, racism
is a noun the idea that there is a connection between personal feeling
or character and the
belongs
to
person
From this extract, the teacher focuses on word meaning as well as
on grammar structure. For
example, line one T. First, what kind of word is it? Line five T. very good, it is a noun, what
does it mean?
5.2.1.2.e Encouraging
Some participants encouraged their students to participate in oral communication activities.
They used that technique in order to keep even their shy students trying and practising the
language rather than sitting listening (see Hulterstrom, 2005: 1; Gottlieb, 2006: 139; Daines et
2006:
99).
by
This
the researcher during classroom observations of the
al.,
was observed
following
The
participants.
extracts were taken from male participant number 3 in school C
four
twenty
with
years' experience. The number of students was thirteen; nine girls and four
boys and they were in the second year. The observation was during the third lesson which
forty-five.
in
but
finished
The
ten
ten
students were not sitting
rows
at
started at
o'clock and
they were sitting in a semi-circle with the girls in the front while boys were sitting behind the
his
face
broad
both
in
front
The
the
teacher
smile on
using
class with a
of
girls.
was moving
hands as indicators of involvement in the activity.
T. who can give us an other example hummh another student hummh
S. yes please teacher
T. where are the rest? Hummh
S. yes please teacher
T. Mabrouka hummh yes you can try try
-*
(pause)
Who
try
hummh
can
T.
another students.
S. me
(encouraging
tone)
Aisha
T. yes
145
S. playing football
T. go, go playing (the teacher
smiled and nodded with his headed)
S.football
T. playing football for example playing football is
a good
In these extracts the teacher encourages the
student by uttering words of encouragement as in
extract number one T. Mabrouka hummh (with encouraging tone) yes, you can try, try and in
the extract number two line three T yes Aisha, the teacher's tone shows encouragement.
However, using gestures are other indicators to show encouragement
in
as extract two line five
T go, go playing (the teacher smiled and nodded with his head). Encouragement techniques
are words, intonation, and gestures used to help students attempt to answer or correct errors.
They are used to build the student's confidence in what s/he says. However, the teacher focuses
on the student's participation and on meaning as in line seven.
5.2.1.2.f Praising
This technique was widely observed during visits to the participants. Praising was a technique
by which teachers showed their satisfaction and happiness towards student's performance in
language.
is
feedback
Praising
by
the teacher and takes the shape of thank
using
part of
used
you, good, excellent, all right, and well done. Students were proud when were praised by their
teachers after they had participated in an activity (Daines et al., 2006: 100; Child, 2004: 64).
The following
from
in
8
taken
extracts were
school H with seven
years' experience. The teacher was teaching the second year students and their number was
fourteen (five boys and nine girls). The observation was during the fourth lesson which started
illustrate
following
forty
five
finished
The
taken
to
that:
thirty.
ten
extract was
at
at eleven
and
S. I have a
T. yes
S. I have a
T. yes
S. when as
T. I have wait
S. wait
T. I have to wait. Good than you.
146
The following
extracts were taken from the male participant number 19 in school S with ten
years' experience. The number of the students was twenty four (eight boys and sixteen girls).
The observation was during the fourth lesson
which started at ten forty-five and finished at
eleven thirty. The students were sitting in three rows (two for girls and one for boys). The
teacher was moving between the students' rows and praised the students who participated in
the activities as below:
S. she is worried about her body language
T. yes very good, yes she is worried about her body language
S. try to smile
T. try to smile, all right, very good, yes, yes
In these extracts the teacher praises the student by saying for example: yes, very good, all right
in order to encourage him to continue the activity.
5.2.1.2.g Facilitating
Many researchers prefer oral error feedback believing it is better than giving correction directly
(Oliver and Mackey, 2003; Lochtman, 2002). Facilitating is a technique used by a teacher to
help students to self-correct, rather than the teacher correcting, because FL teachers are
how
language
by
teaching
their
to
themselves
concerned with
students
communicate and use
outside the class (see Lochtman, 2002: 272). The following
from
female
taken
extracts were
teacher number 16 in school P with twenty seven years' experience. The teacher explained the
in
it
tried
to
times
put
simple words, then, when she corrected students'
questions many
and
The
did
the
those
teacher
student who
standing
near
errors.
was
out
errors, she
point
not
hands
both
to clarify the meaning
talking
the
to
the
whole class using
committed
error and was
fourteen
(twelve
boys
The
The
the
twenty
girls).
students was
and
six
number of
of words.
for
for
boys,
in
in
three
two
them
rows
girls
second
and one
all of
were
during
first
lesson
half
The
the
observation was
past eight
which started at
year of secondary.
fifteen.
finished
at nine
and
-01
for?
does
Which
damaged
it
lab,
the
aim
can
replace
T. in the
one; which can
what
damaged, ok question number F, why is it sometimes criticized today?
the
replace
S. please teacher
147
T. aha, why is it sometimescriticized today?

S. please teacher
T. why do you think? Why do you think it is criticized today? Why it is still not
acceptable?
S. please teacher
T. Yes Wedad
S. they are afraid the next stage they will be to create full human being
T. because they are afraid of the next stage that they will be to create full a complete
human being, ok.
From this extract the teacher seems to help the student continue speaking by asking related
facilitate
to
the student's answer as in lines one, two, four and six. In this extract the
questions
teacher focuses on meaning and grammar as seen in lines eleven and twelve.
With regard to the classroom observations, participants vary in their way of correcting their
it
is
because
Some
depend
direct
them
of
still
on
is
following
it
is
The
the
time
extracts were
quicker;
saves
and easy when
classroom
crowded.
taken from male teacher number 19 in school S with ten years' experience. The number of the
during
fifteen
(eight
boys
The
the third
twenty
three
observation was
and
girls).
students was
lesson which started at ten o'clock and finished at ten forty five. The students were sitting in
three rows (two for girls and one for boys) and all of them were in second year.
S. polsion /pooljln/
T. pollution
S. polation /poolyln/
T. pollution
S. pollution has been aaa inin in
T. increasing
S. increasing as singaa indra indrl(student
T. industrial revolution
hesitates)
S. the camel was domesticated about four throwzen year ago

T. four thousand years ago
domen
letter
is
animal
S.four thousand years ago which
most others
T. domestic animals
hummh
yes
S. domestic animal
for
directly
the
teacher
the
correction
self
waiting
corrects
student
without
From these extracts,
if
it
is
in
technique
number
one,
as
recasting
extract
which
appears
as
or peer correction,
148
particularly
pronunciation
in line six and seven (see subsection 5.2.1.2. a), line two by correcting the
of the word `pollution'.
In the extract number two, lines two and four, the
teacher seems to correct the student's pronunciation and grammar by reminding the student not
to add `s' in the word `year' as in T. four thousand years ago and the `s' is added in the word
ànimals' as in T. domestic animals. The teacher focuses on errors directly without waiting for
self correction or peer correction.
The teachers who participated in this research appeared to seek direct error correction and
avoid negotiation with students, which may lead them to expose some issues that the teacher
has
been
both
It
during
that
teachers
cannot answer.
of
gender,
clearly seen
reading activities
less
from
both
direct
Teachers
especially
experienced ones, use
sexes seem to rely
correction.
mainly
on metalinguistic
feedback because they emphasise correcting
form more than
focus
be
by
final
influenced
This
the
that
teachers
on
exams which
suggests
meaning.
may
both
from
(see
H).
Teachers
Appendix
sexes are
written grammatical and structural patterns
female
but
direct
immediate
in
teachers are more patient and calm
correction
using
similar
during oral correction, by giving boys a chance and time to think of error correction. They also
boys
their
when they try to correct errors.
smile and praise
There is another difference between males and females in the kind of correction techniques or
feedback. Observations have shown that male teachers use a wider range of techniques and
blackboard
drawing
the
female
teachers
or
on
such as
methods of error correction than
Male
intonation
teachers
bringing illustrated charts where the stress or the
were emphasised.
forms
This
forms
in
tenses.
illustrate
of
or
plural
to
elements
grammar
used coloured marks
for
look
have
to
time
fact
teachers
various
the
more
that
be
due
may
the
male
to
culturally
may
do
lot
have
latter
fact
to
due
females
the
that
to
the
after
a
than
correction
error
methods of oral
(see
3.3.5),
home
families,
for
doing
housework,
their
at
staying
hours,
caring
as
such
school
(women)
female
in
Libyan
free.
It
teachers
the
not
that
are
society
seems
are
while most males
If
husband's
father's
libraries
travel
to
permission.
without
or
to
or
public
to
go
allowed
if
they
house
them
as
the
permission,
respect
without
people
not
alone
will
outside
women go
in
Libyan
(see
Libyan
the
to
three
culture
gender
chapter
have done something contrary
81-82).
context pages
149
Through observations, male teachers pay more attention, and seemed to be more patient with
in
for
following
boys
their
the
than
they
girls,
reasons: a. the girls
ways of correction,
are with
in these groups were more sensitive than the boys as it was observed that their faces reddened
in
b.
felt
boys
have
the
these
this
to
they
girls
reaction,
embarrassed, while
seemed not
and
harder
boys,
than
to
c. girls asked their teachers more questions than
groups appeared
work
boys if they were corrected in front of others, d. boys in these groups appeared not to comment
it
83)
Georg
1999:
in
Gaine
(1994
As
Acker
and
cited
about their teachers ways of correction.
less
less
less
hardworking,
his
boys
in
to
concentrate and
able
sample,
were
appeared that,
discipline
than girls.
to
to
submit
willing
In addition, through classroom observations, male teachers seemed to use more gestures and
inside
they
when
especially
the
errors,
oral
students'
correct
when
classroom
movements
active
female
issues,
teachers
for
blackboard
while
the
to
some
they needed
clarification of
use
female
Sometimes,
teachers
teachers.
facial
than
their
to
male
expression more
use
seemed
did
They
behaved
to
their
formal
smile
be
not
students.
respect
more
to
with
and
more
seemed
is
mixed.
the
or/
students
male
of
only
class
consists
when
especially
or praise classes as much,
Female teachers behaved and acted differently
when they corrected classes of girls only.
did
lenient
in
less
less
tone
be
not
and more serious, and
Female teachers seemed to
patient,
female.
the
class
was
whole
errors
when
oral
to
time
students'
correcting
give enough
The observations showed that female teachers corrected male students with patience, softness,
do
female
indicate
This
teachers
that
boys
than
girls.
may
lenient
more
tone,
praised
and
and a
have
because
considered
may
male
students
deal
misbehaviour
like
to
with male students'
not
in
They
tried
to
female
students
male
teachers.
with
avoid
contact
the
to
themselves superiors
(see
5.4.2.1
disruptive
an example
students
subsection
front of the whole class, especially with
of teachers' extracts).
Interviews
Semi-Structured
5.2.2
In
teacher
interview
were
every
varied.
other
words,
responses
The teachers' semi-structured
inside
the
how
the
acted
to
about
s/he
classroom
and
spoke
according
responded
and
expressed
indicate
in
did
have
does
that
the
teachers
This
anything
not
not
techniques s/he normally used.
150
common, as there was also some similarity or integration in some responses.The following is
the analysis of semi-structured observations in order to find out whether there are differences
between male and female teachers in their way of correcting their students' oral errors (see
subsection 1.4).
The first step in each interview analysis was coding and categorising data by naming the key
ideas and words. This technique was adopted in order to help me classify the data under large
themes. This helped me to arrange data in a way to answer each question. All the themes were
from
data.
have
I
the
emerged
raw
coded and labelled the semi-structured interviews data as
below:
summarised
1. The themes which emerged for question number 1: steps and techniques of direct correction
feedback,
be
time
types
to
and
of correction, who corrected students' errors,
of errors
corrected.
2. The themes which emerged for question number 2: who corrects students' errors, time of
be
to
to
types
corrected.
of errors
errors,
correction, attitude
3. The themes which emerged for question number 3: teacher and gender in error correction,
here
From
towards
students' errors.
correction and students' participation, participants' views
issues.
themes
the
and
the
above
subheadings will reflect
on,
With
regard to semi-structured
interviews,
all teachers were concerned with
oral error
(see
Moss,
in
they
different
the
but
why
corrected students' errors
they were
reasons
correction
2000). Some teachers believed that errors and error correction were natural processes in
learning and teaching programmes, and postponed error correction, while others believed
did
in
let
They
the
immediately.
to
the
be
correction
order
student
corrected
should
errors
in
form
i.
the
the
form
teachers
the
wanted
activity,
e.
correct grammar
know a correct
of what
if
it
is
(British
a pronunciation exercise
if it is a grammar exercise, correct pronunciation
it.
job
do
their
they
was
a
part of
and
should
English). Teachers thought that error correction
different
from
teachers
taken
as examples, to reflect teachers'
Below are extracts which were
correction:
error
and
towards
errors
attitudes
he
that
experience,
H,
years'
pointed
out
was concerned
a male with seven
Teacher 8 in school
improving
language.
The
it
because
of
teacher
way
students'
a
was
was
with error correction
].51
teaching the second year students and their number was fourteen (five boys and nine girls). The
following extract was taken to illustrate that:
Q. ok, that's good, lets move to question number three, please tell me whether you are
concerned with oral error correction or not?
T. sure I'm interested in the correction of the errors
Q. why?
T. I think its important to the students to improve their language, to understand some
things
Teacher 7 in school G, a female teacher with four years' experience, was concerned with error
because
it
her
correction
showed
students' problems. The teacher was teaching second year
her
following
(ten
boys
The
the
twenty
two
twelve
and
number of
students was
and
girls).
from
taken
the interview which took place at her school to illustrate that:
extract was
Q. Could you please tell me whether you are concerned with oral errors correction or
not?
T. the correction of the oral errors
Q. yes
T. of course yes.
Q. why?
T. the pronunciation for the student is something that the teacher should pay attention
lose
because
it
their meanings if they
to and correct
some pronunciation words
for
look
I
For
two
the
incorrect.
words
which
give
same
example
pronounce
I
its
is
the
the
same,
mean
each
own
also
one
gives
pronunciation
meaning and
lets
is
but
this
the
to
if
the
same,
which
you
pay
attention
pronunciation
meaning,
he
had
him
let
in
that
to
try
understand
made
a
mistake
the
student and
correct
him
let
the
right pronunciation.
understand
pronunciation, you
Teacher 14 in school N, a female with two years' experience who was teaching eighteen
lasted
interview
the
took
The
at
place
school
and
one
approximately
students.
second year
hour. The teacher preferred to speak in Arabic and pointed out that as she was a teacher, it was
for
following
the
the
errors
sake
of accuracy and
compulsory to correct all students' oral
following
The
is
with
error
teacher
correction.
concerned
illustrates
the
extract
was
why
extract
illustrate
that:
interview
to
from
the
taken
Q. Could you please tell me whether you are concerned with oral error correction
JA
V
-t-
L
not?
T. sLln-&'P
152
or
[all errors]
Q, Il..a1
,i
T.
[yes, why?]
s-I
-9A
01
l
bzLi.
I Ss,
.,
11
yv
g1,, yLl
3 jV 41c
jp,
.,
JS
4
tali
JA
;I a-;1 4<.: 1A1aa1j 4I
[Anyone who speaksEnglish language and he does not know the pronunciation of a word
he
different
As
to
that
accurately
may give
meaning
word.
a teacher it is compulsory to
correct students' errors].
The teachers' responses show that there are differences in the aim of error correction between
participants'
gender. For example, these male participants consider error correction as a
important
in
learning
language,
female
natural,
step
participants consider it as a
while some
compulsory
duty for every teacher. Others, (females), use correction because it prevents
students committing the same errors again. They also believe that error correction is evidence
of how the teacher has explained the lesson. In other words, female teachers think if students
feel
in
be
that
the
too
the
teachers
commit
many errors
a new activity, one of
reasons could
their explanation was not enough or satisfactory and that is why the teachers continue
explaining the activity and correcting the students.
The semi-structured
interviews
female
that
some
participants
also showed
emphasised
had
job.
had
They
the
their
the
own
ones
who
as
were
correction
error
accuracy and considered
following
The
authority to correct oral errors.
from
female
taken
the
extract was
participant
had
K
The
in
two
teacher
She
interview.
11's
and
years'
experience.
was
school
was
number
(eight
boys
the
was
nineteen
and eleven girls).
teaching second year and
number of students
The interview took an hour at the school.
--4
Q. who corrects your students' oral errors?

T. I correct it
Q. you
T. yes
Q. by yourself
T. yes
do
do
by
.
Why
the
do
you
correction
it in this way?
yourse
Q. why do you
be
I'll
the
in
one who corrects to them
the
I
so
because
them
class
T.
teach
153
5.2.2.1 Steps and Techniques of Direct Correction and Feedback

Participants'
responses differed in the semi-structured interviews related to the steps and
techniques that they used when their students committed errors. Participants' responses showed
that most of them divided their correction form into two parts; error correction during reading
activities
during
and error correction
speaking or interacting with other student(s) or the
teacher. Most female participants seemed to use more structured systems when the student
committed an error; they stopped the student who committed an error and asked him/her to
if
down,
him/her
let
listen
to
stand up
s/he was sitting
asked
and
another student correct the
is
Where
from
is
this
error.
systematic approach comes
worth exploring and one of the avenues
for further research recommended by this study. The following
from
taken
extracts were
female teacher number 10 in school J with six years' experience. She was teaching second year
interview
The
in
(ten
boys
took an
twenty
and eleven girls).
one
number
students who were
hour at the school.
Q. what is step number one then?

T. first of all I tell him/her to listen, I ask more than one student to stand, for example in
let
him
he
I
he
he
is
he
to
in
if
the
say
plays,
supposed
present
play
says
grammar,
him
by
to
tell
I
that
to
student
go and stand
stand a side, and ask another student
failed
Then
if
in
to
they
it
in
is
tense?
is
answer,
why?
the
a
rule?
and
a
wrong
where
I correct it.
She also added,
failed
I
if
to
than
try
they
I
is
it
clarify
to
one
student,
more
up
stand
the way which use
it
last
I
failed
if
will correct myself.
at
the answer they
if
follows
teacher
some
steps a student commits an error when
This extract indicates that the
The
the
that
rules.
to
participant
extract
reveals
grammatical
related
s/he answers a question
him/her
letting
to
by
go
stand
aside
student
and
ask
another
the
tried to punish
student politely
does not indicate that all female participants act
This
him/her.
to the same student and correct
but most female participants corrected their
in
this
way,
in the same way and punish students
for
first
but
felt
if
the
the
time,
error
occurred
angry
punishment
of
students without any sign
had
been
before.
The
times
which
corrected
many
occurred
error
an
when
the
annoyed
and
by
between
the
the
their
using
comparison
corrected
error
their
of
informed
students
teachers
following
female
from
The
taken
the
before
extracts,
which
form
were
correction.
the
form and
154
semi-structured interviews,
may explain this. These examples were taken from participant
number 13 in school M who was a female teacher with two years' experience. The teacher was
teaching twenty second year students (ten boys and ten girls). The interview took an hour at the
school.
Q. what steps do you take when your students commit oral errors?
T. no punishment
Q. ok then, what are the steps you follow?
T. the student will say the wrong word, and then I give the correct pronunciation.
For example, if the student pronounces the word read /read/ as /rad/, I tell him it is
/read/ as /rad/, that is how I do it I do not punish the student.
-
T. yes Ian annoyed if I give them [students] something and they don't understand it
Q. ok, which errors exactly annoy you?
T. the wrong pronunciation as grammar as
Q. good, there are some words which the student says incorrect annoyed you and
do
Or
some errors
not?
all errors that the student commits annoy you?
T. in pronunciation even me I have some words which I pronoun them wrongly
In pronunciation, most female participants asked the student who committed the error to repeat
if
if
him/her
they
the
the whole sentence again and asked
noticed
error or not;
not, the teacher
indicates
female
This
that
teachers
to
the
gave
a
chance
error.
or another student will correct
form
is
know
This
that
the
they
correct
to
or
not.
also
evidence
whether
confirm
male students
females tend to be tireless and patient with students who commit errors. The following extract
10
in
J
She
interviewee
female
from
school
with
six
experience.
the
years'
number
was taken
(ten
boys
interview
The
took
and
eleven
girls).
students
twenty
year
teaching
one second
was
an hour at the school.
Q. So what steps do you take when your students commit an oral error?
I
it
him
to
the
I
then
to
again
first
say
same sentence again
ask
say
T. the
thing that ask
him have you noticed anything unusual with your sentence? Have you noticed
I
it
is
I
he
think
the
If
completely
right
ask
other
student
no
said
wrong?
anything
do
What
his
If
think
his
talk?
they
the
do
you
of
noticed
think
sentence.
of
you
what
it
I
to
them
correct
ask
mistake
Q. ommhm
I
it
to
them
them
to
and
I
do
the
correct
and
them
ask
mistake
give
T. if they
not show
together
them
correct
and
example
another
155
From the data collected via semi-structured interviews,
it would appear that most male
participants used different correction techniques during reading and speaking; for example, in
the speaking activity, teacher number 2 in school B with four years' experience was teaching
twenty two students (thirteen boys and nine girls) in the second year and responded to the
below:
question as
-
Q. what steps do you take when your students commit an oral error?
-*
T. First of all I focus on the wrong word when the student says it wrongly,
The teacher focuses on the error as the first step. The second step the teacher lets the student
finishes the sentence,and then he gives the student a chanceto correct him/herself
--)I
T. give him (a student) a chance to support him to reach the right answer.
In reading activities, the same participant number 2 school B stated,
--4
finishing
immediately,
best
is
the
T. the
not after
mistake
correcting
way
the
I
the
student made straight away
which
error
paragraph ... correct
the second
Becausehe believed,
during
focus
I
on
reading correct the errors as soon as
T. the most important thing which
the student commits it.
follow
to
different
techniques
according
some
steps
and
This indicates that male teachers use
the aim of the activity.
Arabic
female
to
interviews,
students'
participants
correct
used
most
From the semi-structured
of
most
utterances,
while
male
participants,
in
pronunciation
or
grammar
oral errors, especially
Arabic.
Female
to
than
teachers
English
in
rather
seemed
the time, corrected students' errors
helps
the
the
to
language
students
and
remember
understand
Arabic
believe that using the
the
to
form
especially
when
error
related
grammar
was
sentence,
a
of
difficulties or the correct
for
to
time
the
students
save
and
offers
opportunity
opportunity
an
creates
technique
This
rules.
156
to comprehend the correct meaning of grammar explanation approaches. Use of the Arabic
language as one of the error correction steps or techniques confirms the teachers' ideas that the
students understood the correct meaning of new words, particularly when those were abstract
words, and the level of students is not up to the standard of understanding in the target
language only.
The following
from
interviews
taken
the
extracts were
semi-structured
females
of
as an
five
in
illustrate
6
F
Teacher
to
the
example
number
school
with
above mentioned results.
in
boys
(eight
the second
teaching
ten
girls)
and
eighteen students
years' experience who was
interview
hour
in
the
pointed out:
year and spent about an
T. sometimes when I ask students about something they do not know I use Arabic
language and I encourage them to express themselves or to answer in Arabic
language. My aim is just to let them participate and to be sure they learnt the correct
I
is
this
For
the
of
what
meaning
ask
students
sometimes,
example
meaning.
Arabic.
into
Say
Arabic,
I
the
in
to
translate
sentence
ask a student
sentence?
Q. ok but do you use Arabic in error correction?
T. (laughed) I mean in sometimes when they do not produce the correct form and after I
Arabic
better
it
this
this
it
is
to
way
way
not
say
use
repeated
learners'
tongue
to
pronunciation
In some cases, teachers tend to use their mother
correct
four
in
T
female
20
from
teacher
following
taken
with
The
school
number
were
extracts
errors.
in
(ten
boys
twelve
two
twenty
The
teaching
girls)
and
teacher
students
was
years' experience.
hour
interview
the
The
took
about
at
school.
one
the second year of secondary.
language
because
in
important
when pronouncing a
T. The pronunciation is the most
it
meaning.
another
incorrectly
you
give
may
word
l
1511
i11
lyo
ax.
jy
k,
Could you give us an example?
Q. J JU
Yes there is
T. '
,
Thin and think and thank you
by
Arabic
in
the
showing
sound
T. ci s !i /th/I clarify the pronunciation
4J
Tank with Al not /th/ t4-)
What tan
Q.
Do you use transcription
157
T. yes
another example, I may explain that the sound /th, / in [three] is different from the
/t/
in [tree] by comparing the first sound of the Arabic word thamra fruit/ with
sound
first sound in the Arabic word tamr [dates].
Q.ah
T. I show them the place of articulation

X11
Lfi -
Q.
T
T.
ok
Ir-
1Icorrect the error and then show them how I produce it

by explaining it in Arabic sounds.
back
these
the
produce
words
at
of the tongue
csiYou
L
th
l i11v1...
91
ul..l
UL
..
Mth
(g]ziil
But the male teacher number 19 in school S with ten years' experience who was teaching
second year students and their number was twenty four (eight boys and sixteen girls), pointed
out:
-
T. I try to encourage students to use English language so that they are supported in
thinking and communicating in English even if they commit errors.
Based on my observations and interviews, using Arabic while teaching English is a frequent
female
by
Libyan
teachers.
approach applied

During the semi-structured interviews, male and female participants did not explain clear
differences in the timing of error correction techniques. Most teachers of both sexes claimed
that immediate error correction was effective and a more successful technique than postponing
kind
time
to
the
the
Most
of
error
correction
of oral activity.
participants related
correction.
They mentioned that errors committed by a student during a reading activity were corrected on
did
the
teacher
In
reading
a
story
or a paragraph,
not
the spot.
other words, when a student was
but
directly.
the
took
finished
paragraph,
the
correction
place
story or
wait until the student
did
that
the
they
reported
during
not
correct
unless
participants
However,
oral communication,
did
like
interrupt
because
they
to
the
not
the
student's
stream
of
sentence,
student completes
female
from
in
five
6
F
teacher
taken
following
number
school with
extract was
thought. The
(eight
boys
in
She
ten
the
teaching
students
eighteen
and
girls)
second
was
years' experience.
hour
the
interview
took
at
an
school
about
and
she
stated:
The
teacher's
year.
158
-*
T. when the student is reading

a passage I correct him/her immediately but when they
answer I correct the error after he or shefinishes.
Shejustified that by saying

T. when one student reads the rest of students
listening
to him/her carefully but when
are
there are questions in the book, students do not pay attention to the correction because
they were preparing themselves for the following question to answer and he or she is
afraid to be asked to give an answer. When the student answers and commits an error I
correct him at the end of the sentence but when he reads I correct him immediately.
Whereas male teacher number 9 in school I with twenty years' experience was teaching thirty
two students (thirteen boys and nineteen girls) in the secondyear secondary indicated:
T. yes I am trying to correct the error at the end of the sentence I do not try to stop the
because
him
I
have
done
I
I
if
if
student
stop
suddenly as
something wrong, think the
feels
student
shy and embarrassed in front of the class. The student also becomes angry
because
have
him
I
with me,
stopped
suddenly which is as an indicator that the student
has made an error.
These extracts from teachers show that there is a difference in the time of error correction. This
from
For
the
the
type
the
teacher
to
activities.
and
aim
of
one
another regarding
varies
in
6
F
teacher
school with six years' experience points out that she corrects
example,
number
the error immediately during reading a text while teacher number 9 school I with twenty years'
he
that
corrects students' errors at the end of the sentence to avoid
experience mentions
interrupting students.

Regarding the questions related to this issue, most participants explained that they adopted the
in
However,
during
the
on
technique
classroom.
errors
teacher
oral
correction
most essential
it
in
interested
be
this
technique
to
female
hand,
and was
more
the one
participants seemed
females
indicate
This
that
than
them
may
participants.
male
among
among
used
more widely
believe
delay.
They
that
may
the
error correction straight away without any
wanted to produce
decreasing
increase
incorrect
be
than
the
by
rather
and
problem
might
students
other
attempts
help
feedback
is
learner-learner
"...
118)
that
there
will
no guarantee
said,
it. As Lynch (1996:
have
The
have
between
they
they
the
said".
said
and
should
what
what
gap
to
learner
notice
the
159
direct error correction
technique used by female teachers showed their concentration on
accuracy and that they preferred their students to be given the correct form directly from them.
It is also an indicator to save time and avoid any sensitivity among students, in which active
students sometimes dominate in most error correction, and tend to think they are better than
others. On the other hand, most of the male participants in the semi-structured interviews
preferred to give chances to students to correct themselves; `self correction'
or a student
corrects another student; `peer correction'. This indicates that male participants gave enough
time to a student to rethink what s/he produced and gave the rest of the students a chance to
help their classmate to find the correct answer. It may build a bridge of cooperation among
students to correct each other's errors without depending on their teacher.
The following
extracts were taken from male teacher number 9 in school I with twenty years'
illustrate
to
what was mentioned above.
experience
T. at first, when a student commits an error in oral activities I give him/her a chance to
if
him/herself.
If
I
the
the
to
to
then
try
error
correct
student
ask
another
not
correct
...
I
failed
it
that
to
myself.
correct
error
correct
other student or students
He added:
-)I
by
themselves,
their
force
to
time
T. I think if you
to
take
them
errors
correct
or you allow
have
They
how
learn
their
to correct
an
will
errors.
they will
and understand
but
I
if
these
errors
correct
they
correction,
error
will
understand
and
experience
directly by myself and without letting students participate, they will not understand
do
to
because
to
This
correction.
is
error
get
effort
any
show
not
students
anything.
teaching
N
in
two
14
was
experience
female
years'
While the
with
teacher number
school
her
interviewed
She
in
at
boys
(seven
was
year.
second
girls)
eleven
and
eighteen students
hour
for
and said:
an
school
---)I
is
I
the
Lil
(.,,
the
teacher
ill
YL
teacher,
y
1/
4UJ
a
am
as
vlj
Aj
c.
ys
C2-a,
--chis/her
I
if
to
because
correct
student
ask
a
sometimes
errors
one who should correct
form
of
such
he/she
afraid
we
are
the
so
correct
and
exact
not
give
may
classmate
things.
160
However, female participant number 11

was in school K and had two years' experience. She
was teaching the second year and the number of students was nineteen (eight boys and eleven
girls). The interview took an hour at the school. She stated:
Q. who corrects your students' oral errors? Why do
do
it in this way?
you
T. I correct them because I teach them in the
be
I'll
the
class
and
one who corrects
...
them.

From the participants semi-structured interviews, it appears that teachers, when deciding on
how much emphasis to place on which type of error, most of them concentrated on two main
types: grammar errors such as subject-verb agreement, singular and plural forms, tenses, word
affix and pronunciation
joint
errors such as letter sounds like the difference between f/v, p/b, t/d,
letter sounds like ch, ing and stresses on particular sounds or words like pro'gress
'progress. They believed these types of errors were the most important in learning language
and students should probably be aware of them to achieve progress in learning a foreign
language. Participants of both sexes emphasised that accurate pronunciation helped the listener
to get the correct meaning of words, while poor pronunciation may lead to misunderstanding or
impede communication. Participants also considered grammar as the basic and essential part of
learning language and frequently emphasised form correction rather than fluency. They also
first
the
step, and then they
grammar errors as
sometimes gave priority
to correcting
emphasised pronunciation
final
because
that
they
all
reported
year exams
as a second one,
Participants
then paid more attention to
than
pronunciation.
concentrated on grammar more
their way of error correction of grammar and pronunciation than other errors. Therefore, no
differences were observed or reported between males and females in the type of errors to be
corrected.
The following extracts were taken from male and female participants in semi-structured
in
first
from
female
16
The
taken
interviews to clarify that.
extract was
participant number
P
twenty
experience.
years'
with
school
161
T. First first I eee try to help them

with grammar to correct their grammar mistakes...
because they have this
as aaa as a priority subject in their curriculum.
She also added:
T. students should realise when they

are be an English department graduators, they will
have to know the grammar then the
pronunciation I mean the pronunciation the second
step after the grammar I assist in the grammar more than the pronunciation because
the teaching program in second or in preparatory schools or in first
years of secondary
depends
schools
on grammar more than the pronunciation.
The second extract was taken from the male participant number 2 in
B
four
school with
years'
experience and he was teaching twenty two students (thirteen boys and nine girls) in the second
year. The interview took an hour at the school. He said:
-
T. I feel the basic of the language and the first step of the language to be concentrated
on is
the grammar and pronunciation.

Do experienced teachers pay more or less attention to the process of oral error correction than
less experienced teachers? If yes, how and why?
This question will be answered by an analysis of the direct classroom observations and semiinterviews.
It is worth mentioning here that I mean by èxperienced participants',
structured
those with over 10 years' teaching experience and by `less experienced' ones, those with 10
years' experience and less. This could be attributed to the general assumption in Libya that to
have
inspector
10
All
is
than
teacher
qualify as an
a
must
more
years experience.
experience of
by
be
the number of years teaching.
teachers'
teaching
experience will
expressed
value and
The following is the analysis of observations.
5.3.1 Classroom Observations

by
direct
2
Research question
also
approached
classroom observation of 20 Libyan
was
10
English,
language teachers of
of whom were males, and 10 were females. Every individual
lessons
learn
how
in
three
to
they
their
correct
observed
was
participant
162
However,
the following
characteristics were noted: 1. regardless of gender, experienced

participants reacted differently from less experienced ones in their ways of error correction, 2.
experienced participants relied more on indirect ways of students' error correction by giving
clues rather than direct error correction, 3. experienced participants did not correct all errors
they heard, while less experienced teachers tried to correct all, 4. less experienced participants
gave more explanation of error correction than experienced participants did, if they were sure
of the correct forms, even if it was a minor error, 5. less experienced female participants did
not correct male students as often as experienced male or female participants,
6. less
experienced female participants stood closer to the girls' rows than the boys' rows, whereas
experienced participants from both sexes stood in different places in the classroom, 7. less
experienced female participants did not correct (over-correct) boys much, but they did this with
Overcorrection,
girls.
for example, happens in reading texts when the teacher repeats the
form
to the student who committed an error more than four times before the student is
correct
allowed to move to another sentence. Overcorrection also means that the teacher corrects every
single word without differentiating
between minor and major errors and exaggerates minor
errors by focusing and spending much time on them. It is similar to explicit error correction
drop
in
learning
to
confidence
continue
which may affect students' participation and cause a
under this approach to correction
(see Lochman 2002: 273). 8. less experienced male
both
9.
than
the
sexes,
experienced participants of
classroom more
participants moved around
less experienced participants
showed themselves as well aware of students' errors and
less
immediately,
10.
together
techniques
them
many
mixed
participants
experienced
corrected
i.
less
the
did
they
technique
to
time
corrected students' oral errors, e.
when
each
and
not give
experienced participants
jumped
to another technique when a student tried to correct
him/herself.
With regard to the observations, participants showed differences between experience and
inexperience, not only in their way of error correction, but also in how they reacted towards
Experienced
participants reacted smoothly and slowly when their
their students' oral errors.
less
immediately
as
soon
as
experienced
participants
reacted
while
errors
students committed
familiar
indicate
This
that
with
may
experienced participants were
they heard an error.
students'
how
knew
to
those
correct
errors
easily,
while
and
errors
163
less experienced
participants
thought errors should be corrected immediately.
In other words, experienced
participants did not worry too much about errors and sometimes left errors uncorrected, while
less experienced participants were concerned
with errors and corrected every error. The
following extracts were taken from teacher
number 15's observation in school 0 with two
years' experience. She was teaching nineteen students (three boys and fifteen girls). The
students were in the second year and the observation started at ten forty five and ended at
eleven thirty.
A female student tried to answer the questions but she committed some small
errors as the extracts show bellow.

T. where does the ship sail?
S. the ship sail on sea.
T. sails, the ship sails on sea.
S. there are many ship on the Mediterranean sea
T. ships, ships
-*
T. ok, what is a small boat?

S. Lm- U it could only takes
-,
T. take
S. take the farmer and one of the three things.
T. yes on the small boat...
These extracts indicate that the teacher corrects the minor errors which may not change the
first
five
lines
in
For
three
the
show that the teacher
meaning completely.
example,
extract
and
(s)
(s)
form
by
to
the
to
the plural to the noun
the
corrects
adding
verb sail and
student's error
by
(s)
In
the
the
the
teacher
the
student's error
omitting
also corrects
ship ships.
second extract,
as in line three.
However, the following
in
from
female
16
P
taken
school
number
participant
extracts were
She
the
teaching
twenty
students
and
number of
second
year
was
experience.
seven years'
with
her students was twenty six (twelve boys and fourteen girls). The observation was during the
following
finishes
fifteen
In
the
ten
lesson
extracts
o'clock.
and
at
second
which starts at nine
her
The
to
the
student
express
opinion about cloning people.
student
the teacher was getting
did
but
teacher
the
not
correct.
errors
some
committed
S. I don't agree
it?
with
don't
T. whyyou
agree
164
S. because all these peoples aaa

as you said they are afraid of making a complete human, I
don 't like cloning people. I do not like to
creating a new people, it is the God aaaa, it
is my opinion
T. it is your opinion, you don 't agree with that,
ok,
-f
T. create
S. create I'm doing foundation course in English which is quite hard
T. what does it mean?
S. basic course
T. it means the basic, the basic part
S. yes
T. very good go ahead
Through observations, experienced participants gave the feedback to students who committed
errors rather than resorting to direct error correction. The following
from
taken
extracts were
teacher number 17 in school Q with twenty three years' experience. He was teaching the
second year students and their number was thirty one (fifteen boys and sixteen girls). The
finished
fifteen
during
lesson
the
at ten
and
observation was
second
which started at nine
o' clock.
-
T. blood, who can define this word? Who can explain it in English? blood.
S. liquid
T. yes, it's a liquid, very good
T. read the word and tries to define it before after that try to define it, yes what does it
Arabic?
in
mean
S.
T. Yes, cab.
T. tubes that carry the oxygenated blood from the heart, try to say it again please
S. tubes that carry
T. carry the
S. carry the oxygenated blood from the heart.,
T. thank you, thank you Ahmed
---)I
from
blood
AAA
the
that
tubes
carries oxygen
T. thank you, number two, so number one
heart, ok
S. AAA
Essra,
listen
to
stand up please
T. again please
S. the large of bigger than veins
S. they are bigger than veins ok number two
S. please teacher
it?
T. yes who can read
165
In these extracts the teacher gives the students feedback as in extract one line three T.
yes, it's
liquid,
four
line
in
T.
a
very good and in extract two line four T. Yes,
three
extract
as
again please listen to Essra, stand up please.
Furthermore, the direct classroom observations showed other important aspects which revealed
differences
between experienced and experienced participants. These differences could
some
be seen clearly as below:

Regarding this, most experienced participants depended to a large extent on postponing their
feedback
As
in
the
to
oral activities.
error correction or
end of what a student wanted
say
until
Moss (2000) said, "...it has been found that increasing wait-time by an extra second or two
beyond
learners
Sometimes
50-90
they
to
their
went
enables
self-correct
per cent of
mistakes".
that and omitted to correct students' oral errors (see extracts in 5.4.1) in order to encourage
Experienced
in
English,
the
to
especially when
errors were minor ones.
students
communicate
language
English
to
to
the
communicate more
students
and
encourage
use
participants sought
than correct them. The male participant number 3 in school C with twenty four years'
thirteen;
their
teaching
nine girls
number
was
and
students
second year
experience who was
four
boys
said:
and
T. I like you `class' to participate please, don't be shy, why you are shy? Why? ... if you
learning
don't
be
in
important
is
learn
English
this
step
a very
shy,
please
want to
English, or if you try don 't worry if your answer is right or wrong you have to try, you
have to try to speak something in the class, I know you are very good students, I know
but
have
know
I
to
don't
but
I
to
you
good
are
very
you
ask,
want you not
all of you
like
the girls.
connect with me,
In contrast with more experienced participants, the less experienced participants seemed to
form
the
in
directly
the
to
of
part
of
which
regardless
correct
show
order
correct their students
in
beginning,
i.
the middle, at the end, pronunciation or
the
being
lesson was
taught, e. at
delay
less
error
Most
or
postpone
not
appeared
participants
experienced
grammar activities.
immediately.
but
them
they
corrected
committed,
were
errors
correction when
166
5.3.1.2 Who Corrects Errors

The analysis of the classroom observations employed in this research showed that
most
experienced participants gave priority to self-correction technique as a first step in the process
of oral correction. They gave a chance to the student who committed an error to correct
him/herself. This was observed when teachers paused after a student committed an error. The
second step in the sequences and processes of error correction, used by less experienced
participants, was peer-correction. Experienced participants were observed asking the rest of the
class to correct their classmate's errors. They gave the opportunity to the rest of the class to
in
participate
correcting a student's error. This was another chance for all the students to
correct their classmate's errors without the teacher's participation. The final step in the error
correction process was the teacher's error correction. These steps regarding who corrected
students' oral errors were observed within different classrooms of experienced participants.
The following
from
in
3
C
taken
extracts were
school
an experienced male participant number
four
four
The
twenty
thirteen;
with
years' experience.
number of students was
nine girls and
boys. They were in the second year and the observation was during the third lesson which
in
finished
forty
five.
illustrate
These
the
ten
ten
steps
error
started at
o'clock and
at
extracts
but
he
The
tried
to
the
techniques
complete sentence
correction
of oral errors.
student
produce
did not finish it. The teacher paused and tried to use his gestures as an indicator to make the
in
Then
the error correction of their classmate
tried
to
students
participate
student continue.
before the teacher's participation. In all stages the teacher was supporting the student by using
his
At
head
his
the end of the extract the teacher
to
encouragement.
show
gestures and nodding
last
his
the
resort.
gave
correction as
-
S. I tried to avoid a
T. (paused) hhaam
S. I tried to avoid
T. amhaam
S. of all
Ss. Overthing oferthing over eating
T. hhaahm
S. ovring thing
T. overeating
167
However, most less experienced participants did

follow
the same sequence of correction
not
technique used by experienced ones, regarding who corrects errors, and most of time they
neither wait for self-correction
for
nor
peer-correction.
Therefore, most less experienced
participants correct their students' oral errors directly without waiting for either self-correction
or peer-correction.
The following
extracts were taken from teacher number 15's observation in school 0 with two
She
years' experience.
was teaching nineteen students (three boys and fifteen girls). The
in
the second year and the observation started at ten forty five and finished at
students were
The
thirty.
teacher corrected the students' oral errors directly.
eleven
S. we life
T. we live, not life
S. we live in a small farm, very neter
T. very near
S. very near the city of college
From the extract, the teacher corrects the student's grammar errors directly as in line two, T.
live,
life
in
line
four
does
T.
The
teacher
the
we
and pronunciation errors as
not
very near.
by
herself
does
correction
and
not give a chance to self or peer correct.

Regarding direct classroom observations, and referring to the type of errors to be corrected
during oral communication, experienced and less experienced participants did not show great
differences between them. Both kinds of participants emphasised two types of errors: 1),
grammar errors, without distinguishing between lexical, semantic and syntactical errors, and
2), pronunciation
difference
in
There
was
only
a slight
correcting grammar errors
errors.
between experienced and less experienced participants.
However, the latter corrected all
kind
it
the
of
of
error,
grammatical errors regardless
whether was a minor or a major one, while
experienced participants gave more emphasis to major errors which changed the meaning. This
difference may indicate that less experienced participants correct all grammatical errors in
form,
and
correct
order to emphasise accuracy
rather than meaning, but experienced
both
fluency
they
that
emphasised
and accuracy.
participants showed
168
5.3.1.4 Techniques of Correction
and Feedback
The analysis of direct classroom observations showed that

although most participants used
more than one technique, the differences between experienced and less experienced
participants was shown in the way of using that technique. Most less experienced participants
used many techniques in one situation and jumped from one technique to another without
giving enough time to each one. Experienced participants used one technique and, if it did not
achieve the goal of correction, then they used another one according to the situation and type of
Therefore,
this indicates that experienced participants were concerned with the aim of
errors.
error correction rather than the techniques, while less experienced participants tried to show
their ability to use various techniques or misunderstood the effectiveness of techniques. This
indicates
that less experienced participants
also
techniques studied at university,
according to the participants'
tried to apply all their techniques, and
at one time. However,
the most common techniques,
behaviour
patterns of
observed, are listed as follows: (note,
100%,
always about
often about 75%, sometimes about 40% and rare about 5%)
the technique
Experienced
less experienced
participants
participants
writing on the blackboard
sometimes
rarely
drawing on the board

dividing long words into syllables
repeating the whole sentenceuntil
the error is corrected
sometimes
sometimes
often
sometimes
sometimes
sometimes
helping the student to do the

correction
often
sometimes
Giving multiple choice

Asking for words meaning
Using Arabic language
sometimes
sometimes
sometimes
rare(
often
often
Using indicators such as raised

eyebrows
sometimes
sometimes
biting the lower lip

Nodding
Using hands and gestures
Smiling
praising
sometimes
sometimes
always
often
often
sometimes
sometimes
always
sometimes
sometimes
Rejecting
rarely
sometimes
confirming student's attempt
often
sometimes
emphasising in using English
often
rarely
Direct correction
giving a chance to self-correct
giving a chance to peer-correct
help
to
student
asking questions
remember the answer
sometimes
always
often
sometimes
often
rare(
sometimes
rarely
Table 5.1 the frequency of the common error correction and feedback techniques by experienced and less
in
during
direct
teachers
oral
error
correction
classroom observations
experienced
169
The percentages which are given to the adverbs

"always,
above
often, sometimes and rarely"
are to clarify their meaning to the reader and they are not taken from statistical analyses.
However, on the one hand, more experienced teachers emphasise self
and peer correction
techniques. They encourage students to correct themselves and give students chances for
attempting and participating in oral activities. They often praise students and they rarely reject
or neglect students' attempts. On the other hand, less experienced teachers often ask for word
meaning and use the Arabic language in their techniques of error correction (see subsection
5.3.2.1 a teacher's
in
Arabic).
Moreover, experienced and less experienced
extracts
using
teachers thus have some common techniques such as using hands and gestures, drawing on the
blackboard and dividing long words into syllables in order to help students to pronounce them
correctly.
5.3.2 The Semi-Structured
Interviews
The participants'
responses to their interview
them, particularly
between experienced and less experienced teachers. Participants tried to
differences
questions revealed some
among
knowledge
during
their
teaching
the
their time at university or
employ
experience and using
(HE) high institutes, in teaching and correcting their students' oral errors. The questions, "Are
there any changes in the way of correcting your students' oral errors from starting your job
until now? If yes, could your explain the changes? " Most participants with over ten year's
experience pointed out that they learnt from teaching practice, how they corrected their
However, the following
in
from
female
16
P
taken
school
participant number
extracts were
with twenty seven years' experience. She was teaching second year students and the number of
her students was twenty six (twelve boys and fourteen girls). The interview took an hour at the
school.
--)I
T. since I started teaching by using the grammar translation method. I used this method of
After
first
I
in
the
years.
went abroad with my husband I studied there at the
teaching
followed
I
did
before.
I
I
techniques
other
that
methods
and
where
not use
university
Arabic
Sometimes
in
the
I tried to make students choose the
class
to
at
all.
tried not
use
If
teach.
to
they
I'll
to
teach
they
me
want
them
this
want
me
that
way
or
way,
method
do
I
them,
Sometimes
do.
what
you think of this way? can you go with this way can
ask
170
you work with this way if you don 't like it I try to give another example such as what do
you want to study? Do you want to read first or I read first.
This may indicate that experienced participants share their students' opinions to choose the
methods and techniques to be used in the classroom. They do not depend on one method alone
but they may use several methods which suit students. Most participants' responses indicated
that teaching experience was more important than the theories that they studied. With regard to
this respect, the same participant (number 16 in school P) also said:
-
T. I used to correct students directly by myself but after a long time I started to give them a
chance to correct themselves. I became patient yes of course after a long time. I have
the experience in life that makes my way of teaching. I have an eclectic method of
teaching and correcting students' errors.
In this extract, the teacher shows there are differences in her ways of correction her students'
during
beginning
She
teaching.
that
the
errors
points
at
of her job she corrects students' errors
directly as they occur but after a long time she starts to give them chances to correct
themselves. This may indicate that teachers learn from their experience and change their ways
of teaching.
Meanwhile, less experienced participants with ten year's experience or less responded with a
difference
slight
regarding teaching experience when they were asked the same question.
However, female participant number 11 was in school K and had two years' experience. She
boys
(eight
teaching
the
the
and eleven
was
number of students was nineteen
second year and
girls). The interview took an hour at the school and she pointed that there was no great change
in her way of error correction during her years of teaching.
She said:
--r
T. Sure if the person teaches for one, two and three years of course s/he will get some
found
do
I
I
have
but
I
that
myself
not yet
enough experience still need
experience,
how
how
learn
from
have
to
teach
to
to
teachers
and
correct errors
who
more years
long experience.
171
Nevertheless, another male teacher who was

in
4
number
school D with six years' experience
pointed out that he was not aware of any changes in his way of teaching or correcting students'
errors. The teacher who was teaching nineteen students (seven boys and twelve girls) in the
second year said:
T.
"*-
Y there are no changes in my way of teaching.
He also said when asked,

Q. have you been affected by the teaching methodology or theories of teaching
T.
44
f... j-
,.u
Yl-Y
Yl 4c91f/y 4x--J/
1iL..
o.
csf9
y/
SL
o o.
1i
Jx1L
Li..,J
L;4
i4J
JI tjk.,
L. J4
,
.
Wjuj
-,
14: 1
r-J
i;
JL j. i c,4, &-! 'JJL y
jJ4
J/
4x111no we
did not study the methodology. We did not study with the accurate way. Dr. we were the
first graduates from the institute and the teachers were teaching us in Arabic though we
department.
English
The teachers were not well qualified.
in
the
are
This is another indicator that there is a difference between experienced and less experienced
in
be
indicate
English.
This
their
the
to
teachers
participants
way of preparing
of
may
differences are due to the way teachers were themselves trained. Moreover, the analysis of
semi-structured interviews
less
differences
between
experienced and
also showed other
following
differences
in
These
the
experienced participants.
were shown
ways:
5.3.2.1 Who Corrects Students' Errors?
The participants' responses to the question, "who corrects your students' oral errors? Why do
ideas
from
less
had
different
do
"
it
that
this way? showed
you
experienced ones as regards to who corrects students'
errors. For example, although
job
believed
teacher's
the
teachers
after students' attempts
experienced
error correction was
failed, less experienced teachers believed it was the teacher's job and s/he should be the only
in
9
I
For
teacher
to
example,
male
school
with twenty years'
number
one
correct any error.
(thirteen
in
boys
three
thirty
the second
teaching
students
girls)
and nineteen
experience was
be
be
done
by
but
that
the
teacher
error correction cannot only
can also
year who pointed out
done by the student. A student can correct his/her errors or a student can correct another
student.
He said:
172
T. I give a chance to the student to correct his/her errors first

and the student can correct
the errors of her/his partner. Giving chances to students to correct each other builds a
bridge of assistance and support. Students' error correction may help them to be
close to each other, exchange information and sometimes a student can understand the
correction of errors from his/her colleague better than from the teacher.
In this extract, the teacher shows that he is interested in self and peer correction and lets
students correct each other in order to build a spirit of support among students. The teacher's
technique may help students to think of their class-mates' errors and pay attention to what is
in
during
the
going on
classroom
oral activities.
However, female teacher number 6 in school F with five years' experience who was teaching
(eight
boys and ten girls) in the second year said:
eighteen students
T. I am the one who correct students' oral errors because I have already prepared the
lesson and I know the words. I do not allow a student to correct another student this is
because the student who made the error thinks that the other student who gave the
may
better
better
him/her
he
feel
I
is
is
than
than
this
correction
and s/
why
student
me.
don't let them feel this difference.
This extract shows that the teacher corrects all students' oral errors by herself and does not
be
indicate
his/
her
This
to
the
teacher
to
wants
may
allow another student
classmate.
correct
the only one who does the error correction in the classroom and she is the only source to
correct students' errors.
However, male teacher number 8 in school H with seven years' experience was teaching the
fourteen
(five
boys
their
number was
and nine girls) and pointed out,
secondyear students and
T. I correct students' oral errors by myself because students are sensitive of each other and
distinction
feeling
of
to eradicate the
among students. To feel they are equal there is no
better
the
than
other.
one
L.
Il
1ICb JLL i , 9L4,,, a-Ll
p(,
A brilliant student is a brilliant student but I prefer to give correct information by myself
by
themselves.
students
not
173
This may indicate that experienced teachers encourage their

in
to
students
participate
oral error
correction but less experienced teachers prefer to correct their students' errors by themselves in
order to avoid any lack of sympathy among students.

Regarding this respect, the data collected during the semi-structured
interviews
showed
differences between experienced and less experienced participants in the time they corrected
their students' oral errors. The latter showed that immediate error correction dominated their
error correction behaviour most of the time, while experienced participants postponed error
correction until the end of the sentence or when the students finished what s/he wanted to
One
less
the
convey.
of
experienced participants pointed out that she depends on direct error
correction of students' oral errors and does not postpone them.
The only errors that she
postpones were those she was not able to correct. For example, the female teacher number 14
in school N with two years' experience was teaching eighteen students (seven boys and eleven
in
the second year said:
girls)
-
T. immediately, I correct students as soon as they commit errors. If I do not correct

him/her immediately, they may think what they said is right. Direct and immediate
error correction is easy and save time.
This may indicate that less experienced participants are concerned with correcting students
immediately and directly by themselves rather postponing correction to save their time. This
if
indicate
less
they are not
that
teachers
that
may
students' errors,
experienced
are worried
corrected immediately,
may be difficult
to correct later. Experienced participants acted
differently and pointed out that the time of error correction varies according to the activity and
the kind of student who committed the error. Experienced participants do not correct all
because
different.
do
in
For
they
the
students
students
are
example,
not correct shy
same way
kinds
learn
Both
in
they
the
the
correct
active
students
ones.
and
same way
of student may
differently.
language
understand
For example, the teacher number 9 in school I with twenty years' experience was teaching
boys
in
(thirteen
and
nineteen
girls)
thirty two students
174
T. I try to correct the student's error at the end of the sentence I don't stop or interrupt the
because
interruption and speaking particularly to the one who made the error
student
may embarrass the student and sometimes make him/her angry.
This may indicate that experienced participants pay more attention to students' feelings and
emotions than less experienced participants. It also indicates that experienced participants pay
fact
to
the
that students are not the same in the classroom and everyone has his/her
attention
own way of teaching and learning.
5.3.2.3 Attitude
to Errors
The analysis of data collected during semi-structured interviews showed that most participants
concerned with oral error correction agreed that errors needed to be corrected. Therefore,
experienced and less experienced participants believed that students committed errors when
they produced language but both (experienced and less experienced) participants had different
looked
For
towards
at errors
attitudes
errors.
example, although most experienced participants
believed
in
learning
language,
that correction may not
they
a
as a natural aspect and a step
between
distinguished
They
types.
minor and major errors when correcting students
cover all
but
feel
did
their target
They
angry or sad with students who committed errors
not
oral errors.
in
L
12
As
the
teacher
to
to
school
with
number
male
speak.
aim was
encourage students
boys
(thirteen
thirteen
twenty
teaching
and
six
students
eleven years' experience who was
girls) in the second year said:
-*
T. I encourage my students to talk and participate in oral activities. I don't worry too much
I
do
tell
the
students you are
meaning.
change
not
which
errors
about students' minor
here to learn don 't worry about your errors.
While most less experienced participants
heard
they
types
and
of errors
corrected all
life.
in
felt
everyday
sometimes
angry when students committed errors which were repeated
For example, the female teacher number 1 in school A with seven years' experience was
boys
(nine
in
twelve
the second year emphasised:
and
girls)
teaching twenty one students
--
175
T. there are some words which I asked students not to say these incorrect words because
they used them more and more in every lesson. I feel angry because we used it too
There
much.
are some errors they should not committed and if they commit such errors
I feel nervous.
This may indicate that although experienced and less experienced participants are concerned
with error correction, they have different reactions. Experienced participants do not feel angry
with any type of errors and do not worry too much, especially with minor errors, while less
experienced participants sometime feel angry and get nervous when students commit errors.

The analysis of data collected during semi-structured interviews showed that there were no
differences
between
less
in
the type of errors to
great
experienced and
be corrected. Both experienced and less experienced participants gave more emphasis to
less
Although
grammar and pronunciation errors.
experienced participants pointed out that they
The
in
fact,
types
they
of error,
emphasised only grammar and pronunciation.
correct all
following
four
in
B
from
2
teacher
the
years'
school
with
number
male
extract was elicited
in
boys
(thirteen
the
teaching
twenty
two
second
girls)
and
nine
students
experience who was
he
replied to the question:
year when
Q. to what kind of oral error do you give more emphases in your correction and why?
T. I correct all errors that I hear especially grammar and pronunciation errors, the
in
the
the
subject verb agreement and
word order and
sentence structure,
the
they
if
wrong
give
may
corrected
are
not
students
pronunciation sometimes
interpretation.
Similarly, most experienced participants emphasised two main types of errors 1), grammar
errors and 2), pronunciation
is
first
believe
because
type
that
the
they
more
of error
errors
important than the second one, because all final assessments were in written forms and
in
in
evaluating students' achievements
emphasised grammatical aspects as an essential part
learning language. This is supported by male teacher number 17 in school Q with twenty three
thirty
the
He
teaching
their
one
second
year
was
students
number
and
was
years' experience.
(fifteen boys and sixteen girls), when he answered the same question mentioned above:
--3
176
T. I correct all errors in pronunciation,

grammar and meaning because at secondary or
preparatory schools allfinal exams are concerned with grammar rather than anything
else.
This may indicate that both less experienced
and experienced participants correct grammar and
pronunciation errors with a slight difference; that the latter gave some emphasis to meaning.
This may also indicate that experienced participants have
sufficient scope to emphasise
meaning and fluency more than less experienced ones.
How do teachers' gender and experience affect students 'participation
in oral activities in the
classroom?
Before proceeding to the analysis, there were some important points raised from direct
classroom observations and the semi-structured interviews: 1), students' attitudes, ability and
motivation
learning
language
of
a
affects the teachers' way of correction, which supports
Rydahl's (2005) argument which stated that corrective feedback can be affected and influenced
by students' motivation,
in
the classroom, and students' performance (5-7).
atmosphere
students relations affect their way of participation
2),
in self and peer correction, 3), female
students do not like to repeat the sentence corrected by their female teachers, while they were
reading.
5.4.1 Classroom Observation

Despite students liking their errors to be corrected, and receiving their teacher's feedback, most
of them disliked being over-corrected in front of the whole class. This also supports Rydahl
(2005) who pointed out that correcting all students' errors might result in students feeling
discouraged and depressed (6). Students, therefore, did not like their teachers to correct every
is
direct
From
the
the
error
not a major one.
classroom
single word, especially when
by
their teachers accepted the
were
encouraged
and praised
observations, students who
teacher's oral error correction and participated in oral communication activities. This extract
in
9
I
from
teacher
number
school
taken
with twenty years' experience who was
male
was
boys
(thirteen
and nineteen girls) in the second year:
teaching thirty two students
-
177
Q. Can you use an adjective before a verb

Ss. no
T. no, we can 't use an adjective before a verb.
Ss. We use adjectives before nouns
T. yes adjectives before nouns, etc.
Ss. He is a tall man. That is a red car
T. you are a very good class, or this is the best class, ok it is the best class so you can use
before
adjective
noun to explain or to describe a noun.
This extract showed that the students tried to participate and gave answers chorally as in line
two Ss. no and line four Ss. we use adjectives before nouns and line six Ss. he is a tall man.
That is a red car. In this extract, the teacher focused on grammar errors as in lines three T no,
't
before
line
five,
before
T
He
we can use an adjective
a verb and
yes adjectives
nouns, etc.
also praised students when they participated in the activity.
Moreover, active and confident students who liked to learn English language accepted error
correction more than others who did not have this desire. The observations also showed that
teachers' relationship with their students may affect their way of correction. For example,
female teacher number 10 in school J with six years' experience was teaching twenty one
students (ten boys and eleven girls) in the second year and did not correct some girls who were
interview:
in
first
in
the
the
sitting
girls' row, and when she was asked
Q. why she did not correct those girls?

T. I loved those girls and what they did I did not correct them.
Some female students did not like to be corrected by female teachers and did not like to repeat
the corrected words as the following
female
13
from
teacher
taken
number
extract which was
in school M with two years' experience illustrates. She was teaching twenty second year
students (ten boys and ten girls).
-*
S. my father is student
T. studying
S. appa (the student did not repeated the correction by the female teacher and she moved to
/aba/
/pitrulum/
instead
the
then
the
teacher
as
of
the
corrected
petroleum
word
read
did
the
the
not
repeat
again
correction).
student
error and
T. petroleum
178
This may indicate that female students do

not like to be corrected by female teachers especially
when the female teacher was a less experienced one (see Bourdillon and Storey, 2002: 202).
However, the classroom observations showed that there
differences
between
were
male and
female, and between experienced and less experienced, teachers in their
method of oral error
correction which affected students' participation in oral activities. For example, in the analysis
data
of
observations, male students seem to like to be corrected by a female teacher, especially
when she was a less experienced one. They seem to show prejudice
against the less
experienced female teachers, assuming these teachers are not as competent as teachers of long
standing. Meanwhile,
male
and female
students acted positively
when
corrected by
experienced teachers, especially male ones. Female students showed their positive reaction and
increased their oral communication in the classroom activities when they were corrected by
male teachers. Female teachers seemed to pay more attention to male students and praised
them more than they did with female students. Female students acted and participated more
positively than male students with all kinds of teachers.
5.4.2 The Semi-Structured
Interviews
The semi-structured interview responses were not consistent, which means the participants'
responses concerning the students' reaction towards error correction reflected personal opinion
according to what s/he believed. Although
it reflected personal opinion, there were some

The responses of participants
common points among many participants.
were grouped
according to: 1), gender, 2), experience and inexperience.

5.4.2.1 Error Correction
According
to Teachers' Gender
Regarding gender, most female participants

classroom differently.
in
the
their
students' oral errors
corrected
For example, teacher 7 in school G, a female teacher with four years'
her
(ten
She
twenty
the
two
teaching
second year and
students was
experience.
number of
was
boys and twelve girls). The following extracts were taken from the interview which took place
her
at
school:
--r
T. the way of correcting girls' errors is always very easy but the way of correcting boys is
because
in
don't
like
be
this
Boys
different
bit
they
teenagers.
to
age
especially
are
a
find
Therefore,
deal
boys
I
in
you
one
accept
rarely
criticism.
and
with
a
corrected
lenient way and I try to give them the correct form in a way that does not let them feel
179
they made errors. I just tell the student it is not necessary to say it that way. I just
clarify to him by a way as if he did not commit an error because I told you the boys are
different from girls.
Moreover, she added
T. sometimes female students do not like to be corrected by the teacher and tries to
persuade me by her opinions and ideas. But boys do not do that they do not discus indepth for a long time and this could be a result of their weakness in language. Youfeel
do
have
if
they
as
not
any idea and they take your opinion without comments but girls
do not.
This response from this female teacher was also heard from other female teachers, which may
indicate that female teachers are more lenient with boys than with girls, because they believe
students are at a very sensitive age and act more carefully with boys than with girls. This may
indicator
female
that
give another
students do not like to be corrected by female teachers and
feel dissatisfied with their error correction, while boys reject female teachers' error correction.
Nevertheless, some male participants pointed out that they acted differently
when they
female
believe
female
is
because
This
that
they
corrected
students were very sensitive
students.
and a bit nervous compared with male students.
The following
four
in
from
2
B
the
taken
school
with
extract was
in
boys
(thirteen
the
two
teaching
twenty
and nine girls)
students
years' experience and was
hour
He
interview
The
the
took
said:
at
school.
second year.
an
T. of course, there is a difference; I act differently when I correct female students.

Sometimes, I feel that female students do not accept my error correction and became
female
I
do
I
Moreover,
the
to
too
student when teach or
close
not come
nervous.
I
With
do
her
but
I
the
that
sit
at
can
a
male
studcnt
with
a
male
student.
can
correct
females
but
I
his
head
different
hand
desk,
try
tones
with
voice
on
use
my
put
same
because
from
different
I
them
sex.
angry
am
a
not to shout or make
This may indicate that female teachers act differently when they correct female students and
female
Male
between
their
them
them.
they
leave
and
they
students when
correct
a space
female
female
because
believe
they
tones
they
correct
when
students
teachers use smooth
like
harsh
do
tones.
not
and
students are very sensitive
180
The semi-structured interviews registered that there

was a difference between male and female
teachers in their behaviour of error correction when they correct different
sexes. There was also
difference
a
according to experience among participants' responses; For example, female
teacher number 16 in school P with twenty seven years' experience was teaching twenty six
students (twelve boys and fourteen girls) in the second year. The interview took an hour at the
school and said:
T. no I don 't differentiate but female students may force you to correct them more than
because
female students work harder than males. girls care in oral error
male students
correction more than the boys " and when asked `why you do it that way? '
She added,
T. I behave naturally with all students and I can stand where ever I want and they do not
have any reaction from my standing position to my student if I stand too close for me
it does not make any difference because I'm an old woman. All students, either males
females,
feel
I
than
or
are smaller
my children.
when I work with them they are my
little boys so I don 't care.
However, male teacher number 9 school I with twenty years' experience emphasised that he
did not distinguish between students when he corrected and said:
T. I don 't correct the errors of the female or male differently because in the class they
difference
between
is
there
them.
are students and
no
5.4.2.2 The Effect of Error
Correction
Students'
Participants
on
individual
showed
participants
differences when
asked: does your oral error correction affect your students' participation?
If yes, could you
Regarding the semi-structured interview,
how?.
please explain
For example, male teacher number 9 in school I with twenty four years' experience was
teaching thirty two students (thirteen boys and nineteen girls) in second year. In the interview
he
in
hour
the
that
school
pointed
took
at
out
general, students accept oral error
which
an
correction
but he believed
that students react differently
according
to their level of
from
both
that
felt
He
clever
students
claimed
sexes
were
sensitive and
achievement.
181
embarrassedwhen they were corrected, becausethey did not like to commit errors, while weak
students, especially boys, did not care about error correction.
--4
T. clever students try not to make errors either boys or girls. they try not to make
mistakes but if he/she made an error he/she accepts that error by force because s/he
didn 't like it, s/ he says I didn't make that error, but the others who are not good
enough regardless of whether they are boys or girls accept error correction normally
and they don 't care whether s/he made an error or not.
This teacher also added,
T. in general students accept error correction positively, because they look for the right
and the accurate language especially good students. Therefore, they don't feel bored
of receiving the right answers. Most students have a positive attitude towards error
keep
but
feel
in
correction and
participating
afraid of
oral activities
shy students still
giving the wrong answers.
On the same issue, female teacher number 16 in school P with twenty seven years' experience
fourteen
(twelve
boys
teaching
twenty
and
girls) pointed out that students
six students
was
differently
reacted
by
For
they
their
teacher.
example, many students
corrected
were
when
from both sexes liked their errors to be corrected by their teacher, while some did not like to be
just
because
latter
to
their
Most
they
the
get
studying
were
students
were
male
corrected.
of
degree and get a job. There were also some girls who did not care (see the extract above) about
their error correction and did not care if they were corrected or not.
The following extract was taken from the same female teacher (number 16 school P).
T. some of both sexes like me to correct their errors but some do not like this and also do
be
like
both
from
However
to
sexes
good students
not care about error correction.
bit
but
keep
in
the
nervous.
girls are a
class
participating
corrected and
Nevertheless, most less experienced female participants pointed out that there were no
differences among students in their reaction when they were corrected. Error correction did not
from
For
following
in
the
taken
example,
oral activities.
extracts were
affect their participation
0
She
in
two
15
years'
with
experience.
was teaching nineteen students
teacher number
school
in
The
the second year and the teacher said:
fifteen
students
were
(three boys and
girls).
182
T. some students react naturally when I

correct their errors. They accept my error
correction but, some bright students from both sexes say, no what I have said was right
it was not wrong and sometimes female students do not participate any more in that
lesson when I tell them no you are not
right.
However, male teacher number 8 in school H with seven years' experience was teaching the
second year students and their number was fourteen (five boys and nine girls) explained that,
although most students like their errors to be corrected, girls were affected by the teacher's
error correction more than boys. He said:
T. girls are d ferent from boys when they are corrected. Girls are more sensitive and
they insist on being right not wrong.
The participants' responses indicate that students' participation and reaction towards their error
correction applied by their teachers varied according to the teacher's gender and experience,
i. e. most experienced male and female participants believed that students reacted positively
They
they
when
were corrected.
categorised students according to whether they were good or
in
language.
believed
They
the
that good students were positively affected more than
weak
by
kept
they
teachers
they
weak students when
experienced
and
also
were corrected
participating
in oral activities.
However, less experienced male and female participants
in
language.
level
than
their
to
their
categorised students according
of achievement
sex rather
This may indicate that female students were affected more than male students when they were
female
forced
by
to
teachers
teachers,
students
correct
corrected, especially
male
male
which
by
Female
they
tones.
corrected
were
with softer vocal
students were affected negatively when
bright
female
indicate
female
defend
This
that
to
their
teacher
tried
may
a
answers.
and
because
female
by
less
teacher
students were more affected when corrected
a
experienced
female
female
their
teacher's error correction, or the
some
students were not satisfied with
female teacher was a bit harsh in the way of convincing her students. However, in a less
female
but
by
female
teacher's
correction,
students
were affected
error correction
experienced
in
because
the
teachers gave special care and
their
they continued
oral
activities
participation
soft words when they were correcting errors.
183
5.4.2.3 Participants' Views Towards Students Errors

With regard to the semi-structured interviews, participants
like
"would
to add
were asked,
you
anvthing to this interview that we have not mentioned? " Their responses were varied; some of
them raised some important issues which related to the teachers' and students' ways of error
correction techniques, while others did not add any comments. Most less experienced teachers
reported that they faced big problems with some words which they could not correct or even
give their exact meaning. This was because most of those words were technical terms and had
special meaning.
Teacher 7 in school G, a female teacher with four years' experience was teaching second year
her
the
and
number of
students was twenty two (ten boys and twelve girls). The following
from
taken
the teacher's interview which took place at her school, she said:
extract was
-4
T. Frankly speaking there are some words which sometimes as a teacher I can't answer
back
dictionary
look
for
I
them
to
the
to
to
pronounce
correctly;
need
go
a
pronunciation.
Another female teacher number 5 in school E with ten years' experience was teaching twenty
students (fourteen boys and six girls) in the second year, she said:
T. I wish there were some facilities to help us understand scientific terms and medical
terms which I found difficult to pronounce and understand their meaning.
She added when asked about her suggestions,

--
T. we need to improve our English by in-service courses in England during summer time
to become better than we are.
Male teacher number 4 in school D with six years' experience was teaching nineteen students
(seven boys and twelve girls) in the second year, he said:
T. the lessons in the text book need cassettes to help us know how to pronounce difficult
but
is
in
the
the
the
were
available
cassettes
at
education
stores
problem
and
words
distribution of these cassettes.
184
Another female teacher number 11 in school K

with two years' experience was teaching
second year and the number of students was nineteen (eight boys and eleven girls). In the
interview which took an hour the teacher said:
T. teachers who teach in secondary levels should have over ten years' experience because
they have learnt a lot about how to treat students in this stage and how s/he correct
students successfully and as all teachers of English language have a hope to have at
least a course in England to learn how native speakers teach and correct their students
errors.
Some experienced participants also mentioned the need of support by supplying schools with
equipment to help students learn better and help them to correct students easily. They also
final
depend
that
the
pointed out
exams, which
only on writing, omitted oral communication,
is
important
in
learning
language.
English
which
very
As male teacher number 9 in school I with twenty years' experience was teaching thirty three
(thirteen
boys
in
students
and nineteen girls)
T. I hope the people who are in the education authority improve teaching English by
help
better
learning
help
teachers
to
to
and
get
students
supplying suitable equipment
better
to produce teaching particularly in correcting their students' oral errors.
of
Also it is important to change some kind of exams which concentrate on grammar
more than any other aspects.
Summing up these points, it seemed evident that participants
faced some problems in
facilitated
lack
The
of equipment, such as cassettes which
correcting their students' oral errors.
teachers and students ways of correcting pronunciation errors, in-service training and shortage
Less
teachers
of teaching experience, may affect students and
in
faced
their
their
teachers
of
correcting
way
more
problems
experienced
than more experienced teachers.

In this chapter I started by illustrating in the introduction that I began with the data analysis by
data
data
Then,
I
the
instruments
collection.
gave an overview of
processes of
of
qualitative
I
data
In
I
the
to
to
the
then
in
this
my
analysis;
stated
question
and
went
study.
analysis used
justification
individual
logical
to
find suitable answers and
every
question. I tried to employ the
185
selective codes as followed in the process of grounded theory. In this chapter, I started by
answering question one through data collected, through observations, and then through the
interviews.
This was followed with the three questions in the same sequence.
semi-structured
In answering the research questions, I attempted to support the results with extracts, either
from direct classroom observation, or from semi-structured interviews. Each extract was taken
from each kind of participant and was either from interview or observation. Within the semiinterviews,
structured
I grouped together similar
questions and compared them with
participants' responses to avoid any superfluous material.

The next chapter will
by
data
the
the
quantitative
collected
results of
analysis and
show
instalments. The quantitative methods of data analysis will be used to support qualitative
data
analysis and results.
methods of
186
Chapter Six
Results and Analysis of Quantitative
Data
6.1 Introduction
This chapter will
focus on the analysis and results of questionnaires from teachers and
students: (questionnaire). The teachers questionnaire was employed as a means of supporting

the
classroom
observation
and
the
semi-structured
interview
in
order
to
achieve
methodological triangulation. The incorporation of these three methods helped the researcher
to find answers to the research questions (see subsection 5: 2). The teachers questionnaires will
be analysed quantitatively in order to give numbers, figures and percentages which will be used
in comparing
and contrasting
between the items within
it and within
the classroom
observations and semi-structured interviews. The teachers' questionnaires will
be used to
1,2
answer questions
and 3, while the students' questionnaires will be used to answer question
3 only.
This chapter will focus on the results of the questionnaires. It begins with a description of the
followed
by a summary and discussion of the most important findings of
questionnaire results,
teachers' responses. The same procedure will follow with the students' questionnaires. Before
dealing with the teachers' questionnaires, it is worth clarifying
that the participants of this
females,
65
Ajelate
that
the
questionnaire were
males and
which means
all
population at
in
Finally,
this
this chapter closes with a crosssecondary schools participated
questionnaire.
items,
to
and their
comparison of participants' responses
various statements and questionnaire
corresponding
classroom
observation
behaviour
and
semi-structured
interviews.
The
questionnaire items are classified in order to answer each research question. However, the
following sections will discuss these points in more detail:
6.2 Teachers' Questionnaire

The responses of the participants were analysed using the SPSS computer programme, due to
has
fact
SPSS
the
various types of analysis and gives accurate results easily.
that
program
Weighted Arithmetic
Means {henceforth W. A. Ms. } was used in order to find out the most
female
between
find
differences
teachers
to
the
male
and
technique
and
also
used
out
effective
187
between experienced and less experienced teachers (see

subsection 4.12). The Weighted
Arithmetic Mean is briefly a set of N numbers X1, X2, X3,...., XN
which is denoted by
X= X1, + X2, +X3, +...
and each N multiplied by its item power i. e.
N
in N
questionnaire always = 5, often = 4, sometimes = 3, rare= 2, never =1 therefore, the
equation is Nx 5+ Nx4 +N x 3,...
(see Spiegel, 1992; Sanders & et al. 1976).
N
1. Are there any differences between the ways in which male and female Libyan teachers
correct students' oral errors? What are these differences, if any?
It is important to mention here that the analysis of the questionnaire shows that the number of
the participants regarding gender was not equal as table number (6.1) below shows the number
of each sex who participated in this study.
Teacher' sex
Number of Participants
Percentage %
Male
23
35.4%
Female
42
64.6 %
Total
65
100%
Table 6.1 shows the number ofparticipants
regarding their sex
This table indicates that the female teachers who participated in this questionnaire consisted of
64.6% while male teachers who participated in the same questionnaire consisted of 35.4% of
the whole sample, which shows that the majority who teach English at secondary schools were
females. This, i. e. 23, is the whole number of male teachers in Ajelate city. 42 is also the whole
number of female teachers in the same city. This difference between male and female teachers
indication
females
in
Libyan
that
teach
may
provide
an
participate
who
at secondary schools
teaching English language more than males.
Regarding the analysis of the teachers' questionnaires, there is a difference between male and
female responses.
Making
this difference clearer, I decided to omit the middle column
188
`sometimes', which may cause the reader some confusion to understand the differences. I
also
spoke to some of the participants who showed their uncertainty about `sometimes'. Therefore,
item number 1, which says "I correct students major pronunciation errors only" male teachers,
who responded àlways' and òften', consisted of 69.55% of the male participants, whereas
females who responded similarly to the question, consisted of 56.08% of female participants.
This shows there is significance between male and female in their responses (see Appendix 0).
The responses indicated that male teachers encourage students to be fluent more than females.
This also revealed the fact that male teachers were not concerned with
correcting all
pronunciation errors and focused only on a major one.
Item No. 2, "I correct students' minor and major pronunciation errors" accounted for 76.18%
female
82.06%
of male responses and
of
responses (see Appendix 0). This shows that female
teachers correct minor and major errors more than male teachers. This suggests that female
teachers pay more attention to both kinds of errors, minor and major ones. It also seems that
female teachers emphasise accuracy more than fluency which may be considered as another
difference between male and female teachers when correcting errors. Although this finding
is
difference
between
female
it
is
low
that
there
teachers,
shows
significance.
a
male and
of
Another
significant
difference
between males and females has been recorded by the
3
"I
in
Item
the
techniques.
number
namely,
participants' responses
way of error correction
female
is
the
that
participants
correct students major grammatical errors" shows
percentage of
80.94%, while the percentage of male participants is 69.09%. Although
both sexes are
concerned with students' grammatical errors, female participants correct major grammatical
errors more than males (see Appendix 0).
Item No. 5, "I give priority in correction to pronunciation errors rather than grammar errors"
39.12
%
female
47.61%.
that
recorded
shows
while
participants recorded
male participants
This indicates that male teachers pay attention to pronunciation errors rather than grammatical
however,
difference
is
low
female
the
teachers;
than
ones more
significant (see Appendix 0).
Item No 6, namely, "I correct lexical errors only" shows there is a difference between male and
female participants regarding the percentage difference between them. The female participants
189
have recorded 28.56%, while males have recorded 17.39%. The finding shows a significant
difference between male and female teachers' responses. This indicates that male teachers use
correction of lexical errors less frequently, which may be viewed by them as a minor error, and
have less influence on students' performance, but female teachers correct lexical errors and
may consider them as important errors that should be corrected in the sentence.
Item No 9, namely, "I correct errors committed by a single student" shows that male
participants recorded 47.82%, while female participants recorded 57.14%. This indicates that
female teachers' correct errors committed by a single student more than male teachers do.
Similarly, item No. 10 namely, "I correct errors committed by a group of students" shows that
60.42%
female
male participants recorded
while
participants recorded 76.18%. This shows that
female participants correct students' errors more than male participants. Although female
participants emphasise the correction of all students' errors whether the errors are committed
by a single or a group of students, the percentage of female teachers increases when the error is
female
by
by
Comparing
the
percentage recorded
male and
committed
a group of students.
higher
female
in
both
items,
percentage than male
participants registered a
participants
difference
between
highly
is
Therefore,
I
this
males
significant
consider
another
participants.
females
in
the way of correction of students' oral errors.
and
Item No. 12 namely, "I correct only some errors which a student could not correct him/herself'
(see
92.85%
female
80.95%
that
while
shows
Appendix 0). This shows that female participants' records are higher than male participants'
female
indicate
that
participants give more emphasis and are concerned about
records and
also
indicate
him/herself.
The
that
to
seem
recorders
correction when a student could not correct
there is a difference between male and female participants.

Item No. 15, namely, "I correct errors by giving the correct form", has shown that male
indicate
female
This
65.13%.
57.21%
may
while
that female teachers are more concerned with every individual
by
giving the
performance,
difference
is
Therefore,
than
teachers.
by
form
this
themselves,
male
more
another
correct
between male and female teachers in the way of correcting their students' oral errors but it is of
low significance (see Appendix 0).
190
Item No. 16, namely, "I correct errors by speaking in Arabic" shows that male participants
have recorded 30.43% while females have recorded 57.16% (see Appendix
0). This may
indicate that female teachers resort to using students' native language to correct errors; this
be
to save time and make sure that students understand the error correction, while male
may
teachers are using less Arabic language in their students' oral error correction in order to
expose students to the target language most of the time and encourage them to try. Male
teachers may spend more time in error correction by using the target language, rather than
language,
to produce the correct form. This may be considered as another difference
native
between male and female teachers in the way of oral error correction.
Item No. 21, namely, "I correct students in a strong tone of voice and forbid them from
has
females'
56.51
%
teachers'
registered male
responses as
and
responses as
repeating errors"
45.22%. This is an indicator that female teachers are more lenient and gentle than males and
Male
teachers tend to resort to a strong tone of
their
are more patient with
(see
be
highly
Appendix
finding
This
to
to
significant
seems
emphasise error correction.
voice
0).
Item No. 24, namely, "I encourage students to engage in oral activities rather than correct what
female
is
higher
69.56%
than
has
they say"
among male participants, which
recorded
(see
0).
Appendix
òften'
àlways'
26.18%
the
and
scale of
under
participants which registered
This indicates that male teachers encourage their students to speak the language without paying
too much attention to error correction. This may also indicate that female teachers emphasise
in
than
oral activities which would produce errors.
engaging students
error correction more
This item seems to show another difference between males and females when they correct
errors.
Item No. 25, namely, "I add marks to the student who does not commit errors in oral practice"
has recorded 39.12% among male participants who responded to the teachers' questionnaire
75.97%.
This
female
female
to
that
teachers
teachers
seems
are more
show
recorded
while
have
What
happened
is
in
that
teachers.
teachers
might
than
classes
male
male
encouraging
students participation
in oral communication might be minimised due to the fact that male
Similarly,
item
their
No.
26
"I
to
do
students.
encourage
teachers
namely,
never add
not seem
191
marks to the student who commits errors" has recorded 13.03% among male participants while
female participants recorded 26.18%. This shows that female teachers encourage their students
to produce language correctly. Female teachers also create a competitive atmosphere among
in
students,
order to produce correct forms of language, by adding marks to the students who
speak correctly, while male teachers do not. This finding shows a high significance difference
between male and female teachers (see Appendix 0).
Items No. 28, namely, "I correct all students' oral errors at the end of the lesson" and No. 29,
"I
correct oral errors immediately"
namely,
have shown that there are differences between
female
male and
participants in the time of error correction. For example, male participants
have recorded 29.08% for the first item, while female participants recorded 14.28% for the
item.
item,
female
In
70.90%
the
same
second
participants
while
90.47%,
recorded
revealing
both
difference
between
(see
Appendix
a
sexes
0).
These
differences between the two items for each gender tell the reader that female teachers are very
concerned about the time of correcting their students' oral errors, so that students can get the
believe
from
beginning.
form
language
In
that, the
they
the
may
other words,
correct
of
right
be.
is
Some
language
learning
better
is
to
the
male teachers
expected
corrected,
sooner an error
in this study believe that postponing error correction for a while, or at the end of the lesson
the
than
the
to
think
giving
correct
rather
of
correction,
and
rethink
a
chance
may give students
form of language immediately.
Therefore, I consider the difference in the time of error
discrepancy.
female
between
teachers
as another
correction
male and
Item No. 33, namely, "I correct errors after the student finishes what s/he wants to say" has
60.57%.
This
female
73.91%
recorded
among male participants while
finding shows a high significance between male and female teachers in the time of oral error
finishes
the
indicates
to
the
This
time
teachers
that
s/he
until
student
give
male
correction.
(see
they
female
to
teachers who seem
occur
correct students' errors when
message more than
Appendix 0).
Item No. 34, namely, "I correct students' oral errors by myself',
difference
is
there
a
shows
between male and female participants. Male participants have recorded 55.86% while female
indicate
This
74.28%.
do
depend
that
too
teachers
have
may
male
not
recorded
participants
192
much on correction by themselves and give the opportunity to use other techniques of error
correction such as self-correction
and peer correction while female participants depend on
themselves to get the correct form rather than depending on other correction techniques.
Similarly, item No. 35, namely, "I allow another student to correct his/her friend's errors". This
shows a high significance
in the difference between male and female participants. Male
participants recorded 52.16% while female participants recorded 38.09% (see Appendix 0).
This indicates that male teachers give the group more opportunity for peer correction in order
to correct their oral errors.
Item No. 37, namely, "I correct students' errors and ask them to repeat after me chorally", has
shown another difference between males and females when correcting of students' oral errors.
The percentage recorded by the participants from both sexes in this questionnaire was as
follows: male participants have registered 56.51% while female participants registered 69.04%.
This indicates that female teachers emphasise students' performance, by checking the students'
utterances after error correction, more than male teachers do.
Summing up; the questionnaire results concerned with the difference between males and
female participants and their ways of oral error correction, it has revealed that, there are some
differences between male and female teachers when they are correcting errors.

Do experienced teachers pay more or less attention to the process of oral error correction than
less experienced teachers? If yes, how and why?
The difference in experience is one of the essential features among participants and how it may
Although
this
the
their
of
participants
students'
oral
errors.
affect
correcting
when
performance
length
from
28
in
their
to
the
of
years, most of the
experience
one year
questionnaire varied
10
less
had
than
years experience.
participants
Moreover, from the same table, the following classification can be seen regarding the number
of years of participants' experience:
193
Years of
experience
Number of
Participants
Percentage
1-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
21 and over
33
20
3
1
8
50.76%
30.76%
4.6%
1.5%
12.30%
Table 6.2 shows the number of participants and the percentage according to each group's experience
This table also indicates that the highest number of participants in years were those who had 15 years' experience, while the lowest participant numbers were those with 16
-20 years'
Note:
experience.
experience in this section means the number of practical years in teaching
I
and refer to experienced teachers as those who have eleven years and over, while by less
experienced, I mean those who have ten years and less.
The same table illustrates that the greatest number of teachers is the group with 1-5 years'
in
is
50.76%,
the
the participants with
experience, which recorded
while
second group
number
6-10 years' experience, which recorded 30.76%. Meanwhile, the third group consists of those
last
lowest
21
Finally,
two
the
the
with
and over years' experience.
groups which recorded
4.6%
percentage,
are the participants with 11-15 years' experience, while the participants with
16-20 years' experience recorded 1.5%. The table also shows the lowest number of teachers is
those who have between 11-20 years' experience. This may be as a result of the cancellation of
teaching English language in the education system in Libya during 1985-1991, which created
this shortage of teachers. The cancellation of teaching English may also have affected all
teachers even the experienced ones because many of them were asked to teach other subjects
did
English
Some
English.
to
teach
these
teachers
than
again when the
rather
not return
of
have
it
teaching
created why the number of
education authority restarted
and which could
teachers with experience of between 11-20 years is the lowest.
With regard to experienced and or less experienced teachers in this study, those with 10 years
less
11
less
teachers
those
while
experienced
experienced
are
with
years' and
or
are considered
teachers'
less
Therefore,
that
the
the
of
questionnaire
analysis
shows
experienced
over.
81.53%,
(see
6.3
18.46%
table
experienced
while
participants
represent
participants represent
indicator
is
that
This
language
English
less
teachers
6.4).
another
most
table
of
are
and
194
experienced or they have ten years experience or less, while the smaller portion is the
experienced teachers ranging between 11-28 years experience. Consequently, Graph (6.1)
illustrates the differences between experienced and less experienced teachers as they have been
identified in this study.
Years of
Classification
Number of
Experience
Percent
Participants
10 or less
Less experienced
53
81.53 %
11& more
Experienced
12
18.46%
Table 6.3 shows the distribution of the participants between experienced and less experienced teachers as
considered in this study
Gender
Experienced percentage
No.
Per.
Less experienced percentage

No.
Per.
Total
No.
Male
12.30
15
23.07
23
6.15
18.46
38
53
58.46
81.53
42
65
Female 4
Total
12
Percentage
Per.
35.38
64.6
100.00
Table 6.4 shows the number of experienced and less experienced participants, their gender and percentage
Yearsof experience,
No.meansl0yearsor
less& No.2 means
11yearsor more
12
40
30
N
N
L
U
N
N
20
E
c
10
0
male female
ma,e
female
Thisgraphshows
teachers'experience
as it representsin this
study
Graph 6.1 shows the number of teachers according to their experience 1 means > 10 and 2 means 11
195
Moreover, table (6.5) illustrates the experienced teachers'

responses to each item of the
questionnaire, ranked according to the W. A. Ms, which shows how many responses each item
(see
Spiegel 1992; Sanders et al. 1976), while table (6.6) illustrates the teachers with 10
gained
less
or
years experience. However, it is important to draw the reader's attention to the
difference in the percentage of W. A. Ms between table (6.5) and table (6.6). This is a result of
the number of experienced teachers not being as large as the number of less experienced
teachers, which I have taken into consideration, and that the differences lay in how every group
items.
In other words, which items have the highest or the lowest W. A. M.
the
classified
according to every individual group.
Table 6.5 shows teachers with 11 or more years experience and their responses in each item ranked according
to their W.A. Ms
Item
Item No in
Questions
W. A. Ms.
the Que.
No.
in
order
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
32
33
31
12
30
10
7
2
1
29
18
12
13
14
15
16
3
14
34
17
24
17
18
25
27
19
13
20
11
21
22
9
21
23
24
15
5
25
36
help
to
correct errors
students to learn
correct the error after some students fail to give the correct answer
think error correction leads students to better language
correct only some errors which a student could not correct him/herself
correct errors after the student finishes what s/he wants to say
correct errors committed by a group of students
correct both major and minor lexical errors
correct students' minor and major pronunciation errors
correct students' major pronunciation errors only
correct oral errors immediately
do not let students speak freely in oral activities; otherwise they will
commit many errors
I correct students' major grammatical errors
I correct errors through explanation and practice
I correct students' oral errors by myself
I correct errors by using teaching aids such as blackboards and charts.
I encourage students to engage in oral activities rather than correct what
they say
I add marks to the student who does not commit errors in oral practice
Students want me to correct their errors
I correct the student's error and ask him/her to repeat after me
individually
I correct minor errors and ask students to write the correct form on the
board
I correct errors committed by a single student
I correct students in a strong tone of voice and forbid them from
repeating errors
I correct errors by giving the correct form
I give priority in correction to pronunciation errors rather than grammar
errors
1 ask the student who commits the error to correct himself/ herself
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
196
11.2
11
11
11
10.4
10.4
10.2
10
9.6
9.6
9.4
9.4
9.2
9.2
9
8.8
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.4
8.4
8.2
8.2
8
26
27
37
6
28
29
30
31
32
33
28
35
4
16
8
22
34
35
36
19
26
20
37
23
I correct students' errors and ask them to repeat after

me chorally
I correct lexical errors only
I correct all students' errors at the end of the lesson
I allow another student to correct his/her friend's errors
I do not correct students' minor grammatical errors
I correct errors by speaking in Arabic
I do not correct students' oral errors
I correct shy students in the same way as I correct active students, i. e. if I
correct minor errors of active students, I do the same with shy students
I feel angry when students commit errors
I (never) add marks to the student who commits errors
I do not let students speak freely in oral activities; otherwise they will
commit many errors
I single out the student who has committed the error in order to prevent
the class from committing the same error
8
6.6
6.4
6.2
6
5.8
5.4
5.2
4.8
4.6
4.4
2.6
Table 6.6 shows teachers with 10 or less years experience and their responses in each item ranked according to
their W.A. Ms
Item
No.
in
Item
No.
in
order
the
Que.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
32
31
29
13
3
1
14
2
10
33
37
7
34
17
27
30
15
12
11
20
18
21
22
23
36
25
21
W. A. Ms.
Items
I correct errors to help students to learn
I think error correction leads students to better language learning
I correct oral errors immediately
I correct the student's error and ask him/her to repeat after me individually
I correct students' major grammatical errors
I correct students' major pronunciation errors only
I correct errors through explanation and practice
I correct students' minor and major pronunciation errors
I correct errors committed by a group of students
I correct the error after some students fail to give the correct answer
I correct students' errors and ask them to repeat after me chorally
I correct both major and minor lexical errors
I correct students' oral errors by myself
I correct errors by using teaching aids such as blackboards and charts.
Students want me to correct their errors
I correct errors after the student finishes what s/he wants to say
I correct errors by giving the correct form
I correct only some errors which a student could not correct him/herself
I correct minor errors and ask students to write the correct form on the
board
I encourage one of the students to attempt to correct errors before I correct
the student who has committed errors
I ask the student who commits the error to correct himself/ herself
does
the
to
I add marks
not commit errors in oral practice
student who
I correct students in a strong tone of voice and forbid them from repeating
errors
197
49
48.4
48.4
48.2
46
44.4
44.2
44
43.4
43.2
42
42
41.6
41.4
41
40.4
39.6
38.6
38.6
38
36.8
35.2
35.2
24
25
26
9
16
5
27
22
28
29
35
20
30
24
31
I correct errors committed by a single student

I correct errors by speaking in Arabic
I give priority in correction to pronunciation errors rather than grammar
errors
I correct shy students in the same way as I correct active students, i. e. if I
correct minor errors of active students, I do the same with shy students
I allow another student to correct his/her friend's errors
I do not let students speak freely in oral activities; otherwise they will
commit many errors
I encourage students to engage in oral activities rather than correct what
they say
I correct lexical errors only
32
33
34
35
36
37
19
26
4
28
8
23
I
I
I
I
I
I
feel angry when students commit errors

never add marks to the student who commits errors
do not correct students' minor grammatical errors
correct all students' errors at the end of the lesson
do not correct students' oral errors
single out the student who has committed the error in order to prevent the
class from committing the same error
35.2
35.2
34.4
33.4
33.4
31.4
29.8
27.2
25.2
25
23.4
21.4
20.6
15.8
With regard to teachers' responses, table (6.5) and table (6.6) show that there are some
differences and similarities between experienced and less experienced teachers' responses. To
in
discussed
items
be
differences
the
these
grouped and
will
similarities clearly,
and
show
detail.
1. Tables (6.5) and (6.6) show that item No. 32 namely, "I correct errors to help students to
learn" has the highest relevancy among the items in both tables. This indicates that both
help
important
is
to
less
that
teachers
error correction
consider
experienced
experienced and
have
language.
This
learn
teachers
English
that
a positive
their students
all
may also reveal
in
both
Thus,
teachers'
responses
all
attitude towards their students' oral error correction.
tables are similar.
2. Table (6.5) shows that item No. 33, namely, "I correct the error after some students fail to
items,
item
table
highest
is
the
the
while
the
of
other
rest
among
second
give
correct answer"
(6.6) shows the same item is ranked as 10th among all items. This indicates that experienced
differently.
The
teachers
their
less
time
teachers
error
correction
experienced
and
experienced
usually correct students'
errors after many attempts while
the second priority
less
of
better
31,
"I
No.
leads
item
is
think
to
namely,
error correction
students
experienced teachers
198
language learning". The same item took the third highest place in table (6.5) according to
experienced teachers' responses.
3. Table (6.6) shows that item No. 29, namely, "I correct oral errors immediately" has occupied
the third place according to the less experienced teachers' responses, while experienced
teachers ranked it as the 10th highest item (see table 6.5). This indicates that less experienced
teachers give priority to the immediate error correction technique while experienced ones delay
it. This may indicate that there is a difference between experienced and less experienced
teachers in the timing of correction.
4. Table (6.5) shows that item No. 12, namely, "I correct some errors which a student could not
him/herself'
correct
has occupied the 4th highest place in experienced teachers' responses,
indicates
that experienced teachers do not correct all errors without distinguishing
which
between them. Experienced teachers correct their students' errors which they could not correct
by themselves. This may indicate another fact, i. e. that experienced teachers do not correct too
fails
to
the
to
to give the correct
the
much and give a chance
student
attempt
answer until s/he
did
item,
it
Less
18,
teachers
to
this
one.
experienced
not give priority
and placed
at number
item
him/her
4th
13,
"I
No.
the
to
the
and gave
priority
namely,
correct
students' errors and ask
to repeat after me individually".
This indicates that there is some difference between
less
experienced and
experienced teachers as to when and what to correct.
5. According to the data, teachers' responses show there is close similarity between experienced
be
in
kind
less
to
teachers
the
given priority when they are correcting
and
of errors
experienced
errors. Although both groups of teachers emphasised correcting pronunciation,
lexical and
lexical
to
teachers
and pronunciation errors, then
grammar errors, experienced
give priority
is
in
Less
them
teachers
reverse priority which
grammatical errors.
considered
experienced
6.5
6.6).
(see
in
3
items
1,2
tables
and
shown
and
6. The data show that experienced teachers sometimes encourage one of the students to attempt
to correct his/her classmate before they give their correction. This means that experienced
teachers like to involve all students in thinking of error correction and they give chances to all
in
in
Consequently,
to
speak
and
share
order
correction.
experienced
students to participate
less
18
No.
than
item
earlier
experienced teachers did (see table 6.6).
teachers classified
199
Meanwhile, table (6.5) and table (6.6) show that

experienced teachers try to correct a student's
errors after self and peer-correction; while less experienced teachers try to correct a student's
oral errors by themselves. This also indicates that there is a difference between experienced
teachers regarding who corrects students' errors.
7. From the analysis of the questionnaire, item No. 14, "I correct errors through explanation and
has
in
teachers with 10 years experience and less and it occupied position
practice"
priority
No. 7 among the rest of the other items. However, the same items occupied position No. 13 in
the teachers with 11years experience and more. This indicates that less experienced teachers
depend to a large extent on practice, which gives students a chance to check their utterances in
front of their teachers. Although this item occupied No. 14 in table (6.5), experienced teachers
it
may consider
as one of the most important techniques used in oral error correction. I may
conclude that both types of teachers (more experienced and less experienced teachers),
item
important
has
this
technique
consider
an
which
priority in the ways that they deal with
8. Item No. 24, namely, "I encourage students to engage in oral activities rather than correct what
they say", also has priority for teachers. Experienced teachers pay much attention to engaging
their students in oral activities rather than correcting their errors. This may also show that
experienced teachers emphasise fluency rather than accuracy in their oral activities, which may
in
lowest
items
item
is
However,
the
ten
the
to
placed
encourage students
same
communicate.
in the less experienced teachers table (6.6). This may indicate that teachers with 10 years
fluency.
This
less
technique may also
than
to
experience or
accuracy rather
pay more attention
in
less
their
they
to
their
that
teachers
say
get
whatever
show
students
correct
experienced
language right from the beginning. Therefore, I may say there is a difference between
item
No.
24.
less
teachers
regarding
experienced and
experienced
9. Item No. 16, namely, "I correct errors by speaking in Arabic" has priority in table (6.6) rather
than in table (6.5). This may indicate that less experienced teachers use the native language in
correcting
students'
errors more than experienced teachers. This also means that less
direct
than
correction
teachers
quicker
emphasise
experienced teachers, who use
experienced
200
the target language in order to involve their students in correction. This shows that there is
difference
between experienced and less experiencedteachersin oral error correction
some
10. Item 27, namely, "students want me to correct their errors" is one of the items
which took
in
less
the
priority
experienced teacher's responses. It occupied 15th place in table (6.6) while
the same item occupied the 18th place in the experienced teachers' table (6.5). This indicates
that less experienced teachers strongly believe that their students want them to correct their
errors, while experienced ones think their errors need to be corrected by them, but not as
strongly as the less experienced teachers believe it. Meanwhile, item No. 8, namely, "I do not
correct students' oral errors" has occupied the second lowest item in table (6.6) and the same
item has occupied the sixth lowest place in table (6.5), which indicates that all teachers seem
to have a positive attitude and correct their students oral errors as a part of their job.
11. Table No. 22, namely, "I correct shy students in the same way as I correct active students, i. e.
if I correct minor errors of active students, I do the same with shy students" has occupied the
27th place in the less experienced teachers' table (6.6), while the same item has occupied the
33rd place in the experienced teachers' table (6.5). This indicates that there is some difference
between experienced and less experienced teachers in how they correct shy students. This is to
say that experienced teachers differentiate between shy and active students in their way of
correcting oral errors more than less experienced ones do.
12. Tables (6.5) and (6.6) show that item No. 19, namely, "I feel angry when students commit
but
it
is
lower
in
in
both
lowest
items
has
item
tables
the
this
errors"
shown
classified as among
the experienced teachers' table. This may indicate that experienced teachers are more patient
from
be
This
their
come up
years of
patience may
when correcting
teaching and teachers realise that errors are a natural phenomena in learning language while
less experienced teachers regard errors as a problem in students' performance and need to be
from
difference
be
This
in
them
to
occurring.
considered as another
stop
may
corrected
order
between experienced and less experienced teachers in the way of oral error correction.
13. Item No. 23, namely, "I single out the student who has committed the error in order to
has
both
from
the
lowest
in
the
same
committing
error"
the
occupied
position
prevent
class
201
tables (6.5) and (6.6) which shows that experienced and less experienced teachersdo not single
out the student who commits errors from his/her classmates. This is an indicator which
expressesthat teachers with different lengths of experience seem to know the psychological
feeling if they single out a student from the rest of the class because
has
s/he
committed an
error. Therefore, both experienced and experienced teachers act the same when a student
commits an error and do not single him/her out.
The analysis of part two in the teachers' questionnaires has shown the following results:
1. Item No. 39, namely, "Have you taught the basic grade?" shows that the percentage of less
experienced teachers who taught the basic grade is 45.28 % and the percentage who did not
teach the basic grade is 54.71% while the percentage of experienced teachers who taught the
basic grade is 66.66% and the percentage of the experienced teachers who did not teach the
basic grade is 33.33%. This indicates that the majority of experienced teachers taught the
basic grade while the majority of less experienced teachers did not teach the basic grade.
Teaching in the basic grade with children may help teachers to be patient with the students in
the way of oral error correction.
Teachers who taught the basic
grade
Experience
yes
No
Total
>_10
24
29
53
<_11
12
Total
32
33
65
Table 6.7 shows the number of experienced and

less experienced teachers who taught the basic grade
2. Item No. 40, namely, "Are you teaching boys, girls or mixed classes?" has shown that the
(6.8)
Table
less
teaching
teachers
mixed classes.
are
experienced
majority of experienced and
illustrates the number of teachers according to their experience and the kind of classes (boy,
This
indicates
table
teaching.
that the majority of teachers are
they
also
are
girls or mixed)
familiar with reactions of male and female students when they are corrected in front of each
in
level
in
is
the
teaching
Teaching
secondary
not
same experience as
mixed classes
other.
single sex classes.
202
Teachers and teaching classes

Boys, girls or mixed
Total
Experience
Boys
Girls
Mixed
>_10
48
53
<_11
11
12
Total
59
65
Table 6.8 shows number of teachers according to their experiences and the kind of classes they are teaching
3. Item 41, namely, "I prefer teaching boys, girls or mixed" has shown that the number of less
experienced teachers who prefer to teach mixed classes is 31 out of 53 which is 58.49%, and
the number who prefer to teach girls only is 14 out of 53 which is 26.41%, while the number
who prefer to teach boys only is 8 out of 53 which is 15.09%. The same table shows that the
number of experienced teachers who prefer to teach mixed classes is 8 out of 12, which is
66.66%, and the number who prefer to teach girls only is 2 out of 12, while the number who
boys
is
is
2
12
to
teach
the same. This table indicates that experienced
prefer
only
out of
which
less
and
experienced teachers prefer teaching mixed classes.
Total
Teachers prefer teaching

boys only
8
Girls only
14
Mixed
31
53
<_11
12
Total
10
16
39
65
Experience
>_10
Table 6.9 shows the kind of classes teachers prefer to teach
4. Item No. 42, namely, "Students tend to be more active towards correction when the class is
boys only, girls only or mixed" has shown that most teachers believe their classesare active
less
boys
However,
between
the
they
experienced
of
number
and girls.
when
are mixed
teachers who believe that mixed classes are active towards correction is 28 out of 53 teachers,
believes
less
is
52.83%
teachers
the
girls classes are
who
experienced
number of
which
and
believe
is
The
is
53,
32.07%.
17
their
that
teachers
towards
out
of
rest
which
active
correction,
boys,
being
15.09%.
is
53
8
teachers
the
out of
students are only
which
classes are active when
By the same token 9 out of 12 experienced teachers believe that mixed classes are more active
is
75% of the experienced teachers.
towards error correction which
203
Students are active towards

correction when the class is
Total
Experience
>_10
boys only
girls only
mixed
17
28
53
<_11
Total
12
10
18
37
65
Table 6.10 shows the number of teachers according to their beliefs towards
classes
5. Item No. 43, namely, "What method(s) do you use in teaching English? " has
shown that most
less experienced teachers use the grammar translation method, which depends to large
a
extent
on explaining
grammar rules, using the first language in explaining
lesson
a new
or
vocabulary, and emphasising accuracy in using grammar rules, more than focusing on the
meaning of the message. Table (6.11) shows 35 less experienced teachers use grammar
translation methods in teaching English, which is 66.03% from the whole group of less
experienced teacher. Their second choice of teaching method is the direct method which is
15.09%.
This percentage is not high compared with the total number of less experienced
about
teachers. Nevertheless, table (6.11) shows that experienced teachers use the communicative
approach in their way of teaching English, which is different from both grammar translation
and the direct method. This is also seen in actual practice that experienced teachers applied
communicative approach in oral activities. The other method of teaching English, as a second
by
is
teachers,
the eclectic method which gives the teachers a chance to
choice
experienced
choose their teaching method from different methods. Table (6.11) and graph (6.5) shows the
different methods according to teachers' experience.
what method(s) do you use in tea hing Englis
Experience
grammar
translation
method
direct
method
communicative
approach
eclectic
method
Others
Total
>_10
35
53
12
36
11
65
<_11
Total
Table 6.11 shows the methods that the teachers use in teaching English
204
What method(s) do teachers use in teaching English?

grammar
translation
method
communicative
approach
direct method
eclectic
method
others
40
ch 30
U
(0
a)
O
20
E
c
a)
L
F10
0
10years
or less
1lyears
or more
10years
or less
llyears
or more
10years
or less
1lyears
or more
10years
or less
1lyears
or more
10years
or less
1lyears
or more
Teachers' experience
Graph 6.5 shows the number of teachers according to their own experience and the method(s) they use
In summing this up, there are some differences and similarities between experienced and less
experienced teachers in the way they correct students' oral errors repetition of previous
differences
The
sentences.
lie in the timing
of correction,
which
is shown when the
experienced teachers correct students' oral errors. Experienced teachers correct after the
students finish their attempts, but less experienced teachers correct exactly when the students
commit the error. Experienced teachers do not correct all errors in the same way, for example,
they do not correct minor errors as much as they do with major errors, while less experienced
teachers correct all errors without distinguishing between them. Experienced teachers follow
before
i.
they
their
many steps
give
correction, e. self correction and peer-correction, while the
less experienced teachers prefer to correct students' errors by themselves. Although both types
of teacher emphasise, in their error correction, pronunciation and grammar errors, experienced
teachers give priority
to pronunciation rather than grammar, while less experienced teachers
fluency
Experienced
than
teachers
to
pronunciation.
rather
give priority
grammar
emphasise
less
experienced teachers emphasise accuracy rather than fluency.
more than accuracy while
Experienced teachers use the target language in explaining difficulties
less
or errors, while
language
in
the
students'
native
teachers
use
explaining corrections. Experienced
experienced
in
correcting students' oral errors than less experienced teachers.
teachers are more patient
205
Experienced teachers do not correct shy students the

same as they correct active ones, while
less experienced teachers do not have this difference in their
way of oral error correction.
Nonetheless, the similarity
lies in the following:
both experienced and less experienced
teachers consider error correction is an important part of the teacher's job. Both kinds of
teachers have a positive attitude towards errors and error correction. Both kinds of teachers
believe that their students want them to correct their oral errors. Experienced and less
experienced teachers consider the student's feelings inside the classroom and they do not single
out the student who commits errors.
The following
section will
deal with the students' questionnaire analysis in order to find
answers to research question number three.

The research question number 3, namely, How do teachers' gender and experience affect
students' participation
in oral activities in the classroom? will be answered
through the
analysis of students' questionnaire.

In the analysis of two hundred students' responses, of which male and female students were
illustrate
in
have
SPSS
I
to
the number of students and
the
equal number;
adopted
programme
to present every student's response regarding every item of the questionnaire. I have also used
the statistical W. A. Ms. to calculate the percentage for each item in order to make a comparison
between students' responses. The W. A. Ms show the differences among students' responses
items
if
have
I
the
to
the
the
they
according
questionnaire
of
even
rearranged
are minor ones.
students' responses regarding the equation of W. A. Ms. The students' responses were ranked
6.12b).
As
(see
6.12a
item
tables
to
the
a statistical
and
with regard
power percentage of every
detail.
in
be
discussed
items
W.
A.
Ms
to
the
the
procedure, all
according
will
I.
Table (6.12a) shows that item No 6, "I find oral error correction useful in developing my
English" has got the highest W. A. M, namely 90.2%. This means that students are concerned
language
from
they
the
their teachers
and
their
teachers'
correction
can
get
error
correct
about
in order to develop their English. This is registered as a positive male students' attitude
(6.12b)
However,
table
towards error correction.
shows that the same item, item No. 6, has got
206
the highest W. A. M, namely 96.6%, which indicates that female

students find that error
correction helps them to develop their English language. Despite male and female students
having positive responses towards error correction in developing their English language,
female students still have a more positive attitude than
male students.
2.
Table (6.12a) shows that item No. 1, "I like my errors to be corrected" has
got the second
highest W. A. M., namely 88%. From this it is clear that
male students like their errors to be
in
corrected
order to gain accurate language. However, this item has got the fifth highest
W. A. M. (see table 6.12b) namely 88.6%, which also shows that females like their
errors to
be corrected. Although
the item has got the fifth highest W. A. M. among items in table
(6.12b), it is equal, or a bit higher than the percentage of the same item compared with male
students' responses in table (6.12a). This item also shows that male and female students have
almost the same positive attitude towards their errors being corrected.
3.
With regard to the male students' responses, item No. 25, "I pay much attention to fluency
rather than accuracy during oral communication" has got the third highest W. A. M. namely
86.4%. The fact that the students did not ask me any questions on the meaning of these
concepts and the fact that the students' questionnaires were in Arabic seem to suggest that
these terms were not ambiguous to them. The percentages of W. A. M. reveal that male
do
bother
too much about committing errors during oral communication. They
students
not
fluency
concentrate on
rather than accuracy while they are speaking. At the same time,
female participants' responses on the same item gained the W. A. M. 66.8%, which is number
16 which ranks from the top. This indicates that female students pay much attention to
fluency.
fluency
in
I
than
their
that
accuracy rather
may say
some male students emphasise
female
than
oral communication more
students.
4.
Table (6.12a) shows item No. 3, "I like my teacher to correct my major oral errors", has got
the fourth highest W. A. M. namely 85.4%. This indicates that male students like their major
errors, which may hinder oral communication,
fluency
concentrate on
to be corrected. Although
during oral communication,
male students
they like their major errors to be
flow
keep
While
female
in
the
to
of
speaking.
corrected
order
students' response on the same
item registered the fourth W. A. M, namely 89.6%, this is higher than the percentage recorded
by male students. This indicates that female students like their major errors to be corrected
during oral communication by their teacher.
207
5.
The same table shows that item No. 18, "my teacher encourages me to speak although I
commit errors" has the W. A. M. 85.2%, which is the fifth highest item recorded by male
students. Nonetheless, the same item has got the second highest W. A. M., namely 91.6%,
according to the female responses. This suggests that female students are encouraged more
than male students when they produce language, even if they commit
in
errors
oral
communication.
6.
Item No. 7, which says, "I like to have all my oral errors corrected" has got the sixth highest
W. A. M., 84.2% according to male students' responses, while the female students' responses
W.
A.
M.
86.4%.
Although female students' responses are a bit higher than the males, the
got
W. A. M. ranked in the seventh place among the other items in the female students' responses.
This may indicate that both sexes are similar in their reaction towards the types of oral errors
to be corrected.
7. Table (6.12a) shows that item No. 14, "I like my teacher to correct oral errors immediately
highest
item
has
has
I
W.
A.
M.,
83.4%,
them"
the
the
same
got
second
after commit
got
while
W. A. M. 90%, according to female students' responses (see table 6.12b). The difference in
the W. A. Ms in the same item, according to students' different gender' responses, may
indicate that there is some difference between male and female students during error
correction.
This also indicates that female students like their errors to be corrected
immediately in contrast to males.

8. Item No. 8 namely, "I like my teacher to correct my oral errors" has got the W. A. M. 83.
has
female
the
to
the
got
responses
students'
while
male students' responses,
according
W. A. M., 87.2%. This also indicated that there is a slight difference in the percentage
indicate
item.
However,
the
W.
A.
M.
the
to
results
same
students' responses
regarding the
that female students like their teacher to correct their errors more than males.
9. Item No. 15, "I like my teacher to point out my oral error directly" has got the W. A. M. 82.6%
86%
W.
A.
M.
has
item
the
the
got
same
according the male students' responses, while
has
item
indicates
This
the
female
the
that
ninth
the
same
to
responses.
students'
according
highest position in both students' tables (6.12a, 6.12b), but female students responses have
like
both
This
than
higher
that,
male students.
genders
suggests
although
percent
registered a
directly,
female
their
errors
their teacher to point out
students still have a more positive
item
than
this
males.
towards
attitude
208
10. According to male students' responses, item No. 20, namely, "I like to hear the corrected form
of other students' errors from my teacher" has got the W. A. M 79.2%, while female students'
responses recorded 7.1%. This indicates that there is a similarity between male and female
students' reaction. Both sexes like to hear the correction of errors by teachers rather than
anybody else. The similarity
of the sexes' attitude is not only in the percentage of the
W. A. M., but also in the level of classification from the highest to the lowest item, which
occupied the tenth highest item in the male ranked items and the eleventh highest in the
female students' level of responses.
11. Tables (6.12a) and (6.12b) show that male students' responses got the W. A. M. 77% for the
item, "I like my teacher to correct my minor oral errors" while female students' responses got
the W. A. M. 81.8%, which is higher than male students' responses. This indicates that female
like
their teacher to correct minor oral errors more than male students do.
students
12. Item No. 27, namely, "less experienced teachers are good at correcting students' oral errors"
has got the W. A. M. of the value 74.6% according to the male students' responses (see table
6.12a). It seems that male students consider less experienced teachers to be good at oral error
lenient
boys
be
due
fact
female
This
to
the
that
the
teachers
correction.
may
are more
with
than girls because the majority of teachers at the secondary schools are males (see subsection
6.2.1). Nevertheless, the same item has recorded the W. A. M. of the value 52%, which
indicates that female students consider less experienced teachers are less able at correcting
their oral errors; besides, this item has ranked number 22 in the female students' responses
(see table 6.12b) while male students' responses in this item ranked number 12. This shows
that there is some difference between male and female students' responses regarding less
being
teachers
good at correcting students' oral errors.
experienced
13.72.2%
is the W. A. M. of the item No. 16, namely, "I like my teacher to explain the oral error
indicates
Such
that
blackboard"
to
the
male
a
value
students'
male
responses.
according
on
better
in
blackboard
to
like
to
the
teachers
their
get
a
order
explain oral errors on
students
At
item
has
W.
A.
M.
the
the
the
time,
this
the
of
error.
got
same
corrected
understanding of
female
females
indicate
the
to
that
76.8%
students' responses, which may
according
value
liking
in
blackboard,
their
teachers
to
less
the
explain
oral
which
errors on
are
enthusiastic
indicates there is a small difference between male and female students regarding the value of
this item.
209
14.
Table (6.12a) shows item No. 22, namely, "I like to

in
the correction of other
participate
students' oral errors" has got the W. A. M. 69.6% according to the male students' responses,
while table (6.12b) illustrates that the same item has got the W. A. M. of the value 66.8%
according to the female students' responses. This item also occupied position number 14
items
in the male students' responses, while the same item occupied number 15
among all
female
among
students' responses. This may indicate that students' responses according to
this item are similar between both sexes.
15. Table (6.12a) shows item No. 21, namely, "I like another student to correct my errors" has
got the W. A. M. of the value 68.2% according to the male students' responses, while the same
item has got the W. A. M. of the value 66.8% according to the female students' responses.
This means that the percentage between male and female students' responses is similar, while
the items ranked according to male and female students is at number 15 in table (6.12a) and
6.12b. Therefore, there is no major difference between male and female students liking
another student to correct their oral errors.
16. Table (6.13a) shows that item No. 9, namely, "I prefer to be corrected by a male teacher" has
got the W. A. M. of the value 65.6% according to male students' responses. This indicates that
female
by
be
teacher.
to
than
their
a
male students prefer
oral errors
corrected
a male rather
However, table (6.12b) shows that the same item has got the W. A. M. of the value 55.4%.
Although, this may show that female students have a positive attitude towards correction by
by
higher
teachers,
male teachers than
emphasis on correction
male
male students place a
female students.
17. Item No. 19, namely, "I do not like anyone to correct my oral errors in front of the class" has
is
(6.12a).
This
by
is
illustrated
that
59.2%,
table
W.
A.
M.
the
the
clear
which
got
of
value
because
front
in
be
they
the
to
may
class
whole
of
corrected
many male students prefer not
(6.12b)
Meanwhile,
have
know
table
like
that
they
to
committed an error.
not
all students
29.2%,
have
W.
M.
A.
female
the
the
gained
same value,
of
got
students' responses
shows that
by male students responses (see table 6.12a). This also indicates that female students do not
like to be corrected in front of the whole class, which may also be due to the psychological
do
like
front
be
in
both
to
the
sexes
not
class.
that
of
corrected
students'
reasons
Consequently, this item does not record any difference between male and female students
210
while there is a small difference in the order of the same item in both students' responsesin
table (6.12a) and table (6.12b).
18. Item No. 24, "I pay much attention to accuracy rather than fluency during oral activities" has
got the W. A. M. of the value 56.2%, which indicates that male students pay much attention to
producing accurate language rather than fluency when I make the comparison between this
item and item No. 25 Ì pay much attention to fluency rather than accuracy during oral
communication'.
The same item has got the W. A. M. of the value 59.2% according to the
female students' responses, which may indicate that female students pay much more
attention to accuracy rather than fluency during oral communication. This item shows that
there is some difference between male and female students according to their priority in
emphasising accuracy.
19. Item No. 23, namely, "I do not like to participate in classroom discussion because I am afraid
of committing errors" has got the W. A. M. of the value 55.2%. This may indicate that many
male students have a positive attitude towards learning language but they are still afraid, in
has
in
item
However,
the
classroom participation
oral activities, of committing errors.
same
got the W. A. M. of the value 50.4% which indicates that the percentage of female students'
indicate
female
is
less
difference
This
that
than
that
students
of male students.
may
responses
like to participate in classroom discussion more than male students.
20. Item No. 26, namely, "Experienced teachers are good at correcting students' oral errors" has
got the W. A. M. of the value 53.6% according to male students' responses, while the same
item has got a highest W. A. M. of the value 88% in female students' responses. This W. A. M.
is the sixth highest value according to female students' responses as table (6.12b) shows.
With regard to the same item, it indicates that there is a clear difference between male and
female students who consider experienced teachers to be good at correcting students' oral
errors.
21. Item No. 5, namely, "Correcting oral errors is a waste of students' time" has got the W. A. M.
from
is
lowest
item
in
53%,
the
the
the male students' responses
the
seventh
which
of
value
in table (6.12a). This item has also got the W. A. M. of the value 67%, which is higher than
indicates
less
This
that
male
as
students consider error correction
male students' responses.
of a waste of time.
211
22.
Table (6.12a) shows item No. 17 in the questionnaire items,

"my
teacher always
namely,
focuses on the form rather than meaning" has
got the W. A. M. of the value 52.4% according
to the male students' responses. This indicates that many male students emphasise that their
teachers always focus on the correct form rather than the meaning of the message. However,
the same item has got the W. A. M. of the value 50%, which is the second among items in
table (6.13b), from below. It may indicate that female students consider that their teachers do
not concentrate on form rather than meaning. With regard to table (6.12a) and table (6.12b),
students' responses of item No. 17 show that, although there are small differences between
female
male and
students' responses, most consider that their teachers do not always focus
form,
but
focus
they
only on
on meaning as well.
23.
Item No. 12, namely, "Female teachers are more keen on oral correction"
has got the
W. A. M. of the value 52.4% according to the male students' responses. This shows that some
female
keen
lenient
in
teachers
their way of correcting
male students consider
are
and
has
female
Meanwhile,
W.
M.
A.
the
got the value
of
students' responses
52.2% which indicates that female students consider that female teachers are keen in their
has
difference
both
The
no clear
percentage of
students' sexes
ways of oral error correction.
in their ways of error correction.
24.50.8%
is the W. A. M. of item No. 11 namely, "I prefer to be corrected by a female teacher".
Such a value indicates that male students like to be corrected by female teachers. The same
item has the W. A. M. of the value 56.8%, which indicates that female students have got a
higher percentage than male students. This difference may indicate that students prefer to be
by
the same sex.
corrected
25. Table (6.12a) shows that item No. 10 namely, "male teachers are more keen on oral
is
50.4%
M.
the
W.
A.
to
the
has
the
the
of
value
close
which
of
value
correction"
got
feeling
have
indicate
This
that male teachers
item
11.
the
No.
that
male students
may
previous
item
(6.13b)
However,
the
keen
that
table
same
shows
are
on correcting students' oral errors.
has got the W. A. M. of the value 50.6% which is nearly the same as female students'
indicates
This
(6.12a).
both
have
that
the
in
table
the
students
same
of
sexes
almost
responses
belief that male teachers are keen on oral error correction.
26. Item No. 2, namely, "I don't like my errors to be corrected" has got the W. A. M. 49.00%
in
50%
This
the
less
is
students
male
who
than
of
participated
questionnaire.
may
which
212
indicate that this item is considered

less
as
valuable to male students, which means male
like
their errors to be corrected, but they may prefer one technique rather than
students
another. At the same time, the same item has got the W. A. M. of the value 51.4% according
to female students' responses which means female students' results in the questionnaire is
slightly higher than male students' results. This indicates that this item, with regard to
students' responses in both sexes, has got a lower percentage compared with the preceding
responses. Hence, both sexes are nearly similar in the level of disagreement at having their
errors uncorrected, but the difference may occur in the level of sensitivity because female
students show a 2.50% higher than male students' responses.
27. The final item, No. 13, of the male students' responses in table (6.12a), which says "All
teachers who have taught me English use the same method of oral correction" has got the
lowest W. A. M. of the value 43.8% among all items in the students' questionnaire. This may
indicate that according to male students' experience, teachers have different methods and
techniques in correcting students' oral errors. However, the same item has got the W. A. M. of
the value 52.2% according to female students' responses as in table (6.12b), which is higher
than male students' responses. This may indicate that there is a difference between male and
female students regarding their teachers' methods of oral error correction.
Table 6.12a shows the male students' responses in each item ranked according to their W.A. Ms
Items
No in
Order
Items
No in
Q.
Questions
1
2
3
6
1
25
I find oral error correction useful in developing my English

I like my errors to be corrected
90.2
88%
86.4
4
5
3
18
I like my teacher to correct my major oral errors

My teacher encourages me to speak although I commit errors
85.4
85.2
6
7
7
14
84.2
83.4
8
9
10
8
15
20
11
12
13
14
15
16
4
27
16
22
21
9
I like to have all my oral errors corrected

I like my teacher to correct my oral errors immediately after I
commit them
I like my teacher to correct my oral errors
I like my teacher to point out my oral error directly
I like to hear the corrected form of other students' errors from my
teacher
I like my teacher to correct my minor oral errors
Less experienced teachers are good at correcting students' oral errors
I like my teacher to explain the oral error on the blackboard
I like to participate in correction of other students' oral errors
I like another student to correct my errors
1 prefer to be corrected by a male teacher
I pay much attention to fluency rather than accuracy during oral

communication.
213
83.0
82.6
79.2
77
74.6
72.2
69.6
68.2
65.6
17
18
19
24
19
23
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
26
5
17
12
11
10
2
13
I do not like anyone to correct my oral errors in front of the

class
I pay much attention to accuracy rather than fluency during oral
activities
I do not like to participate in classroom discussion because I am
afraid of committing errors
Experienced teachers are good at correcting students' oral errors
Correcting oral errors is a waste of student's time
My teacher always focuses on the form rather than the meaning
Female teachers are more keen on oral error correction
I prefer to be corrected by a female teacher
Male teachers are more keen on oral correction
I don't like my errors to be corrected
All teachers who have taught me English use the same method of
oral correction
59.2
56.2
55.2
53.6
53
52.4
52.2
50.8
50.4
49.00
43.8
Table 6.12b shows the female students' responses arranged according the percentage power of each item
Items
No in
Order
Items
No
in Q.
Questions
1
2
3
6
18
14
96.6
91.6
90
4
5
3
1
I find oral error correction useful in developing my English

My teacher encourages me to speak although I commit errors
I like my teacher to correct my oral errors immediately after I commit
them
I like my teacher to correct my major oral errors
I like my errors to be corrected
6
7
8
9
10
11
26
8
7
15
4
20
88
87.2
86.4
86
81.8
78.0
12
13
14
15
16
16
5
22
21
25
17
18
19
24
19
20
21
11
9
13
22
23
24
25
27
2
10
23
26
27
17
12
Experienced teachers are good at correcting students' oral errors

I like my teacher to correct my oral errors
I like to have all my oral errors corrected
I like my teacher to point out my oral error directly
I like my teacher to correct my minor oral errors
I like to hear the corrected form of other students' errors from my
teacher
I like my teacher to explain the oral error on the black board
Correcting oral errors is a waste of student's time
I like to participate in correction of other students' oral errors
I like another student to correct my oral errors
I pay much attention to fluency rather than accuracy during oral
communication.
I do not like anyone to correct my oral errors in front of the class
I pay much attention to accuracy rather than fluency during oral
activities
I prefer to be corrected by a female teacher
I prefer to be corrected by a male teacher
All teachers who have taught me English use the same method of oral
correction
Less experienced teachers are good at correcting students' oral errors
I don't like my errors to be corrected
Male teachers are more keen on oral correction
I do not like to participate in classroom discussion because I am afraid
of committing errors
My teacher always focuses on the form rather than the meaning
Female teachers are more keen on oral error correction
214
89.6
88.6
76.8
67
66.8
66.8
66.4
59.2
59.2
56.8
55.4
52.2
52
51.4
50.6
50.4
50
48.4
So far, the analysis of the first 27 items of the students'

questionnaire has pointed out students'
concerns about the correction of their errors. Such correction is said to be done using different
techniques and ways in order to achieve students' wishes. The analysis of the 27 items reveals
that there is some difference between male and female students according to W. A. Ms in some
items, while there is a clear similarity in others. These differences lie in the time of correction,
the person who corrects errors, the type of errors to be corrected, the kind of errors to be
corrected and the aim of error correction.
In part two of the students' questionnaire, I will present the students' responses as bar graphs in
help
to
the reader to understand whether there is a difference between students' gender or
order
first
The
in
is
item No. 28 namely, "How many years has your teacher
two
not.
question
part
been teaching English? (Please ask your teacher)". This has shown that female students'
different
from
responses are
males, although there are a few similarities. This question was
designed to explore relationships between students' responses and their teachers' experience
[The students' answers are also represented by a graph (6.6)] However, number 1 at the top of
the graphic represents a female participant and number 2 represents a male participant, while
the numbers from 1-60 show the participants' answers.
Gender
12
60
50
40
G)
N
C
O
N
30
a)
20
10
0
1-5
6-10
11-15
How many
teaching
16-20
21&
1-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
years has your teacher

English?
(Please
ask
teacher)
21B<
been
you
Graph 6.6 shows male and female students' responses according to their teachers' experience. Note: ] means
female &2 means male
From graph (6.6) it is clear that there is some difference among the columns of students'
responses, which
indicates that there is a difference between teachers' experience. For
16-20
female
but
is
8
teachers
teacher
there
with
years
experience
no
male
there
are
example,
215
with the same experience. Moreover, the same graph also shows some differences between
teachers according to their experience.
Item No. 29, namely, "is your teacher of English male? " has
%
females
57
that
shown
of
said
`yes' and 43% said `no', while 52% males said `yes' and 48 % said `no',
which indicates that
the higher number of students who participated in the questionnaire are taught by male
teachers. Thus, the number of students who said `yes' is 57 + 52 = 109, while the number who
is
`no'
43 + 48 = 91.
said
This item was designed to explore relationships between the
teacher's gender and the students' responses.

Gender
12
60
so
40
Co
cD
0
30
CD
Q'
20
10
0
Yes
Is
No
your
teacher
Yes
of
English
No
male?
Graph 6.7 shows the teacher's gender according to students' responses.Note: ] means female &2 means male
Item No. 30, namely, "Does your teacher use different techniques in correcting students' oral
is
female
`yes'
72%,
"
has
that
the
said
and
responses
who
errors?
students'
shown
number of
the number who said `no' is 28%, while the number of males who said `yes' is 64%, while the
is
64
`yes'
72
is
However,
`no'
36%.
+
the
total
who
said
number of students
number who said
indicate
is
64.
This
28
36
`no'
+
that
the
total
may
=
=136 while
number of students who said
in
different
their
techniques
teachers
of
regardless
correcting
students'
oral
errors
most
use
gender.
Item No. 31, namely, "Does your teacher correct you while you are speaking? " has calculated
is
73%,
`yes'
is
`no'
27%
the
female
the
and
that
said
ones
who
said
who
while
male
students'
%,
is
81
`no'
is
19%.
indicates
is
the
This
`yes'
that
there
one
and
who
said
a
students who said
However,
the
to
the
students'
difference
responses.
according
number of responses,
slight
216
regardless of the students' gender, who said `yes' is 73 + 81 = 154 and the total responses who
is
`no'
27 +19 = 46 This also shows that the number of students
said
their
who
emphasised
.
teacher's correction of oral errors while they were speaking, is higher than those postponing or
delaying the correction. Graph (6.8) illustrates these differences.
Graph 6.8 shows the teacher's correction while students speak
Students' responses
according to their gender
12
100
80
U)
N
60
0
N
E
40
Z
20
0
yes
No
yes
No
Does your teacher correct you while you

are speaking? Note 1 means female &2
means male
Item No. 32, namely, "Does your teacher prefer to correct oral errors after the student finishes
the message" has shown that the students' responses are as follows: the female students who
`no'
44%,
`yes'
56%,
the
selected
are
while the male students
are
and
students who selected
who said `yes' are 47%, and the ones who said `no' are 53%. This shows that the number of
female students who confirmed that their teachers prefer to correct their students' oral errors
However,
is
little
higher
finish
than
the
they
the
students
confirmed.
after
a
male
message,
difference
between
Note,
1
illustrates
(6.9)
the
number
students' responses.
graph number
2
female
response
while
number
represents male student's responses.
represents a
student's
217
Gender
12
60
50
40
Q)
N
O
30
U)
(1)
Of
20
10
0
Yes
No
Does
your
oral errors
Yes
No
teacher
to correct
prefer
finishes
after the student
the message
Graph 6.9 shows the students' response regarding the teacher's way of oral error correction. Note: 1 means
female &2 means male
Item 33, namely, "Is your teacher harsh in correcting students' oral errors? " has got 6% of
female responses in `yes' and 94% in `no', while the male responses in `yes' are 15% and in
`no', 85%. This indicates that female students think that their teachers are less harsh than the
difference.
(6.10)
However,
the
think.
the
graph
represents
male students
Gender
12
100
80
H
N
N
60
0
U,
H
40
20
0
Yes
Is your
No
teacher
students'
Yes
No
harsh
in correcting
oral errors?
Graph 6.10 shows the students' responses regarding their teacher's behaviour. Note: 1 means female &2
means male
Item No. 34 namely, "Do you often participate in oral activities? " has got different responses.
in
%
`yes'
81
Female students' responses are
and 19% in `no', while male students' responses
indicates
in
`no'.
This
female
in
33%
that
in
`yes'
students participate
oral
and
are 67%
218
classroom activities more than male students. Graph (6.11) represents the differences between
female
male and
students' responses.
Gender
12
100
80
V)
(L)
N
60
CL
cl
40
20
0
Yes
No
Do you
Yes
often participate
activities?
No
in oral
Graph 6.11 shows the differences between male and feinale students in their oral classroom activities. Note: 1
female
&2 means male
means
Item 35, namely, "Is your teacher patient when s/he corrects your oral errors? " has shown that
female students who said `yes' are 85% and those who said `no' are 15%, while the male
indicates
is
81%,
19%
This
`yes'
that
there
those
a
students who said
are
and
who said are
.
difference, but it is not high, between both sexes and the graph below shows that.
Gender
12
100
80
U)
60
CD
N
O
CU)
4)
cl
40
20
0
Yes
No
Yes
No
Is your teacher patient when s/he

corrects your oral errors?
Graph 6.12 shows the students' responses with regard to teachers' patience. Note: 1 female &2 means male
219
6.3 Comparison and Contrast

This section compares the results of classroom observations, semi-structured interviews and
questionnaires. The similar results among the triangulation
methodological
techniques will
findings
in which they answer the research questions. The reader is reminded that
the
support
here
observations
classroom
are the main tool of data collection. To discuss this section, the
teachers' responses will be grouped around the research questions. The first research question
if
there were any differences between the ways in which male and female Libyan
asked
teachers correct students' oral errors and what those differences were, if any. More often, the
differences
lay
in the following:
the
similarity and
6.3.1 The Similarity
With regard to the teachers' responses, results of semi-structured interviews, classroom
"
female
differences
between
that
there
and
observations and questionnaires showed
male
were
teachers in their ways of correcting students' oral errors. For example, the majority of female
teachers were observed and reported that they corrected their male students with patience,
in
G,
female
leniency
For
7
teacher
than
school
students.
example,
with
gentleness and more
female
four
She
teacher
was teaching second year and the number
years' experience.
a
with
following
boys
(ten
The
her
twelve
two
twenty
extracts were taken
girls).
and
of
students was
from the interview which took place at school to illustrate that:
-
Q. Do you correct male and female students differently? Please give me examples and
your reasons?
T. The way of correcting girls' oral errors is always very easy but boys and
find
be
don
like
't
in
to
this age
a male student
corrected and rarely you
especially
lenient
I
boys
deal
in
I
be
try
to
likes
therefore
way.
to
a
with
criticised,
who
let
feel
that they made errors.
to
them
them
gently and not
correct
However, teacher number14 in school N was a female with two years' experience who was
(seven
She
during
teaching
eighteen students
was
classroom observation.
strict with a student
boys and eleven girls) in second year and the following
interviewed at her school for an hour and said:
220
illustrates
that when she was
extract
T. Ok, irregular plural forms, [she was

explaining the difference between regular and
irregular noun forms]
T. ok, [she looked at a male student at the back of the boys'

him]
row and asked
T. find the plural forms of these nouns in the text, life, life is it
life
is it
plural or singular,
plural or singular?
S. plural
T. No, no no it is singular, stand up, what the plural
life,
of
change it into plural.
S. {o} [the student did not answer]
T. Changef into what? into what? Into v and added what?[ she was speaking in
loud
a
voice]
S. s
T. Sit down
The results revealed that there was a difference between male and female teachers in the
techniques used in the correction
of students' oral errors. Male teachers used various
techniques more than female teachers. This finding was observed and reported by male
teachers saying that they use different techniques which vary according to the students' type of
errors and the aim of the activity. Male teachers tried to use various techniques and did not
in
to
the ways of their correction. This may indicate that male teachers are
stick
one method
comfortable with various techniques of error correction regardless of students' gender while
female teachers seem to find comfort in selecting from a restricted number of techniques of
error correction. This may also indicate that female teachers are focused on the way of giving
the correction rather than the methods or the techniques they may use to help students
female
In
the
teacher was observed and reported that
understand
correction.
contrast, one
be
in
16
This
techniques
teacher
various
should
used.
was number
school P with twenty years'
experience who was teaching second year students. The number of the students was twenty six
(twelve boys and fourteen girls). She used various techniques similar to the ones used by male
teachers. For example, the female teacher used self-correction, peer correction, looking into the
dictionary, asking colleagues or bringing the right correction form in on the following
day.
Thus, the following were extracts from the female teacher number 16's interview school P. She
had twenty seven years' experience:
T. The technique of error correction depends on my time if I have enough time if I have
him/her
by
himself
I
by
herself
I
to
the
time
ask
correct
can
error
or
or
ask
enough
him
listen
friends
to
to
again and say or try to to to see the mistakes otherwise
their
I'll do it myself
-*
221
T. I feel happy if they just answer the question or I can try to collect their answers
from their mouths.
-a
T. Ok I try to help them to use the dictionary

--4
T. I help them to use dictionaries either in pronunciation
for
looking
the meaning
or
Female teachers gave more chances and opportunities to boys rather than girls and boys could
interrupt female teachers at anytime without permission. This finding was observed clearly
from most of female teachers. The following
from
15's
taken
teacher
extracts were
number
interview in school 0 with two years' experience. She was teaching nineteen students (three
boys and fifteen girls). The students were in the second year and this may support the finding:
T. Yes there is a difference between male and female students

Q. You said there is a difference
T. Yes there is
Q. What is the difference?
T. For example if the class is male students, I do not worry too much about them
because I know their level.
Q. Why you do not worry about the male students?
T. Because they were impolite, so I do not worry about them, I avoid correcting them.
--4
T. Ido not worry about them even if they became naughty in the class I don't punish them
Q. So you don't correct the male students?
T. No, I correct them, but as
Q. But what?
T. Yes, not as the females.
--4
T. as I told you I deal with girls normally, but with boys I am not, at the same time I
but
I
them
aaa
correct
Q. avoid them
T. yes
Q. ok, why you avoid them?
because
but
feel
I
don
't
I
they as you see
too
them
T. as I told you
not
much
safe, correct
their levels, I avoid them much.
female
boys
differently
by
teachers
treated
that
These extracts showed
avoiding their challenge
i.
female
did
if
the
teacher
during
of
error
correction
the
e.
out
she
pointed
operation
and anger
222
too much correction the student might feel angry and behave rudely towards her, therefore she
be
lenient
in
to
wanted
order to be cautious. This is also expressed by female teacher number 6
in school F with five years' experience.
T. yes for example there are some boys they don 't want to be corrected and feel shy when
there are female in the class and usually some students do not repeat what I say
4-4- -- Jjby L c1Lf'4LLJliI
less
but
female
it
than
they
are
students
say
no,
repeat
boys only by their faces but boys they talk angrily.
Moreover, the following
extracts were taken from a female teacher number 13 school M with
two year' experience during the observation, it illustrated that male students interrupted the
teachers and were encouraged by female teachers more than girls. The teacher was talking to a
female student.
T. Do number A please?
MS. The cities the cities [without permission]
T. Yes good
FS. The cities location
T. The cities location number B
MS. The iprod art /abrdrt/
T. Read it again please
MS. The cities impor
T. The cities
Ss. Important
T. What?
MS. important
T. Important good good important say after me please [talking to the same male student]
MS. Important
T. excellent, good good thank you.
boys
between
distinction
did
In contrast some female teachers reported that they
not make a
female
indicate
teachers
This
that
were
in
may
terms
oral
errors.
correcting
of
and girls
acquainted with
the principal
of equality
however
teaching,
classroom
required when
did
In
boys
they
than
time
they
other
girls.
spent more
correcting
observations revealed that
in
knew
be
the
that
treated
to
female
teachers
equally,
students
are
supposed
words, although
female
do
The
between
did
that.
treatment
not
unequal
male and
actual classroom they
The
may
affect
students'
correction
enthusiasm
and
achievements.
error
of
students' ways
223
following
extracts were taken from one of the three teachers' interviews. She was teacher
number 5 in school E with ten years' experience teaching twenty students (fourteen boys and
in
the second year, illustrating the difference in the ways of their error correction:
girls)
six
Q. Good. do you correct all students' oral errors in the

same way?
T. I do not discriminate between students in the way of correction. No, I correct them in
the same way.
--4
Q. do you correct male and female students differently please give me examples? and
your reasons if yes why?
T. aaa I correct them the same way. My job in the classroom as I have mentioned is to
explain and correct students. I do not distinguish between them, because I feel as if
they are my children. I have strong relationship with all students in my class and I
have built this relation from the beginning
"
The results showed that there was a difference between male and female teachers in
nonverbal correction techniques. It was observed that female teachers used facial expressions
such as closing an eye, raising an eyebrow, moving the forehead up, biting the lower lip,
while male teachers turned their backs on the students who committed errors, looking
towards the ceiling, shaking their heads, tapping with their feet. This may indicate that
teachers' movements inside the classroom are different and may show that male teachers
lot
female
depended
teachers
moved a
while
more on their facial expression than males did.
Most of the time female teachers did not turn their back on their students especially males in
order to keep observing students' behaviour during a lesson. This difference in teachers'
behaviour might be a culture issue in the sense that female gestures are different from male
in
gestures the Libyan context.

The results did not show a significant difference between male and female teachers in the time
of error correction, whereas a clear similarity between teachers of both sexes in correcting
students' errors in reading texts, was recorded. Both male and female teachers corrected
immediately.
following
The
from
female
taken
teacher
extracts were
students' reading errors
a
four
G
She
in
7
with
years'
experience.
was teaching second year and the
number
school
224
her
number of
students was twenty two (ten boys and twelve girls). The teacher's interview
illustrates that:
Q. When do you correct your students' oral

errors?
T. I correct student's errors immediately
-4
T. In reading, I stop the student and I correct the

error immediately because I may forget
what I wanted to correct or the students may forget the idea especially when it is a
long paragraph.
-*
T. yes I correct him to fix the information to be ready to the coming consequent
piece of
knowledge

With regard to the results of data analysis, findings showed that there was a difference between
male and female teachers in who corrected oral errors. Most female teachers reported that error
job
their
correction was
own
and responsibility. They did not involve students in correcting
their fellow students in oral activities and preferred to supply their students with corrections by
themselves, while some male teachers used three kinds of corrections: 1) Self-correction, 2)
Peer correction and, 3) Teacher correction.
Under this category, male and female participants showed that there were differences related to
language skills. The following findings were observed and recorded:
Most female teachers observed and reported that accuracy was their main goal in their oral
female
Therefore,
teachers emphasised the need to correct all
the
correction.
majority of
errors regardless of the type of error. Female teachers believed correction of all errors,
including
minor
helped
students to avoid
ones,
them in other skills
language.
of
Nevertheless, one female teacher said she corrected all errors that she heard, but there were
because
did
did
they
that
correct,
not
not
were
minor
and
not affect the meaning,
errors
she
but that she did not know the correct form. The following extract illustrates that:
225
--
Q. ok, let's move to question number eight, do

you correct all oral errors that you
hear?
T.
ygiy!
"Lc
, lJ 4
Jx-L,
a
1b 4s,b, 4iLlzc/
L.;-14
Lam/ vy4q.
Li
J
b
yl
a; y
iS/
a1s:;
chi
glzill
-)LL-/
i a
I don 't correct all oral errors that I hear because sometimes there are some
errors
that I could not correct therefore I consult an experienced teacher and ask for the
form
correct
and then I come back to the students and correct them.
"
The results also showed that female teachers use Arabic to correct students' oral errors,
in
especially
grammar or pronunciation
aspects, more than male teachers, except one
female teacher who said she used English most of the time to encourage students to listen
and speak the target language. This finding
during
was clearly observed
classroom
by
the participants.
observation and reported
"
The results recorded no differences between male and female teachers in the errors that
they gave more emphasis to in their students' oral error correction. Both sexes observed
be
that
the
type
to
and reported
grammar and pronunciation errors were
main
corrected.
Therefore, semi-structured interviews, classroom observation and questionnaires confirmed
that teachers are similar in the way they correct errors and placed no more emphasis on
some correction techniques than others.
6.3.2 The Differences

These were the main differences and similarities between male and female teachers regarding
following
is
beginning
The
this
the
section
of
section.
research question number one, stated at
from
data
differences
find
the
the
and similarities which emerged
an attempt to
out
main
"Do
teachers
two,
the
pay
experienced
namely,
grouped around
question
number
research
If
less
teachers?
less
than
the
experienced
process of oral error correction
more or
attention to
"
These
how
are the main points:
yes,
and why?
"
With regard to the manner of teachers towards oral error correction, results showed that
less
more
relaxed
teachers
were
and
anxious about errors and error correction
experienced
226
than less experienced teachers.This was observed, reported and calculated through the data
analysis and was confirmed by the participant teachers.
"
From the results of the data, experienced teachers used more varied error correction
techniques than less experienced ones. The experienced teachers used and changed
techniques according to the student's ability, whether s/he was shy or active, and the aim of
the activities, while the less experienced teachers used limited techniques which they
repeated with all activities. However, one less experienced teacher reported that she used
different techniques according to the type of error and gave examples to clarify error
correction.
The
results showed that less experienced teachers sometimes mixed techniques together
41
without understanding what technique they used and how to apply them properly in the
classroom. This finding was observed when for example, some less experienced teachers
jumped from self-correction to teacher correction or from immediate correction to peer
less
In
correction.
other words,
experienced teachers might ask students to self-correct but
they did not wait until the student finished his/her attempts.
"
Less experienced male teachers moved around the classroom more than experienced
teachers from both sexes and also more than less experienced female teachers. However,
two less experienced female teachers were observed moving around their classes as the less
hand,
did.
On
the
one male teacher with eleven years experience
experienced males
other
less
his
in
that
the
experienced male
class
same way
was also observed moving around
teachers did.
"
The results proved that less experienced female teachers stood closer to the girls' rows
during most of the lesson time and rarely stood near boys' rows, whereas experienced
teachers from both sexes stood in different places in the classroom. This finding was
female
female
less
in
teachers
two
teachers
who spent
except
experienced
observed
most
female
boys.
less
These
that
teachers
two
time
reported
the
experienced
near
same
nearly
they were teaching the same students in the previous levels and stage, and they had good
finding
Consequently,
the
this
male students.
was encountered as
relationships with most of
in
less
behaved
in
how
between
teachers
they
difference
experienced and
experienced
a
their
during
students' oral error.
correcting
their class
227
The results of the data showed that experienced teachers

reacted smoothly and slowly when
their
students committed
errors, regardless of the type of those errors, while
less
experienced teachers reacted quickly and immediately without pausing. This was observed
and reported by participants, i. e. one experienced teacher reported that, in her first years,
she corrected students' errors as soon as they occurred, "I corrected my students directly
but after a long experience I became more patient and gave many chances to the
students
to correct themselves than was I was at the beginning of my teaching years ". The less
experienced teacher reported, when the student committed an error, "I told him/her `no it
was not that way'
YL".
This was considered to be one of the findings which
difference
between
showed a
experienced and less experienced teachers in their reaction
towards errors and how they behaved.
0
The results of the data revealed that experienced teachers did not correct all students' oral
errors in the same way, because teachers believed that students were different and learnt
language differently.
They reported that they did not correct shy or weak students as they
One
corrected active and good ones.
experienced teacher reported when asked, whether she
in
level
"ok,
the
the
corrected all students' oral errors
same way or not
of students are
different we have intelligent
less
I
intelligent
try to correct all
or weak students.
and
intelligent students' errors but with weak students sometimes I don't mind if the small
help
I
happy
by
feel
I
if
just
the
them
they
them.
answer
question or
errors were committed
to collect answers from their mouths ". However, less experienced teachers reported that
they did not distinguish between weak and intelligent students when correcting them.
0
Results showed that the experienced teachers used a greater variety of methods in
latter
The
less
than
still used and
experienced ones.
correcting students' oral errors
depended on the grammar translation method. However, experienced teachers used various
direct
i.
translation
the
method, communicative approach or
method,
grammar
methods e.
eclectic method.
Teachers of both sexes preferred to teach mixed classes, `boys and girls', rather than single
by
the
teachers'
This
quantitative
confirmed
analysis
of
questionnaires which
was
sex ones.
between
less
teachers'
there
a
similarity
was
experienced
and
experienced
that
showed
preferences.
228
Teachers who had experience in teaching the basic levels did not feel angry or react rashly
in error correction, while less experienced teachers felt angry when errors were repeated
after the teacher had corrected them.
6.3.2.2 The Time of Correction

According
to the triangulation
methods, the findings showed that there was a difference
between experienced and less experienced teachers in the time of error correction. It was
observed and reported that most less experienced teachers corrected their students' oral errors
immediately
did
delay
the correction to the end of the lesson, while experienced
and
not
teachers did not correct students' oral errors immediately when they occurred, but they delayed
had
finished
those
the
correcting
errors until
student
what s/he wanted to convey. Less
hurried
directly
immediately.
The experienced
teachers
to
experienced
correct oral errors
and
teachers who participated in this study gave chances to students for self-correction and peerbefore
they supplied their correction. Most experienced teachers used recast and
correction
feedback techniques while less experienced teachers resorted to giving direct error correction.

Less experienced teachers of English language preferred to correct their students' oral errors by
themselves, while
experienced teachers emphasised students self correction
correction, which took priority
and peer-
less
One
the
teacher's
experienced teacher
correction.
over
for
left
herself,
but
by
did
that
other
a space
not sometimes correct all errors
reported
she
less
learn
from
The
in
to
to
each other.
order
students
correct each other and cooperate,
believed
that error correction was the role of the teacher and peer
teachers
experienced
The
student who corrected others might
correction might cause problems among students.
think s/he was better than others. However, experienced teachers preferred to get the correct
form from the student him/herself (self-correction)
(peerfrom
the
the
classroom
rest of
or
in
different
less
terms
teachers
In
of who
were
and
experienced
correction).
sum, experienced
corrected oral errors.
"
The results of all data collection exhibited that experienced teachers focused on meaning
less
form
females,
focused
teachers,
form,
experienced
especially
on
while
rather than
229
rather than meaning in correcting their students' oral errors. It was observed and reported
that experienced teachers did not like to break the stream of communication
when the
activity was a speaking skill. They believed that letting students speak without interruption
reflected the emphasis on fluency over accuracy, while less experienced teachers reported
that focusing on form led students to produce accurate pieces of language in which they
emphasised accuracy rather than fluency. With regard to this finding, experienced and less
experienced teachers were different in aim and purpose of error correction during oral
activities.
"
From data analysis, results showed that experienced teachers distinguished between errors
i. e. minor and major errors, and did not correct all oral errors, while most less experienced
teachers treated all errors the same and corrected all errors. This was observed and reported
less
when a
experienced teacher said: "an error is an error which should be corrected". That
showed their
attitude towards the necessity of correcting
all students' oral errors.
Experienced teachers instead did not correct minor errors which did not affect meaning, as
they corrected major errors, errors which affected the meaning of the message. Therefore,
this was also encountered as another difference between experienced and less experienced
teachers in what errors they corrected.
"
Experienced and less experienced teachers showed obvious similarity between them in the
both
fact,
in
In
their
to
they
experienced
error correction.
error
gave more emphasis
which
focused
less
teachers
more on grammar and pronunciation errors.
and
experienced
"
Less experienced teachers faced a lot of problems in pronouncing some words and terms
lack
by
did.
finding
This
the
than
teachers
of equipment,
was emphasised
more
experienced
teaching aids and in-service training. Therefore, the finding was recorded as one of the
less
between
findings
differences
in
teachers'
skills of
and
experienced
experienced
main
correcting oral errors.
These were the main findings which were synthesised to answer the second research question
how
third
However,
the
teachers'
research
question
this
asked
gender and experience
of
study.
affect students' participation
in oral activities in the classroom. The following were the main
data:
the
from
the
of
analysis
points recorded
230
Results showed that most students had

a positive attitude towards error coirection and liked
their errors to be corrected in order to develop their English language, but they
were affected
by the way of correcting and who corrected them
below:
as
"
Female students liked their oral errors to be corrected as did most of the
male studentsbut
females were more sensitive than males.
Quantitative data results showed that students preferred to be corrected by

experienced
teachers rather than by less experienced teachers.
"
Most female students preferred to be corrected by male rather than female teachers, for the
reason that male teachers correct them in a soft voice tone, while male students preferred to
be corrected by female teachers due to the fact that female teachers were more lenient in
the way of correcting male students' errors. This was observed and recorded from students'
comments on their questionnaire.
"
The results of the students' questionnaires showed that the teachers used different
techniques, which reflected the students' positive attitude in correcting oral errors. This
finding was confirmed throughout the analysis of the data.
"
Students believed that error correction developed their English if errors were pointed out
leniently and corrected after they had finished what they were saying.
"
Students preferred their classmates to correct them before teachers participated in the
operation of correction.
Contradictions are also raised when one examines the teachers' responses to questionnaire
items relating to semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. Referring back to the
interviews
semi-structured
for example, when teachers were asked, "do you correct all
but
later,
`
yes
"
Most
`yes'
in
the
the
answers were
same way?
same"
when the same teacher was asked "do you correct male and female students in the same way "
When
don
"so,
She
't
"
the
she
was
asked,
she responded negatively.
you
correct
male students.
differently
but
".
The
"do
"no,
I
them,
as
question
said,
was
asked
you mean not as the
correct
females" she added, "yes not as the females, I feel comfortable with them, but not with the
boys " This contradiction
during
also
seen
was
classroom observations when some female
boys.
Furthermore, some teachers responded
the
the
to
and
avoided
girls
teachers came close
by saying "no" when they were asked whether they felt angry or not when their students
231
committed errors. But in reality, it could be argued they sometimes reacted angrily during
some classroom observations. This suggested that what some teachers might say was not the
did
in
Some
they
as
what
same
real situations.
of the teachers' responseson the questionnaire
showed that there were contradictions between what they believed and what they actually did.
For example, teachers said they used different methods in teaching English but the majority
by
taught
traditional methods, in particular the grammar translation method. For example,
still
there were 36 participants using the grammar translation method while the rest were distributed
among other methods. This suggested that more than half of participants depended on the
in
(see
6.13).
translation
their
teaching
table
grammar
method
and correcting students' errors
Methods
teachers'
experience
1
10 or less
2
11 or more
Total
that teachers use in
ing English
grammar
translation
direct
communicative
eclectic
method
35
method
8
approach
6
method
3
others
1
Total
12
36
11
65
53
Table 6.13 shows the methods of teaching English and how they are used among teachers
Some teachers pointed out in the semi-structured observation that they liked to teach classes of
their own sex because they can deal with the same sex easily and freely, but the results of the
liked
the
than
teach
to
teachers
that
of
classes
rather
classes
mixed
most
questionnaire showed
60%
indicate
illustrate
(6.15)
teachers
(6.14)
that
this
Table
table
prefer
of
and
and
same sex.
mixed classes.
Teachers' experience
boys only
girls only
Mixed
Total
10 years or less
14
31
53
11 years or more
12
10
16
39
65
Total
Table 6.14 the type of classes that teachers prefer to the teach according to teacher's experience
Total
Teachers'
ender
Males
1
boys only
7
iris onl
3
Mixed
13
23
Females
13
26
42
10
16
39
65
Total
Table 6.15 the type of classes that teachers prefer to teach according to the teacher's gender
232
According
to the students' questionnaire results, some contradictions were shown in what
some teachers said in their semi-structured interviews. For example, some less experienced
teachers believed that students did not like to be corrected by other students because this way
kind
correction
of
created a
of sensitivity among students, but students' responses rejected that
and showed that students preferred to be corrected by their classmates before the teacher's
correction, and 53.5% of students preferred to be corrected by their friends. Although some
female teachers tend to stand closer to the female students while they were standing in the
female
classroom,
students preferred to be corrected by male teachers and most of the female
did
like
female
to
their
teacher's correction during reading activities. Some
students
not
repeat
did
male students
not reject being corrected by female teachers but some of them liked to be
by
female
fact
female
lenient
due
teachers
to
the
that
teachers
corrected
and more
some
seemed
keen than male teachers.
In conclusion, these were the main important points which supported triangulation methods. In
the next chapter, which will focus on findings and discussions, I will list a summary of findings
in order to give the reader the main points in response to the research questions.
233
Chapter Seven: Findings and Discussion
7.1 Introduction
In chapter five, the research questions of this study were presented and the research methods
and methods of analysis were specified. The qualitative data were analysed in relation to the
research questions. In chapter six, the quantitative data were analysed in order to find answers
to the research questions. The statistical analysis was used in order to show the differences and
items.
similarities among
This chapter will present the findings from the data analysis in terms of their relationship to the
literature.
The discussion of the findings of this study will be presented in the next
existing
in
how
findings
discussion
The
to
the
the
order
section
give
reader clues about
main
emerged.
(see
the
will address
research questions
subsection 1.4 chapter 1)
7.2 Discussion of Findings

The previous chapters (five and six) showed the teachers' ways of oral error correction
techniques used in the classroom, with reference to the differences between males and females,
less
experienced and
experienced teachers and whether teachers' gender and experience
affected students' participation
in oral activities in the classroom. The following
subsection
data
instruments
by
different
discuss
findings
collection related to research
of
will
explored
question number one:
7.2.1 Findings of Question One

My discussion will start with findings related to the first question namely, "Are there any
differences between the ways in which male and female Libyan teachers correct students' oral
"
differences,
if
What
these
any?
errors?
are

The first important findings which emerged from this study suggested that there appeared to be
female
how
Libyan
between
teachers
differences
male
and
at secondary schools acted
some
had
Each
its
in
how
dealt
techniques
inside
the
sex
behaved
own
with oral
classroom.
s/he
and
data
indicated
The
in
how
different
that
teachers
in
were
sometimes
real classrooms.
errors
234
they behaved in oral error correction with boys and girls while they interacted inside the
classroom (see subsections 5.2.1 the analysis of classroom observations and 5.2.2 the analysis
interviews).
These results are congruent with Skelton and Read's (2006)
of semi-structured
opinions which showed that teachers' behaviours and ways of teaching were guided by the
attitudes and students' gender behaviours inside the classroom. This also parallels Hopf and
Hatzichristou's
(1999) and Brok et al. 's (2004) ideas which
emphasised that students'
achievements and classroom interaction were influenced by teachers' gender in way of verbal
interaction. With regard to teachers' manners, findings proved that female teachers corrected
female
leniency.
The
teacher
students'
oral
male
errors with patience, gentleness and more
in
10
J
school with six years' experience who was teaching twenty one second year
number
(ten
boys
students
and eleven girls), emphasised that she was more patient with boys than girls
did
have
is
by
This
to
she
not
and
want
conflicts with male students.
also supported
other
female teachers such as teacher number 14 in school N with two years' experience teaching
in
in
M
(seven
boys
13
teacher
school
second year,
number
eighteen students
and eleven girls)
female
teacher with two years' experience teaching twenty second year students
who was a
(ten boys and ten girls), teacher number 6 in school F with five years' experience who was
teaching eighteen students (eight boys and ten girls). All female teachers particularly
the
leniency.
While
they
that
and
correct male students with more patience
younger ones, reported
for
teacher
their
techniques
to
teachers
male
example,
students',
with
use other
seemed
male
four
two
in
twenty
B
teaching
2
students
who
was
experience
years'
with
school
number
(thirteen boys and nine girls) in the second year stated "sometimes I try to be a bit hard with
boys
lesson
do
in
because
the
they are careless and
activities,
not pay attention
male students
don't care as girls do about their errors. Girls want to learn: they want to know what is wrong
be
don
because
't
boys
I
to
On
they
tough
want
many occasions treated
and what is correct.
become
hand
they
On
are corrected many
the
when
angry
girls
sometimes
other
corrected.
Girls
interpret
I
them
my reaction or
times, therefore correct
are sensitive and may
with care.
ways of correction
differently,
or gestures
i. e. a girl may think that I hate her or aaa ".
Consequently, male teachers, especially less experienced ones, seemed not to correct male
did.
be
They
female
teachers
to
the
students
male
seemed
strict
with
as
students' errors
female
This
to
students
of
with
manner
patience
and
gentleness.
correct
they
seemed
whereas
be
hard
to
them
they
could
a
signal
make
errors
work
seemed
while
students'
male
correcting
235
to correct female students with patience and gentleness. This may indicate that male teachers
like to teach female students because the latter worked hard
have
to
the enthusiasm
and seemed
to learn the language more than male students did. Therefore, male and female teachers seemed
to be different in correcting students' oral errors and in how they interacted with students of the
opposite sex. All that I have pointed out may be congruent with Blickenstaff (2005) when he
argued that, although some teachers claimed that they treat boys and girls fairly in their
classrooms, girls received less attention than boys and were qualitatively
different in the
interactional activities.
These differences between males and females teachers may be raised as a result of the cultural
and customs rules which are still dominant in the Libyan society. The young new female
teachers may sometimes find difficulties
inappropriately
students may react
if they try to be strict with male students as these
female
their
teachers. Thus, these beliefs might
against
have compelled female teachers to avoid any conflict or challenges and find justifications to
their manner of error correction as Litosseliti (2006) claims that cultural factors may influence
female teachers' manner of correction.
Moreover, this may indicate that female teachers, especially less experienced ones, did not like
to put themselves in conflict with or challenge male students, because male students at this age
are more prone to misbehaviour. Male students seemed to regard themselves as superior
by
female
front
less
in
they
teachers
showed
which
particularly
of young and
experienced
interrupting them whenever they wanted. This is congruent with Harlen's (2004) ideas who
if
in
themselves,
they
tried
to
this
that
as
assert
were
argued
at
age,
particular
male students,
did
in
in
the
to
not
which a person
other words, at
age of puberty
mature enough
act as men;
like to receive orders and wanted to build his own character. On the one hand, these kinds of
teachers (new young female teachers) may come to the classroom with pre-formed beliefs that
boys may oppose their ways of error correction if not treated with respect which may be due to
how
knowledge
in
deal
they
this
lack
their
of
may
oral
errors
with
students'
of psychological
be
less
female
in
their
However,
learning
teaching.
a
result
of
experience
or may
stage of
did
teaching
experience
not register any significant
teachers with more
differences during
in
interviews.
On
hand,
less
their
female
the
or
other
experienced
classroom observations
236
teachers' manner of correcting male students' oral errors seemed to build

between
cooperation
male students and teachers. This seemed to be in line with Fraser and Walberg's (2005) ideas
who suggested that positive
teacher-student relationships
could prevent some problems
committed by students, especially with less experienced teachers.
The analysis of data revealed that male teachers used more varied techniques in the
correction
of students' oral errors than female teachers. These techniques varied from indirect to direct
error correction techniques. These varieties of techniques used by male teachers might indicate
that those teachers had enough techniques of correcting students' oral error and chose the
technique that was more suitable for the type of error that the students committed (see
subsection 6.3.1.1). In doing so, male teachers would use more appropriate techniques for
correcting students errors which may help them to be aware of which one may accepted by
their students. Teachers who use different techniques could help themselves to cope with
different students' ways of understanding. However, male teachers liked to take more risks in
their choice of techniques than female teachers. These findings also confirm Litosseliti' (2006)
results who found that males were using far wider strategies and techniques than females in
teaching.
The number of techniques which are used by female teachers seemed to be less in number
compared to male teachers. The most favoured technique which was used widely by the female
teachers: the direct way of error correction in which the teacher supplies the correct answer
immediately after the error is made (usually accompanied by interruption). This tendency of
female teachers seems to suggest that they regard student's errors as a calamity as a potential
diversion, whose rectification
if given by students may prove time-consuming; by supplying
the immediate direct correction the teacher, at the very least, ensures that their lesson goes
according to the plan. Furthermore, male teachers were also observed using alternative
techniques when they were correcting students' errors, for example, male teacher number 9 in
(thirteen
boys
teaching
I
thirty
two
twenty
experience
who
was
years'
school with
students
and
in
in
19
S
teacher
the
secondary,
year
male
second
number
school
with ten years
nineteen girls)
four
(eight
boys
twenty
in
teaching
students
the second
and
was
sixteen
girls)
experience who
in
C
3
four
twenty
school
with
years' experience who was teaching
year and teacher number
237
thirteen students (nine girls and four boys) in the second year. The various techniques used by
male teachers seem to suggest that they are more comfortable with deploying a wide range of
oral error correction techniques. Moreover, table 5.1 illustrated the similarities and differences
between experienced and less experienced teachers in terms of techniques they may
use.
Indeed teachers may be implicitly
encouraged to use some techniques rather than others due to
factors,
i. e. pressures of time, aim of the lesson and the class size. Thus it is true that
some
these factors may affect how teachers select the appropriate technique in their ways of oral
is
It
error correction.
also true that the size of classes imposes its own constraints which may
negatively affect the ways of oral error correction because students in large classes have fewer
for
individual
chances
self-correction or
correction, compared with smaller classes. It may also
be difficult for some teachers to monitor all the students' performance during a lesson in large
classes.
It is noteworthy that female teachers supported boys by probing, being patient and giving the
advantage of more waiting time when answering questions, while they simply gave girls their
turn to speak without further probing. These findings suggest that teachers did not approach
the students in the same way. This kind of treatment may affect the relationship between the
teacher and student i. e. when female students observe that the female teachers give enough
time and more chances to the boys, this may affect their participation in class activities and
bias
indicate
demotivate
This
teachers
them.
that
may create a
may even
evidence may
towards a particular gender inside the classroom. This does not mean that all teachers behave
the same but only less experienced teachers' observations indicated that.
This manner of
teachers' error correction, particularly with less experienced female teachers, may be relevant
for the same reason mentioned earlier in this subsection.
Female teachers used more structured techniques when the students committed errors; they
form.
listen
him/her
to
the
the
to
the
corrected
error and asked
stopped
student who committed
In most classrooms, the female teachers decided who speaks or answers questions. Females
in
female
10
As
be
tidy
than
the
teacher
like
to
and
males.
number
more systematic
seemed to
(ten
boys
teaching
twenty
J
who
was
one students
and eleven
school with six years' experience
in
that
in
emphasised
a
student
who
year
participated
the second
oral activity should
girls)
238
stand up and if s/he committed an error the teacher asked another student to stand and answer.(
I ask another student to go and stand by that
student to tell him where the sentence is wrong
This may suggest that female teachers tend to do things

more systematically and accurately
rather than correcting more randomly. Female teachers seemed to use this technique in order to
help all students to pay more attention to oral error correction. This finding is
congruent with
Nassaji and Swain (2000: 48) who found that systematic and consistent correction
was more
effective than random correction. This finding also supported Evans (1995), Goddard and
Patterson (2000) and Litosseliti
(2006: 39) when they pointed out that women were more
followed
doing
tidy
things at work. It is difficult to comment how
systematic,
and
a routine of
and where this systematicity comes from, but one reason may be that these teachers have learnt
this approach during their study at universities or they may have learnt it by experience.
The classroom observations of teachers' nonverbal
communication,
and their physical
behavioural movements, suggest a difference between male and female teachers in nonverbal
error communication. Although gestures, facial expressions or physical movements were not a
direct way of oral error correction, they were considered as indirect techniques of correction
(see subsection 2.6.8). The observation recording showed that male teachers used their hands
such as scratching their head, waving their finger, and physical movements such as turning
their back on the students who committed errors, while female teachers used their facial
feet
biting
lower
lip,
their
tapping
their
and shaking their head.
expressions such as winking,
Female teachers did not move as much as some male teachers did while they were correcting
location,
during
The
the
teacher's
students' oral errors, especially
physical
reading activities.
position and proximity
individual
the
teacher
to
of
movements could affect students' participation
students or group of students, and
(see
215).
Behets,
1997:
and achievements
These observations may be due to the Libyan culture when behaving and communicating with
different sexes. i. e. in the Libyan context young female teachers do not look at their male
boys
be
backchannel
the
cues,
when
are at
age of puberty such gestures may
students or gave
interpreted
wrongly.
Eye contacts between the opposite sexes, for instance, may be
However,
it
be
indirect
for
that
the
techniques
people.
should
reiterated
some
uncomfortable
239
of error correction "non-verbal ones" can help students to practise by themselves in order to
get the error correction right. This is also supported by Neil (1991 cited in Brown and
Eisterhold 2004) who pointed out that nonverbal communication is an important element in
classrooms and a lot of meaning is conveyed between students and teachers through facial
expressions and gestures (141).
7.2.1.2 Time of Error Correction

Based on the importance of time, male and female teachers showed differences in timing of
Female
teachers observed and reported that they corrected student's oral
error correction.
immediately
errors
while most male teachers delayed their error correction. For example, the
female teacher number 14 in school N with two years' experience who was teaching eighteen
boys
in
6
F
in
the
teacher
school with
students(seven
and eleven girls)
second year and
number
in
(eight
boys
the
ten
teaching
and
girls)
six years' experience who was
eighteen students
immediately
their
that
they
while teacher
students'
errors
correct
second year emphasised
in
9
I
school
with twenty years' experience who was teaching thirty two students
number
(thirteen boys and nineteen girls) in the second year, the male teacher number 12 in school L
boys
(thirteen
thirteen
twenty
teaching
and
students
six
was
experience
who
eleven
years'
with
in
Q
17
three
twenty
the
teacher
years' experience who
school
with
number
male
girls), and
boys
thirty
their
and sixteen
one(fifteen
number was
was teaching the second year students and
to
the
the
avoid
they
sentence
that
of
end
at
errors
students'
correct
girls) mentioned
interrupting students. Male teachers also reported that the time of error correction was applied
better
it
to
the
correct
the
was
whether
to
the
activities
aim of
situation and
according
immediately or delay the correction.
in
female
the
between
teachers
differences
The findings revealed that there were
and
male
28
"I
item
No.
in
29.08%
Male
teachers recorded
correct all
timing of error correction.
female
item
29,
in
lesson
teachers
70.90%
"
the
while
the
and
end of
students' errors at
in
item
"I
immediately"
28
29,
70.90%
No.
item
in
and
correct oral errors
recorded 14.28%
item
(28)
teachers
that
the
The
regarding
(see Appendix 0).
portion of male
results showed
14.28%.
female
higher
than
the
teachers
was
which
portion
of
29.08%
was
which
was
(see
0),
Appendix
immediately"
the
that
"I
(29)
recorded
oral
errors
item
correct
Likewise,
240
portion of male teachers was 70.90% which was lower than the portion of female teachers
which was 90.47%. This showed there is a difference between male and female teachers in the
time of error correction. In addition, item (30) "I correct errors after the student finishes what
s/he wants to say" showed the same difference between male and female teachers regarding
the different percentage recorded. The male teachers' responses recorded 73.90% while female
teachers' responses recorded 50.80%. For example, female teachers concluded that immediate
benefited
of
errors
correction
students. This result is congruent with Nassaji and Swain's
(2000: 35) ideas who
drawn
that,
to their errors
argued
when students' attention was
immediately after they produced an erroneous form, this was an effective and useful technique
in communication tasks. This finding also agrees with what Hulterstm (2005: 5) pointed out:
hand,
it
important
interrupt
because
the
to
too
times
that could
on
one
was
many
not
a student
lower his/her self-confidence and could discourage learning instead of encouraging it. On the
be
difficult
hand,
the
correcting a student after
activity sometimes might
other
because the
have
forgotten
incident,
the error.
the
teacher
the
or
may
specific
student might not remember
Hulterstm (2005) also argued that sometimes it was better to give the correction right away
differ
in
data
I
Regarding
that
teachers
the
the
the
obtained, may add
error.
when
student made
forms
but
their
the
time
to
to
of
their approaches,
students accurate
give
use
most seem
language used in oral communication in ways they deem clear.
7.2.1.3 Who Corrected Errors?

Regarding who corrected errors, the first important findings emerged from this study suggested
like
themselves
female
and would not
teachers corrected students' oral errors
that most Libyan
believe
because
that,
they
when a student corrected
to
may
classmates
correct
another student
his/her classmate, s/he might think s/he was better than the student who was corrected by their
However,
5.5.2.1).
(see
five
in
depicted
This
subsections
chapter
and reported
was
colleague.
in
involve
their
and
to
each
other
they
that
correcting
students
teachers
seemed
reported
male
The
teachers'
for
of
left
analysis
statistical
and
peer-correction.
they
self-correction
a chance
by
(34)
"I
that
item
showed
myself",
correct students' oral errors
questionnaires regarding
55.86%
female
Male
between
teachers
recorded
male and
participants.
there was a difference
difference
74.28%.
female
teachers
lower
who
recorded
a
revealed
than
which
which was
Moreover,
the
female
teachers
regarding
who
corrected
students' errors.
between male and
241
classroom observations and the semi-structured interviews showed that there was a difference
between male and female teachers depending
on who corrected students' oral errors. For
female
teacher number 11 in school K with two years' experience who was teaching
example,
second year and the number of students was nineteen (eight boys and eleven girls) the female
teacher number 6 in school F with five years' experience was teaching eighteen students (eight
boys and ten girls) in the second year, and the female teacher number 14 in school N with two
years' experience was teaching eighteen students (seven boys and eleven girls) in the second
year reported that they corrected the students' errors by themselves because they believed that
job.
But male teachers encouraged their students to self-correct and
their
correction
error
was
For
peer-correct.
example, teacher number 8 in school H with seven years' experience who
was also teaching the second year students and their number was fourteen (five boys and nine
he
that
girls) reported
allowed students to correct each other. This may indicate that male
teachers encouraged students to seek corrective feedback from others in order to create a kind
of cooperative classroom atmosphere which may lead students to become involved in the
activities. This result found consistency with the findings of some researchers such as Deners
and Berube (1995); Nunan and Lamb (1996); Edge (1993) and Larsen-Freeman (2000) who
demonstrated that peer correction is useful in the case of understanding how the students made
is
found
(1998/2007)
(2002)
but
This
Harmer
Tsang
Wong
errors.
also
consistent with
and
and
be
they
that
always useful and
with some constraints when
explained
peer correction may not
if
it
is
but
it
it
to
not used
although
cooperate
may cause problems
may encourage students
disadvantages
following
in
The
some
of peer correction:
carefully
are
oral activities,
1. It might be that the same two or three students always want to answer and the rest of the
few
do
do
This
the correction all the
the
that
same
students
means
students
not participate.
time, which is not good for the rest of the class.
2. If students are not used to correcting each other, they may find it difficult to change their
habits.
3. Students who do not participate in the correction, may just listen to errors and corrections
by
have
being
feel
them.
to
students
criticised
they
who
no
right
criticise
are
and
4. Students may feel that the teacher is not doing his/her job properly.
it
dislike
technique
this
5. Poor students may
as can cause frustration.
242
All these were in line with Gebhard's (2006) ideas

who pointed out that one problem of asking
students to correct each other's errors was the very possibility that they would not cooperate
and even more problematic was how to treat the errors. Thus, it was possible to make it clear to
student that errors were being corrected, as well as offer activities that drown the students'
attention to the errors and correction.
The finding suggested that female teachers mainly depended on the teacher being the
only
person able to give the information to his/her students and correct them. The teacher was the
only person who was responsible inside the classroom. One possible reason may be that some
students expect and want to have their errors corrected by their teacher. It is not surprising that
ESL students would have difficulty
correcting their errors by themselves. Therefore, some
classroom observations and interviewees (see chapter five) indicate that error correction is their
job.
Thus, the teacher's correction seemed to have an effect on students' self-correction
own
which may minimise their attempts at self or peer correction. Consequently, male teachers who
encouraged their students to correct each other, seemed to help focus students' attention on
errors and to reduce reliance on the teacher as corrector. This is consistent with Ancker' (2000)
argument who pointed out it might be better if students detect and correct errors by themselves.
This comparison between male and female teachers, regarding who corrected oral errors,
suggests that there is a difference between male and female teachers in methods of correcting
job
Female
that
their
teachers
error
correction
was
own
and
expressed
responsibility
and controlled
their students' oral error correction themselves, while male
teachers seemed to give self-correction and peer correction priority when correcting errors.
7.2.1.4 Language Skills and Components
The findings as indicated in the interviews (see subsections 5.3.1.3 and 5.2.2), and shown in
the questionnaires (see Appendix 0), female participants said that accuracy was the main target
foreign
language
free
language
hear
in
learning
to
to
of
or
a
and preferred
goal
speak a second
fluency
in
findings
The
teachers
preferred
oral communication.
obtained are
errors, while male
found consistent with many researchers such as Doughty (2001); Loewen (2003); Chandler
(2003); Lochtman (2002); Bartram and Walton (1991) and Harmer (2001) who pointed out
foreign
learning
in
language
for
a
focusing
was
required
students to avoid
that
on accuracy
243
misunderstanding.
This may indicate that female teachers aim to focus on accuracy by
providing opportunities for students to build their competence in order to help them express
themselves in accurate and appropriate language. It is certainly true that students are guided to
produce accurate messages by their teachers' help and through correcting their errors, but overfor
the sake of language accuracy may damage students' self-esteem and may
correction
prevent them participating
in oral activities. As Cajkler and Addelman (2000) and Loewen
(2003) who pointed out that students who expect their teacher to correct every time when they
open their mouths tend to become reluctant to speak for fear of retribution and embarrassment.
The Libyan female teachers appeared to focus on accuracy thinking that a teacher could not
leave uncorrected language produced by a student. They may also believe that a teacher must
be aware of students' errors and give him/her the correct form. On the one hand, the findings
female
that
teachers practise by giving priority in oral error correction, to the
also revealed
form rather than meaning, which seemed to reduce the chance of fluency. On the other hand,
the findings showed that male teachers gave much more emphasis to fluency and reported that
be
breaking
it.
The
to
their
students should
encouraged
continue
stream of speaking without
finding seemed to show a difference between male and female teachers in the main aim of oral
but
between
both
finding
However,
this
sexes,
rather a
was not clear cut
error correction.
in
female
P
16
For
teacher
school
with twenty seven
number
example,
majority emphasis.
her
the
teaching
students was
number of
second year students and
years' experience who was
twenty six (twelve boys and fourteen girls) and teacher number 5 in school E with ten years'
in
boys
(fourteen
the
twenty
teaching
second year
six
girls)
and
students
experience who was
20%,
three
those
ten,
out
that
and
and
observed,
reported
of
recorded
which represented
out of
7%,
that
forty-two
to
the
accuracy
reported
represented
which
questionnaire,
of
who responded
if
be
it
but
during
the
aim of
their
target
needed
might
activities,
speaking
goal
was not
activities
Interestingly,
emphasised accuracy.
the most frequent reason given for not
focused
in
the
during
that
on
activities
situations
oral
was
people
natural
emphasising accuracy
2
form.
Opposite
than
teacher
to
this,
the
was number
only male
meaning of the message more
in school B with four years' experience who was teaching twenty two students (thirteen boys
in
in
that
target
the
the
year
who
pointed
out
accuracy was
main
second
and nine girls)
be
to
corrected regardless of the aim of the activity.
teaching FL and students' errors needed
help
improve
them
Although correcting students' errors can
grammatical accuracy, this may
244
help
not
all students at the same time. Therefore, teachers need to meet their students' needs by
offering them appropriate correction, i. e. teachers correct students' grammar or pronunciation
errors without ignoring fluency. Thus, the common finding proved that female teachers
emphasised accuracy more than fluency during oral activities while male teachers emphasised
fluency rather than accuracy. For example, teacher 14 in
female
N,
school
a
with two years'
experience who was teaching eighteen second year students pointed out "it was compulsory to
correct all students' oral errors for the sake of accuracy" as well as teacher 11 in school K, a
female with two years' experience who was teaching second
year and the number of students
was nineteen (eight boys and eleven girls) reported ". As a teacher it is compulsory to correct
While
students' errors.
male teacher number 9 in school I with twenty years' experience was
teaching thirty three students (thirteen boys and nineteen girls) in the second year pointed out
that he did not correct all students' errors and did not interrupt them. Male teachers may
believe that too much interruption
or error correction
shuts off
students' attempts at
communication. This finding also registered another difference between male female teachers
in their ways of students' oral error correction.
The results seemed to reveal that there was no significant difference between male and female
teachers in the type of errors to be corrected as it was reported in their interviews (see 5.2.2.1).
Teachers of both sexes responded that they gave more emphasis to grammar and pronunciation
in
them
their correction. For example, male teacher number 2 in school
errors and gave
priority
B with four years' experience who was teaching twenty two students (thirteen boys and nine
girls) in the second year replied "I correct all errors that I hear especially grammar and
pronunciation
in
17
Q
",
teacher
number
school
as well as, male
with twenty three
errors
years' experience who was teaching the second year students and their number was thirty one
(fifteen boys and sixteen girls) reported "I correct all errors in pronunciation,
grammar and
in
female
16
P
The
number
participant
school with twenty seven years' experience
meaning".
her
(twelve
the
twenty
teaching
students
year
and
second
number
of
students
six
who was
was
boys and fourteen girls) recorded that she focused on pronunciation and grammar errors. With
interviews,
and
semi-structured
to
observations
regard
classroom
grammar and pronunciation
teachers confirmed that
were corrected more than other aspects of language. Their
be
found
to
Larsen-Freeman
(2000)
the
consistent
was
with
arguments
of
anecdotal evidence
245
Sheen
(2004). The reason behind giving the opportunity to
and
check students' pronunciation
and grammar could be listed as: 1) mispronunciation
might impede the understanding of
communication, 2) grammar was the basis of learning English language and the most serious
affected students' progress in other skills, such as reading, writing and
listening. Moreover, most teachers confirmed that the final
exams were usually based on
(see
Appendix 0). However, one teacher out of twenty, which represented 5%,
grammar
problem which
reported that the emphasis was on all oral errors irrespective of their types. This was teacher
number 15 in school 0 with two years' experience teaching nineteen students (four boys and
fifteen girls) in second year. The teachers' emphasis on grammatical aspects might diminish
the student's confidence in producing new sentences or risk taking in oral communication.
Hyland (2003: 228) argued that if a teacher over-focused on correcting English grammatical
structures, this would restrict students to using only those structured sentences and fail to
language
produce more complex
patterns. Having said that, it is also crucial to point out that
in
correcting grammar
communication
is
important
but it is not
activities
necessary and
sufficient to account for all students' production of oral language. It is suggested by Brown
(1994), appropriate grammatical forms in the adult classroom are essential to promote students'
in
(349).
it
Libyan
is necessary to give their
teachers
think
accuracy
communication
may also
students the linguistic ability to meet their needs to express themselves accurately by using the
in
believe
is
I
important
that
given structures
communicative situations.
correcting grammar
an
language
developing
(Andrews
to
part of
a student's ability
produce accurate
et al., 2006: 40),
but too much grammar correction, as teachers' responses showed, might discourage and be
in
fluency,
is
(see
to
the
unhelpful
considered
as
essential
oral
communication
students'
which
Hyland, 2003; Breznak and Scott, 2003). As teachers hope their error correction improves their
in
FL
218),
(Hyland,
2003:
any
aspect
of
might affect students'
performance
over-correction
participation
and might
frustration.
also cause
Nevertheless, teachers stressed that their
final
be
due
in
the
to
the
and
pronunciation may
requirements
emphasis on correcting grammar
focus
in
9
Teachers
these
teacher
on
elements.
such as male
number
exams as most exams
boys
(thirteen
teaching
thirty
three
I
twenty
experience
was
years'
and
students
school with
female
in
16
P
in
the
year;
participant
second
number
school
with twenty seven
nineteen girls)
her
teaching
the
second
year
students
and
was
number of
students was
years' experience
fourteen
boys
(twelve
girls); male teacher number 17 in school Q with twenty
and
twenty six
246
three years' experience was teaching second year students and their number was thirty one
(fifteen boys and sixteen girls);
female teacher number 11 in school K with two years'
experience was teaching second year and the number of students was nineteen (eight boys and
eleven girls) all these teachers concentrated on correcting grammar and pronunciation errors
for the sake of final exams.
The findings showed there is also a difference between male and female teachers in using
female
findings
The
tongue
technique
that
as a
mother
of oral error correction.
most
revealed
teachers used Arabic to correct students' oral errors, especially in grammar or pronunciation
female
in
For
technique
their
example,
utterances as a suitable
ways of oral error correction.
teacher number 6 in school F with five years' experience who was teaching eighteen students
(eight boys and ten girls) in the second year pointed out: "sometimes when I ask students about
language
do
know
Arabic
I
I
the
they
encourage them to express
and
use
not
something
themselves or to answer in the Arabic language. My aim is just to let them participate and to
be sure they learnt the correct meaning ".
Female teachers may think that mother tongue
between
distinguishing
develop
the
to
structural,
technique may encourage students
ability of
They
is
the
think
that
may
useful.
such
particularly
and
as
semantic and pragmatic equivalence
in
the
be
to
tongue
comprehension
students'
check and probe
used
can also
students' mother
idea
(1987)
Atkinson's
be
language.
These
who pointed out
target
congruent with
result may
that students sometimes preferred to have translation
techniques by using their L1 to
be
The
tongue
language
the
can
very
mother
use of
activities.
understand the aim of the target
involve
to
achieve a specific aim which may
effective as regards the amount of time needed
little preparation from the side of the teacher.
female
Libyan
between
differences
is
there
It
male and
therefore concluded that
were some
teachers in their way of correcting student's oral errors, viz: the manner of oral error
language
the
and
components.
skill
who
corrected
errors
and
time
the
correction,
of
correction,
In the latter there were some points where teachers performed similar in the ways of grammar
finding
However,
important
is
that
there
shows
which
an
and pronunciation error correction.
female
in
techniques
teachers
the
the
between
of oral
and
differences
male
manner
and
the
disappeared
from
This
in
both
teachers
have
experienced
sexes.
completely
error correction
247
be
due
to the difference in age between teachers and the opposite students' sex. For
may
female
teacher number 16 in school P with twenty seven years' experience who was
example,
teaching twenty six students (twelve boys and fourteen girls) in the second year reported in her
interview that "... one of the reasons I may single out is that I am an old woman and all
students are still young and they are like my kids and I feel I am a mother of all of them ". The
difference
age
and the long years' experience may give teachers good opportunities to act and
behave freely inside their classes during the operation of oral error correction. This may also
indicate that age and experience are highly respected by students and society due to natural
behaviors of teachers regardless of students' gender.
In the following
findings
from
discussion,
deal
I
the
the
subsection of
will
with
main
revealed
the results in order to find a logical explanation to answer research question number two.
7.2.2 Findings of Question Two

In this subsection I will collate the findings which answer this question, "do more experienced
teachers pay more or less attention to the process of oral error correction than less experienced
teachers? If yes, how and why? ". In so doing, I will discuss the findings under the following
points:
One of the main findings evident from the data was that experienced teachers were more
This
less
teachers.
than
less
experienced
anxious about error and error correction
relaxed and
difference was reflected in the teachers' behaviour when they encountered their students'
he
the
(2004:
714)
that
Abu-Rabia
finding
out
This
pointed
when
was congruent with
errors.
desirable
of
relaxed teacher was unworried about students' performance and created a climate
learning communication between students and their teachers inside the classroom. This kind of
learning
in
FL
to
behaviour
teaching
cope with
encourages students
experienced teachers'
For
(712-714).
fear
in
example,
communication
anxiety
or
oral
students'
reduces
situations and
I
two
thirty
in
teaching
9
twenty
was
with
who
school
years' experience
male teacher number
in
teacher
boys
the
(thirteen
number
girls)
male
nineteen
second
secondary,
year
and
students
four
teaching
C
twenty
years'
experience
3 in school
who
was
second year students and
with
four
boys,
in
Q
17
teacher
thirteen;
girls
and
nine
with
male
school
number
their number was
248
twenty three years' experience who was teaching twenty seven students: twelve boys and
fourteen girls in the second year, and female teacher
number 16 in school P with twenty seven
years' experience who was twenty six students (twelve boys and fourteen girls) in the second
indicated
in their interviews that they did not get angry or anxious when their students
year
committed errors and they corrected them. However, the less experienced teachers such as
female teacher 7 in school G, a female teacher with four years' experience who was teaching
second year and the number of her students was twenty two (ten boys and twelve girls), male
teacher number 2 in school B with four years' experience who was teaching twenty two
(thirteen
boys
students
and nine girls) in the second year pointed out in their semi-structured
interviews that they were sometimes angry when their students committed errors and when
they corrected those oral errors. Comparing and contrasting experienced and less experienced
teachers, the findings
revealed that the difference depended on the teachers' degree of
relaxation or anxiety when the students committed errors. Regarding the Libyan experienced
teachers, on the one hand, errors did not cause them to correct forms in a hurry, but they gave
the students time, and they themselves acted calmly. These teachers' relaxed approach and
built
formed
behaviour
through
their
their
through
calm reaction,
up
experience, shaped and
the accumulation of years (Ives and Obenchain, 2006: 65). Over the years, teaching itself
be
flexible
in
depending
teachers
to
their
encouraged
creative and
classrooms
upon each
teacher's individual
(Romanowski,
experience
2005: 14). Therefore, experienced teachers
learnt from their experience and probably accepted errors as a natural phenomenon (Hyland,
2003; Chandler, 2003; Sheen, 2004).
On the other hand, less experienced teachers were observed to be slightly nervous and anxious
behaved
less
The
teachers
and responded more
experienced
about errors and error correction.
findings
These
forms
to
their
the
to
are
students.
correct
give
quickly than experienced teachers
(2005)
(2003)
Hulterstrm
Shaw
McDonough
who reported
and
and
partially consistent with
that oral immediately feedback used by teachers to correct students' errors in order to avoid
fossilisation may help students achieve better results. Regarding these findings some reasons
less
to
teachers
be
behind
these
experienced
results:
students' errors
may
respond
could
immediately, may show that teachers pay much attention to what students say during oral
for
in
is
belief
There
time
to
to
waiting
someone
correct.
waste
also cultural
activities or not
249
Libyan society that some teachers may think if they do

not correct students' errors they may
lose their students' trust.
There is another finding
display
that less experienced teachers were observed and
which
(see
reported
subsections 5.1.2 and 5.2.2) to be a little nervous, even their body language
showed this, revealing their dissatisfaction with students' errors. This may reveal that less
experienced teachers see errors as undesirable issues in oral activities. This is completely
by
rejected
many researchers such as Bartram and Walton (1991) and Havranek and Cesnik
(2001) who argued that teachers should be advised that errors are necessary and desirable in
learning language and the student who never made a mistake never made progress. The
teachers' worries about errors and their anxiety towards error correction seemed to create a
mood of frustration and students were reluctant to participate for the fear of committing errors
and the anticipated reaction of their teachers. This confirms Kavaliauskiene's
(2003: 18)
fear
that
conclusions
of making errors prevented students from being receptive and responsive.
In contrast, the way in which experienced teachers built self-confidence, self dependency and
encouragement towards students allowed them to develop their learning. The students'
confidence and encouragement were probably associated with teachers' experiences, behaviour
and reaction towards errors and error correction. Relaxation,
encouragement and gentle
treatment of the students during classroom lessons promoted their interaction. Therefore, a
difference between experienced and less experienced teachers was reported and observed
during data collection.
The findings also reveal that experienced teachers used a greater variety of error correction
techniques than less experienced ones. This was observed from the data, from experienced
teachers applying various methods and techniques when they corrected their students' oral
in
C,
3
in
16
P,
(see
teacher
teacher
the
transcriptions
school
of
number
number
school
errors
teacher number 9 in school I and teacher number 17 in school Q in chapter five) and because
they believed that varying error correction techniques suited each individual
provided a comfortable
student and
learning situation. This finding is consistent with Askew's (2000)
help
importance
techniques
to
of
certain
error
correction
the
which
could
students
views on
for
Askew
the
teachers'
better
techniques
error
correction.
pointed
out,
various
results
achieve
250
help
could
students to reach the right answers (ibid: 9). Experienced teachers also showed that
the variation of techniques altered according to the activities during the lesson. This
may
indicate that experienced teachers use the
most appropriate techniques which suit the situations
of error correction. They seemed to use different techniques that make their teaching more
effective and more useful in order to encourage students' participation and gain the fruit of
error correction. This is certainly due to the fact that these techniques were probably
accumulated from different situations in the past years. Turner (2001: 94) confirmed that
expert teachers have a broad knowledge and understanding of classroom context, which helps
them to promote best possible learning.
Experienced teachers were more familiar with the classroom circumstances and students'
individual needs and how their students liked to be treated or corrected (Len, 2000; Ben-Peretz,
2002: 318). Romano and Gibson (2006: 1) also confirmed that the newly qualified teacher's
repertoire was less elaborate than those with long experience. Experienced teachers did not
resort to direct correction (teacher correction technique) unless they had already used self
correction, peer correction, recast and feedback techniques, and these had not worked. Their
justification
for using various techniques was that it led students to correct the erroneous
elements with the help of the teachers. This seemed to create a comfortable learning situation
and encouraged the error correction operation in order to help students achieve self-confidence
(Rydahl, 2005: 18; Hulterstrom, 2005: 6). In contrast, less experienced teachers used fewer
techniques during oral error correction and sometimes, when they used those techniques, they
fluctuated
between
did
They
them.
them
overlapped
and
not give enough time to each
technique to apply it accurately but they jumped from one to the other. This may indicate that
less experienced teachers mixed techniques together without differentiating
what technique
they used and how to apply those techniques properly in the classroom. Less experienced
teachers used techniques to correct errors regardless of whether the students reached the
correction with
the help of the teacher or on their own. The techniques used by less
did
into
to
take
teachers
seem
not
account the student's state of mind or selfexperienced
less
he
into
Only
teacher
that
took
experienced
reported
one
consideration
usually
confidence.
during
oral error correction operation which represented 1.88% of
the students' state of mind
less experienced participants (see chapter six table 6.5a). This teacher added that he preferred
251
to help his students to reach the correction by themselves rather than by him giving the error
correction. Overall, it seemed that experienced teachers used different techniques to correct
their students' oral errors compared with less experienced teachers.
The data showed that less experienced male teachers moved around the classroom
more than
experienced teachers of both sexes and also more than less experienced female teachers. This
confirms the finding by Meece (1987) that male teachers tend to be more authoritative and
females.
Too much movement seemed to disturb the students' attention from
than
proactive
error correction towards the teacher's movements. However, the reason behind teachers'
be
due
to the fact that young teachers were full of enthusiasm and have
movements may
enough energy to move and act quickly.
Comparing this with female teachers' movements, the
latter did not move as much and, if this happened, their movement was in front of the class.
This may be due to the lack of self-confidence and cultural behaviour which does not allow
female teachers to act freely without self-preservation and this could be why less experienced
female teachers corrected students from where they were in front of the classroom and towards
female rows. However, experienced teachers of both sexes did not move as much, especially
when they read or explained errors, unless they were clarifying issues on the blackboard. An
exception to that were two experienced teachers, which represented 16.66% of experienced
participators, who were observed moving around the classroom more than other experienced
teachers. These two teachers reported that their movement produced a dynamic, active
in
in
the
atmosphere
class, which encouraged students' participation
eliciting correct answers.
In brief, that less experienced teachers moved around the classroom as a general rule, while
for
i.
the
teachers
experienced
classroom
a purpose, e. to activate students
might move around
to become involved in the lesson.
The data also showed that experienced male and female teachers did not correct students as
kind
both
finding
indicate
did.
This
less
teachers
of
of
may
a
sexes
often as
experienced
relationship
between experienced and less experienced teachers and students inside the
build
in
Experienced
teachers
to
might
not correct all students' oral errors
order
classroom.
less
but
females,
teachers,
experienced
especially
correct all students'
students' self-confidence
&
5.3.1
5.3.2.4).
Experienced
both
did
(see
teachers
of
sexes
not give as
subsections
oral errors
be
due
fact
to
it
difficult
the
that
may
many
students
which
were
shy
and
was
much correction
252
for them to have all their errors corrected or it

be
they were less able, particularly males,
might
in achieving English and less active in oral participation. This
may parallel Hulterstrom's
(2005: 5) observation that if students were poor in achieving, they might become defensive
and
reject the error correction that the teacher might give. Experienced teachers might take into
consideration the students' psychological feelings and emotions when they were corrected and
how much correction might be given to the students. This was an important aspect to be taken
into consideration in building
student's self-esteem and encourage shy ones to cope with
receiving and accepting error correction. Experienced teachers attempted to correct errors
without destroying the students' confidence. As many researchers such as Macaro (1997); Doff
(1997); Wilson (2000); Crookes (2003) and Andrews (2003) emphasised that teachers should
always think of their students' achievements in a way which enhances and encourages their
learning and they usually recognised errors, identify and classify them, then they choose an
appropriate correction procedure.
Less experienced female teachers stood closer to the girls' rows and avoided standing near the
boys' rows, whereas experienced teachers from both sexes stood in different places in the
classroom. This finding revealed that experienced teachers appeared to act irrespective of
students' gender. Experienced teachers seemed not choose a specific place to stand, whereas
less experienced female teachers were always located beside the girls' rows. This suggested
that experienced teachers acted as if they wanted to eliminate gender disparity in secondary
female
if
less
(Subrahmanian,
2005:
4)
teachers
they
acted as
education
experienced
while
female
boys.
Less
teachers' position
too
to
the
experienced
were nervous about standing
close
different
led
between
imbalance
the
gender which
students'
of standing might create a state of
boys to act carelessly and minimise their participation in oral activities. I observed many male
in
back
to
the
the
those
seemed
not
corner,
who
and
students, especially
sitting
at
were
who
be
female
less
teacher's
to
a result of them
explanations which might
pay attention
experienced
Male
the
time
the
near
girls.
students seemed to cause problems and
standing most of
female
teacher came close to them, especially the ones
misbehaved when young experienced
back
female
in
For
the
teacher
the
the
of
classroom.
of
example,
class
at
who were sitting
(seven
N
two
in
teaching
14
years'
with
experience
who was
eighteen students
school
number
boys and eleven girls) in the second year one was observed stretching out his leg, trying to trip
253
her over. This may show that male students did

not respect young female teachers and try to
disturb them due to the closeness of their ages between
male students and female teachers.
Therefore, less experienced female teacher' seemed to avoid being
boys.
This
to
the
close
situation could create a kind of imparity in the equal participation of boys and girls (ibid). In
sum, less experienced female teachers' position in the classroom during oral activities made a
difference between both less experienced males and experienced teachers.
Experienced teachers seemed to react gently and slowly when their students committed errors,
less
while
experienced ones appeared to react quickly and immediately without pausing. This
finding was observed and reported by the participants who confirmed that their students' errors
were expected during the process of learning a foreign language (Ellis, 1997; Harmer, 2001;
Rydahl, 2005) and dealing with those errors gently encouraged students to cooperate in error
(Kavaliauskiene,
2003: 2). This revealed that experienced teachers' gentle reaction
correction
helped students develop a more positive attitude towards their errors and increased their
how
language
in
help
(ibid).
On the other
to
awareness of
works
order
eradicate oral errors
hand, less experienced teachers appeared to react quickly and directly in order to correct
students' errors for the fear of entrenchment (Ellis, 1997; Hulterstrom, 2005) probably without
paying attention to the students' attitude. The quick reaction of less experienced teachers
towards students' errors might affect students' performance negatively and their correction
distract
foreign
in
learning
language,
helping
(Rydahl,
2005:
than
them
might
students
a
more
6). This might indicate that those teachers' reactions and behaviours towards errors and error
leave
in
is
the students
correction
all error correction situations and might
not appropriate
feeling discouraged (Ur, 1996: 171). However, one less experienced teacher participant was
in
kindly
the classroom
reported and observed acting
and slowly and smiling when any student
less
To
1.88%
teachers.
sum up, this
committed errors, which represented
of
experienced
finding illustrates a difference between experienced and less experienced teachers regarding
their reaction towards errors and error correction.
Experienced teachers did not correct all students' oral errors in the same way because they felt
language
learn
differently.
This
different
and
may mean that experienced teachers
students are
individual
differences
between
in
learning
the
into
their
took
students
ability of
consideration
language. McCabe (2006: 253) argued that skill level differed among students and it was
254
important for teachers to take this into consideration in order to lead students towards building
self-efficacy
and success. Teachers, of course, seemed to improve their students' language
learning and are constantly concerned with trying to improve the equality of students by
encouraging
and correcting
students'
errors
(Sercombe,
2002).
Experienced
teachers
differentiated in their oral error correction among weak, shy, and good students. Experienced
teachers appeared not correct their students with different abilities in the same ways because
they acknowledged that different students had different talents and different students needed
different encouragement to understand things. Experienced teachers seemed to be aware of
factors necessary for students' uptake and tried to meet the needs of each individual student.
This was expressed by teacher number 9 in school I with twenty years' experience when he
from
differently
he
that
tried
to
active ones:
correct shy students
claimed
--4
T. some of the students did not like to be corrected because they are shy and weak learners, I
by
from
different
to
them
them
participate and
encouraging
ways
others
with
corrected
kind
by
tone.
voice
with
a
correcting
close
and
coming
sometimes
Female teacher number 16 in school P with twenty seven years' experience also reported,
--4
less
little
have
brilliant
have
different.
We
level
T. ok the
and
a
students and we
of students is
little less so sometimes, the bright students I try to correct all their errors but with a bit
little with low students and I do not mind some of their errors especially the minor ones.
be
individuals
(2002:
15)
to
that
Sercombe
given and
Regarding this,
should
attention
argued
individual
in
framed
be
that
an
a way
explanation should
Error
student can understand.
it
but
did
duty
teachers
that
occurred,
errors
when
a
mechanical
or
not
a
routine
correction was
during
individuals
for
to
teachers
that
choose ways which were suitable
compelled
was an act
to
these
teachers
ways
that
applied
experienced
practice. This was observed and reported
into
by
the
taking
in
involved
consideration
oral error correction activities
encourage students
in
differences
correction.
error
of
and
acceptance
communication
students'
in
teaching
mixed classes
Experienced teachers preferred
and correcting students' oral errors
(2006)
Read
by
highlighted
Skelton
finding
This
and
also
was
classes.
than
sex
single
rather
to
teachers
create
working
and
mixed
group
preferred
mixed
classes
that
many
who pointed out
255
a competitive climate among them. This may create an atmosphere of encouraging students of
both sexes to participate and exhibit their talents in learning
and correcting errors. Mixed
classes might minimise the gap between male and female students and encourage the latter to
dispense with the old traditional belief that a woman is
not equal to a man in the community
and to eradicate the conflict between male and female roles in the study or workplace (see
Fothergill, 1999; Litosseliti, 2006). Kommer (2006: 248) also argued that
mixed classes might
give each gender the opportunity to observe how the other thinks, feels, responds and reacts,
in
itself
is
which
a major goal for mixed classes. This revealed that male and female students
differently
acted
when they were in the same-gender groups. As Rice and Dolgin (2002 cited in
Kommer 2006: 247) say, "boys and girls create very distinct cultures; when they are in the
same-gender groups they act and play very differently.
Girls are talkative and cooperative,
boys are competitive and physical". In my experience this difference between girls and boys is
also true of the girl and boy students in the Libyan context. Therefore, students in mixed
gender groups might play a particularly
important role in learning from each other and
in
understanding each other
acting and behaving towards learning language and correcting
errors.
Most experienced teachers taught the basic levels which educated them to be patient and not
feel angry or react harshly and to prefer to correct students' common oral errors through
found
I
that all participants in the observations and semi-structured interviews had
explanation.
taught at the basic level, where learners were still children and required more patience and
care. Only one experienced participant, who represented 8.33% of 12 participants, did not
teach at the basic levels. Experienced teachers appeared to treat their students with patience
did
impatience.
in
This
they
and
a respectful manner and
not receive students' errors with
be
by
indicate
their
the
teachers
that
that
might
students might
affected
realised
experienced
teachers' manner and style of teaching. Teaching at different levels in the education system
language
difficulties
have
towards
to
train
teachers
greater
sensitivity
at those
might
students'
learning
They
looked
202).
(Dong,
2004:
teaching
made
meaningful and made
easy.
stages
This experience might help teachers to come up with a wider understanding of students' needs
in
learning
to
accepting
of
students'
errors
order
enhance
strategies.
and create an atmosphere
Teachers who taught the basic levels tried to explain students' oral errors in a way that students
256
gained benefit, without pointing out who made the error. Explanation of errors might help
studentsto understand the source of errors (see Sercombe,2002: 7).

Experienced teachers did not correct students' oral errors immediately when they occurred but
after their students finished what they were saying. Experienced teachers from both sexes
seemed to give time, after the students committed errors, in order to encourage the erroneous
student to correct him/herself.
Experienced teachers sometimes went further than that by
delaying the time of error correction or not correcting during oral communication. This showed
that experienced teachers had increased concern with communication which could be achieved
linguistic
without
accuracy and encouraged students' participation rather than immediate error
less
correction, while
experienced teachers adopted immediate and direct error correction. The
in
line
believed,
teachers'
time
experienced
of error correction was
with what many researchers
i. e. that errors were a natural aspect and essential part in learning language and not all errors
needed to be corrected (see Gass and Selinker, 2001; Johnson, 2001; Block, 2003). They also
believed that those errors were a result of learning and students who attempted and committed
(see
Havranek,
2002:
262-3).
errors showed progress
Experienced teachers considered that choosing an appropriate time to correct students' errors
did
factor
if
Experienced
to
teachers
correct students
not
rush
applied.
well
was a crucial
immediately but they corrected their students' oral errors after he/she finished what they
(2002:
15)
for
interruption.
As
Sercombe
there
to
was an urgent cause
wanted
convey, unless
flow
interrupt
best
it
is
the
"With
to
of utterances unless some
not
obviously
stated
oral work,
aspect of pronunciation
is itself the focus of practice". Edge (1989: 23) stated that after a
few
leave
for
is
important
it
to
the
teacher
has
to
a
express,
student
said what s/he wants
decide
let
in
the
to
sentence was correct or not.
whether
all
students
seconds pause
order
Therefore, experienced teachers were observed and reported that the more the students were
involved in the error correction, the more students think about accurate language learning used
in the classroom (ibid). On the other hand, less experienced teachers sought for immediate
less
for
Two
time
the
than
to
think
giving
correction.
students
of
error correction rather
in
let
did
their
to
them
a
pause
give
after
students
committed
errors,
order
teachers
experienced
forms.
This
their
think
the
students
or
classmates
the
could
of
correct
erroneous
think whether
257
number of teachers represented 1.88% of the less experienced teachers who participated in this
study. Most less experienced teachers adopted the immediate and direct error correction
technique.

Less experienced teachers corrected their students' oral errors by themselves instead
of selfcorrection or peer correction, while experienced teachers encouraged students to correct
themselves or be corrected by their classmates. Less experienced teachers confirmed that error
correction was their responsibility and they were the ones who were supposed to give feedback
to students about errors and error correction. Chandler (2003: 291) stated, correction by the
teacher was most popular with the students, because it was the quickest way for them and their
teachers. Less experienced teachers believed that error correction was their essential job and
they were responsible for teaching students in their classrooms (Pettersson et al., 2004;
Devereux, 2001; Munro, 2001; McBer, 2001). Moreover, another possible reason that less
experienced teachers depended on themselves in oral error correction and thought they were
the source of knowledge, might come from their past experience when they were students.
Most teachers' institutes were using traditional teaching methods of teaching or correcting
less
Therefore,
students' errors.
experienced teachers might be teaching in a fashion similar to
the way in which they learnt (see Gordon et al., 2007). However, experienced teachers
encouraged students' self-correction and peer correction because self-correction might be more
beneficial
for
language
learning
than teachers'
correction
(Kavaliauskiene,
2003:
1).
Experienced teachers preferred their students to correct their own oral errors by giving them
the chance to think and rethink of error correction as a first step. If the student could not correct
him/herself, then the teacher allowed any student in the class who knew the answer to correct
his/her classmate. If all these attempts failed, the teacher corrected the student's error by
him/herself as the last resort. All these steps of who corrects errors during oral activities have
1995;
Edge
1989;
by
Deners
Berube,
been
researchers,
many
such
as
and
also
reported
Harmer, 1998; Todd, 1999; Larsen-Freeman, 2000; Lochtman, 2002. For Example, Gower et
teachers
(1995:
that
167)
should always give the students the chance to correct
argued
al.,
themselves and if students were going to become more accurate they must learn to monitor
258
themselves. Todd (1999: 96) has also supported the idea that students would benefit
more if the
teacher guided them to provide the correct form themselves.
7.2.2.4 Language Skills and Components

Most experienced teachers focused on meaning rather than form; for
example, teacher number
16 in school P with twenty seven years' experience who was teaching twenty
six students
(twelve boys and fourteen girls) in second year, in the interview which lasted
hour
an
at the
school, reported:
T. I feel happy if they (the students) just answer the question even with some mistake., I
try to collect their answers from their mouths to get the meaning that is it.
She also added:
-*
T. I just want them (the students) to give the information that is they are looking for.
It seemed that experienced teachers gave more emphasis to meaning probably due to the idea
that teaching a foreign language is the improvement of students' abilities to communicate and
interact with others, so learning the English language should lead to functional proficiency and
not simply to the mastery of grammar. In contrast less experienced teachers focused on
accurate forms in correcting
their students' oral errors. The comparison between more
experienced teachers' responses regarding item 24 in table (6.5) which occupied number 16 in
items order according to W. A. M with less experienced teachers' responses to the same item
which occupied number 30 in the items order in table (6.6) provided evidence that more
experienced teachers focused on meaning and what a student liked to convey more than less
did
focused
forms
language.
Experienced
teachers
teachers
experienced
not
on accurate
of
who
like to breakdown the stream of communication and encouraged their students to finish what
they wanted to convey. Thus, experienced teachers focused on fluency rather than accuracy in
oral activities.
For example, female teacher number 16 in school P with twenty years'
(twelve
boys
fourteen
in
twenty
teaching
six
students
and
girls)
second
experience who was
year reported:
"I leave them [the students] to complete or finish
their sentences or their
Also,
".
9
in
teacher
interruption
male
number
school I with twenty four years'
talk to avoid
...
259
experience who was teaching thirty two students (thirteen boys and nineteen girls) reported:
"I'm trying to correct the error at the end of the sentence I don't
him
[the
stop
student]
because if I stop him suddenly as I told,
the students will feel embarrassed and feel annoyed
...
because I have stopped him suddenly ".
This was argued by Norrish (1983) and Havranek and Cesnik (2001) when they pointed out
that teachers were advised to give correction when necessary and correcting every single error
harmful
because
it
was
might make students feel anxious and dislike participation. They also
argued that error correction
is not important unless the content of the message is not
by
listener.
Therefore, most experienced teachers corrected major errors rather
the
understood
than minor errors. This came from the belief that not all errors lead to breakdown in
communication
and the listener was able to understand the speaker's speech, because the
listener was more concerned with the content of the message than the form. In contrast, less
experienced teachers corrected all students' oral errors and corrected all linguistics errors.
Loewen (2003: 338) reported that most teachers in the L2 classroom focused on the form in
linguistic
items
focused
form
for
Teachers
the
than
on
which
were emphasised more
meaning.
(1989:
if
had
"we
Edge
19)
As
claimed,
sake of accuracy, even no misunderstanding
occurred.
don't correct linguistic mistakes unless they affect the communicative approach of what the
form
Focusing
to
encourages teachers to correct students' errors
students want
on
say".
immediately during oral activities, which might lead students to play less active roles in
in
in
from
This
thwart
participation
peer
attempts
students
may also
communication studies.
focused
teachers
Summing
to
this
on
my observations, experienced
correction.
up, according
fluency rather than accuracy in oral activities and corrected only major errors, which led to a
fluency
focused
less
than
teachers
and
on accuracy rather
experienced
misunderstanding, while
in
to
Thus,
teachers
oral activities
speak
encouraged students
experienced
corrected all errors.
because they believed it was useful for students to speak freely and continually in order to
by
This
Mitchell
themselves.
was argued
communicate and express
(2004)
Myles
when
and
form,
but
language
bothering
fluency
the
they reported
automatic use of
about
without
as
less
Most
the
teachers
of
are
comprehension
message.
experienced
and
emphasised meaning
differentiation
between
types
students'
oral
all
errors
without
of
correcting
concerned with
by
believe
is
researchers
This
who
rejected
correcting all errors, mainly minor
approach
errors.
260
ones, would
not encourage students to participate in oral communication.
For example,
McDonough
and Shaw (2003: 152) pointed out that if we encouraged students to become
fluent in language communication, correcting
during
regularly
oral activities would tend to
inhibit especially taciturn students.
The results of classroom observations, the semi-structured interviews (see chapter five)
and
questionnaires (see chapter six) revealed that experienced teachers were influenced by teaching
experience and changed their way and methods of error correction. Experienced teachers
reported that they changed their methods and ways of error correction from their initial years
did
have
they
when
not
enough experience. They applied the grammar translation method in
error correction which emphasised that the focus was on the sentence as a basic unit of
teaching with little or no attention paid to speaking (Richard and Rodgers, 1986). One of them
pointed out that, at the beginning of her teaching life, she did not know how to deal with
students' errors "I have changed many techniques during my experience I have made too many
beginning
did
know
how
I
different
the
teaching
to
errors at
of my
experience;
not
even
correct
in
".
Because
their
teaching, experienced teachers changed their methods
students...
of
years
and their ways of error correction
which probably
belief
in
their
a
was
result of
a
communicative approach. The communicative approach applied by most experienced teachers

was uncorroborated by less experienced teachers who observed that they resorted to the
grammar translation method and corrected students errors immediately, even minor errors, and
further
by
sometimes went
exaggerating the correction.
Most less experienced teachers faced more problems in pronouncing some technical terms than
Less
àlgae',
àerobics'.
i.
`diaspora'
`biosphere',
teachers,
experienced teachers
experienced
e.
believed those problems lay in the lack of equipment, teaching aids and in-service training. For
in
6
F
female
teacher
school
number
with six years' experience who was teaching
example,
boys
in
"I
(eight
ten
the
and
girls)
second year stated:
wish there were some
eighteen students
facilities to help us understand science term because even when I ask some other teachers they
do not know especial technical terms in medical and science subjects ". The Education
Authority changed the textbooks without in-service training which was supposed to prepare all
deeper
have
Moreover,
terms.
in
to
understanding
of
such
subjects
and
teachers
some
order
261
teachers complained that there was a lack of equipment and facilities which could help teachers
to overcome some difficulties in language such as pronunciation activities.
My conclusion
is that there were some differences between more experienced and less
experienced teachers in the ways of correcting student's oral errors, viz: the manner of oral
error correction, the time of correction, who corrected errors and the language skill and
components. In the following
subsection of the discussion, I will deal with the main findings
from
the results in order to find a logical explanation to answer research question
gathered
number three.
7.2.3 Findings of Question Three
In this subsection, I will find answers to question number three, namely "How do teachers'
gender and experience affect students' participation in oral activities in the classroom? ".
In general, results emerged from
classroom observations, students' questionnaires and
teachers' semi-structured interviews revealed that students were affected by their teachers'
behaviour related to their gender and experience during the classroom activities. Teachers'
gender, experience, physical movements, facial expressions, characters and flexibility
might
affect students' participation in oral activities. This was also supported Opdenakker and Van
Damme's (2006: 6) who found that teachers' behaviour and their style of teaching and the
in
This
the
climate
might affect students' participation
class affected students' achievements.
during
The
during
interaction
their
teachers
the
oral activities.
and
positively or negatively
with
findings revealed that, although female students were willing to be corrected and accepted their
teachers' comments, they seemed more sensitive and felt nervous and unhappy when they
did
forms
language,
linguistic
in
the
target
while most male students
could not produce correct
from
The
too
girls' sensitivity may yield
not seem
concerned about errors and error correction.
their higher expectations in language communication during oral activities in the sense that
they probably
female
in
English
Thus,
to
themselves
communicate
accurately.
expected
linguistic
female
It
they
felt
that
committed
errors.
when
also
students
seemed
students
nervous
behaviour
by
teachers'
the
verbal
and
non-verbal
and ways of error correction;
were affected
262
praising, rewarding or punishing might affect students' participation and create the feeling of
sensitivity and nervousnessespecially in females (see Li et al., 2006: 395).
Female students seemed to behave better than male students in
all classroom activities. The
female students paid more attention to the teacher and
language
oral
activities and seemed to
react more positively than boys. This is not congruent with Pavlidou's (2003: 133) who stated
that girls were passive and less motivated in the classroom interaction, but boys were more
persistent than girls. However, this finding was congruent with the results of Lisle, et al. (2005:
412) when they found that female students did better than male students in language arts. It
was also congruent with
Litosseliti
(2006: 82) saying that girls
be
to
seemed
more
involved
in classroom interaction. Another reason seemed to be important: it is
academically
culturally accepted in the Libyan society that girls return home after school and stay indoors.
Boys, however, are allowed to go out and meet friends, leaving them less time to prepare
lessons or do homework, which the girls have the time and the opportunity to do.
The findings of questionnaires (see tables 6.12a & 6.12b) and observations and interviews (see
chapter five) revealed that male students preferred to be corrected by female teachers because
their female teachers were enthusiastic in their ways and techniques of error correction. Some
did
being
by
female
teachers,
male students
not mind
corrected
male
while
students preferred
to be corrected by male teachers, especially the experienced ones. These findings are largely
congruent with Myhill
in
(2006
Jones
Houtte 2006: 3) who showed that students
and
cited
considered female teachers to be more fair than male teachers in the way they treated the
different sexes. Female teachers showed that they corrected male students gently and patiently,
be
lenient
female
to
teachers
that
which suggested
more
and patient which may
seemed
most
be due to their roles in the Libyan context as mothers and family caregivers. This may indicate
that teachers have their own conceptions of what they are about. They may bring to their work
their own system, their personal and cultural beliefs, while some female teachers did not like to
in
themselves
a challenging or conflicting
put
situation with male students (see subsection
3.3.5 teachers' gender). Female teachers who were enthusiastic, lenient and praised and paid
inside
built
feeling
the
to
classroom
students
a
male
of relaxation which made
more attention
them like female teachers' ways of error correction. In contrast, the results indicated in the
263
students' questionnaires (see table 6.12a and table 6.12b) and classroom observation showed
female students preferred to be corrected by
male teachers who appreciated girls more than
boys due to their punctuality, cooperation and
enthusiasm for learning language. This
supported Houtte (2006: 1) when he stated, "Finally, a significant interaction effect indicates
that male teachers seem to prefer female pupils". Male teachers tended to be a little bit gentle
towards girls and were a bit more strict to the boys because boys misbehave more than girls
(see Skelton and Read, 2006: 109). This suggested that students preferred to be corrected by
the teachers of the opposite sex because teachers were enthusiastic and helpful with their
students of the opposite sex.
Active students from both sexes seemed sensitive and felt embarrassed when they were
corrected because they did not like to commit errors. This kind of students were expected to do
judged
well and were
as good students and high achievers by their teachers. Moreover,
although active students did not like to make errors in front of their classmates, they liked to be
by
their teachers only. On the other hand, some weak students, who were slow
corrected
learners needing much time to answer, especially boys, did not worry too much about error
correction because they were less serious. They seemed to interact and responded less than
fewer
They
hands
in
to
their
to
others.
also made
efforts
raise
participate
oral activities. These
be
by
to
their classmates rather than their teachers and were
students preferred
corrected
during
how
finish
to
the situation of error
observed
oral error correction operations seeking
correction, rather than to get the error corrected, particularly
less
the
teachers
when
were
finding
less
felt
This
that
teachers
the
experienced
more
experienced ones.
may enhance
(see
teachers
they
anxious when
confronted students' problems compared with experienced
Houtte, 2006: 4).
The results of the students' questionnaires and as indicated in the classroom observation,
female students preferred to be more accurate while male students preferred to be fluent. This
finding
female
interesting
be
that
which
suggested
students were concerned with
seemed to
an
This
the
the
emphasised
conveying
students
meaning
of
also
message.
accuracy, while male
indicated that female students paid more attention to grammar rules, while male students paid
fluency
of communication.
attention to sequence and
264
Finally,
students from both sexes showed their respect for the experienced teachers. This
respect may have emerged from students' beliefs which emphasised that teachers with long
experience have various methods and techniques. The variations in methods and techniques
which were used by more experienced teachers might help the students to learn the language
more easily than the limited number of techniques used by less experienced ones. However,
comparing the male students' responses according to W. A. Ms, item number 26 registered
53.6% (see table 6.12a), which were ranked at number 20, while the responses
female
of
students registered 88% (see table 6.12b), on the same item and were ranked at number 6
according to W. A. Ms. This shows that female students believe that experienced teachers are
better at correcting their oral errors more than male students think. In contrast with the item
number 27 male students' responses registered 74.6% (see 6.12a), and were ranked at number
12 according to W. A. Ms whereas female students' responses registered 52% (see table 6.12b),
and were ranked at number 22 according to W. A. Ms. This may reveal that female students
believe that less experienced teachers are not as good as experienced teachers in their ways of
correcting students' oral errors while male students, according to the value of W. A. Ms,
consider that less experienced teachers are better than more experienced teachers at correcting
students' oral errors. The male students' results regarding these items may show that the
female
the
number of
participants outnumber male participants of which the latter are stricter
than female teachers when correcting their errors. Or this may reveal that less experienced
teachers were probably active and full of energetic to move and respond more quickly than
more experienced ones.
The findings show that there is a difference in the teachers' behaviours between male and
female teachers in the techniques used to correct students' oral errors. These findings were
less
from
both
There
teachers
experienced
only seen clearly among
are many points
sexes.
differ
(see
6.3.1.1
they
teachers
others
where
where
also chapter six subsections
are similar and
for similarity and 6.3.2 for differences). This may reveal that less experienced teachers were
knowledge
lacked
fulfill
techniques
to
them
to
their students'
of
other
enable
still unfamiliar or
feel
that
is
desirable
to
them
error
correction
needs and encourage
rather than a way of
frustration
difference
The
less
among
experienced teachers may be
and embarrassment.
impede
issues
less
that
female
by
from
young
teachers
cultural
experienced
some
affected
265
acting as male teachers do in the same circumstances. For example, by smiling or talking to
every male in the school (teachers or students), she may be considered to be a disrespectable
teacher, while the male teacher can do the same thing without any concerns.
To sum up, this study shows that there are some differences between
male and female teachers
in the techniques of correcting students' oral
These
techniques may be affected by some
errors.
factors, such as cultural and traditional constrains
on the Libyan society. This is in line with
Sunderland (2008) who argues that culture shapes male
female
behaviour.
These
and
constraints may disappear when both sexes become more experienced. In other words, the
differences between male and female teachers in the ways of oral error
correction were not
evident among more experienced teachers. It seems that experience changes the students of the
teachers in the eyes of colleagues and students.
Moreover, the findings also show that
students' reaction towards teachers' gender was not as clear as when teachers were less
experienced.
7.3 Summary
This chapter discussed the findings of the current study with respect to the different techniques
by
the Libyan teachers at the secondary schools in Aj elate city. It
of oral error correction used
discuss
to
the results gained by three instruments; classroom observations, semiproceeded
interviews
structured
and questionnaires these explored the similarities and differences of the
techniques used by teachers in the ways of correcting students' oral errors. Then it discussed
the students' reactions towards their teachers' techniques of oral error correction with reference
to their teachers' gender and teachers' years of teaching experience. This chapter showed that
there were differences and similarities between male and female teachers in the ways of oral
female
Finally,
that
this
techniques.
error correction
male and
students were
chapter revealed
by
The
their
teachers'
next chapter
affected positively or negatively
implications
the
of this study.
will provide
conclusion and
266
Chapter Eight
Summary and Conclusion
8.1 Introduction
This chapter summaries the purpose and responses to the research questions of this
study.
It represents the theoretical significance of the study regarding the findings. It also
includes implications and recommendations. Reflections on the methodology used and its
limitations are also discussed. Finally, suggestions for further research are provided.
8.2 Summary of the Study

This section outlines the main purpose of the current study, the research questions,
reflections on the procedure and methods used.
This study explored the oral error correction techniques used by Libyan teachers in
secondary schools in order to find out whether there were any differences between
male/female, experienced/less experienced teachers and how these differences, if any,
affected students' participation.
The findings obtained from data analysis have clearly shown that there were significant
differences between male and female teachers in the ways of correcting students oral
data
(see
7.3.1).
The
triangulation
collection and analysis
errors
method of
subsection
in
that
teachers'
correcting students' oral errors.
revealed
experience played a crucial role
It became clear that there were differences between experienced and less experienced
teachers in the ways of correcting students' errors.
The main purpose of this study was also to find out how teachers' gender and experience
in
Results
in
that
the
revealed
classroom.
oral
activities
affected students' participation
students were significantly
in
by
their
teachers'
affected
ways of oral error correction
relation to the teachers' gender and experience.
In general, the methodological
approach proved valuable in achieving the target aim of
behaviour
by
teachers'
techniques,
methods,
and
ways
the current study
revealing
(verbal/non-verbal)
during oral error correction activities. I also believe that measuring
267
and testing the phenomena from different points and from different angles using a range
of tools can triangulate the findings and provide a clearer picture. I tried to shed light on
happened
during oral activities and explained findings in detail in
what
order to make
more sense of them.
Piloting the methodology in the UK, and analysing it before conducting the main
study,
then again piloting it in Libya, gave this study a validity by duplicating results but went
further by listening to the same responses from the participants.
The classroom observations and the following
up of every participant more than twice
proved an essential role in assessing the teachers' behaviour and students' reaction to
implementation. The description of the teachers' role and ways of error correction was
the ultimate focus of classroom observation analysis, as well as the students' reaction
towards their teachers' behaviour. It was acknowledged that the data of classroom
have
their
observation would, on
own,
rendered partial and subjective results. Through
the observations, I did not ignore the non-verbal communication,
such as physical
facial
movements, gestures, and
expressions. However, I was unable to capture them on
videotape as culturally,
the teachers especially the females, were uncomfortable about
being recorded. Although I had prepared consent forms for them to complete, they were
reluctant to agree.
8.3 Theoretical Significance

8.3.1 Male and Female Teachers' Ways of Oral Error Correction
As for the research question on the differences between male and female teachers in the
findings
the
showed that there were certain
ways of correcting students' oral errors,
different techniques used by each sex. The differences were: 1. at the time of error
justification
female
teachers
their
correct
students' errors and
correction, when male and
for doing that, 2. the one who corrects the error, do they correct errors by themselves, let
does
how
3.
the
themselves
another
student
or
correction?
male and
students correct
female teachers act during the operation of error correction and 4. to what extent do
learnt
techniques
they
when they were students? This
teachers apply the methods and
268
may confirm the fact that teachers are trained well to be teachers and are usually happy to
talk about various teaching techniques. It is obvious that a good language teaching
technique is the one that works and helps students to achieve better learning (see Abbott
1981:
14).
Thus, male and female teachers help their students to learn and are
et al.,
happy
to correct their errors. Therefore, there are similarities among teachers
reasonably
in their ways of acting and teaching inside the classroom (see Abbott et al., 1981: 116).
This shows that not everyone can enter the classroom and teach students but there are
principles, rules, methods, strategies and techniques that a teacher follows and applies.
However, the differences among teachers are a result of how someone applies those
methods and techniques in the classroom and how someone can choose the most suitable
for
his/her
students.
one
In this study, although I have found that female teachers acted differently
from male
between them were found (see sections 6.3 & 7.4). For
teachers, some similarities
instance, regarding the language skills and components, both genders taught them in the
female
in
is
This
the ways of oral error
teachers
the
picture of male and
same way.
correction at secondary schools.
8.3.2 The Role of Experience

Teachers with
different
in
differences
the ways of oral error
experience showed
Experienced
how
towards
they
acted
correction techniques and
but
feel
did
differently.
They
looked
anxious
teachers
not
at errors and error correction
learnt
learning.
They
in
also
they thought that students' errors were a result of progress
that encouraging student' self-correction or peer correction creates self-confidence and
student-student cooperation.
However, experienced teachers used different techniques
believe
They
different
in
that
errors.
students'
correcting
and ways which were successful
his/her
has
language
the
learn
do
own ability,
same pace and everyone
at
a
students
not
in
but
the
they created suitable
did
same way
therefore, they
not correct all students
In
less
for
error
correction.
comparison with
experienced
every student's
environments
because
less
latter
and
more
anxious
about
relaxed
teachers, the
were
They
and
showed
students'
believed
undesirable
are
weak
performance.
that
they
errors
269
were more concerned with error correction and believed that accuracy is the most
important element in leaning a language. They reacted quickly and
corrected oral errors
immediately
without
pause or delay. Further,
less experienced teachers did not
differentiate among students in their ways of oral error correction because they were less
concerned with psychological difference than language accuracy.
Different teachers' experiences showed valuable significances in how teachers corrected
their students' oral errors and how they behaved inside the classroom. Moreover, less
experienced teachers were affected by the methods and techniques they learnt when they
were students and tried to apply them, while experienced teachers mixed different
techniques including the ones glean from their teaching experiences.
However, there are also similarities among male and female teachers in the ways of error
in
in
Experienced
teachers
the
correction.
male
acted
same ways
techniques while less experienced male and female teachers acted differently.
8.3.3 Students' Reaction towards Error Correction

With regard to the teachers' ways and methods of oral error correction, students were
be
by
Male
to
teachers'
corrected
students preferred
gender and experience.
also affected
by female experienced teachers rather than male or less experienced teachers. This was
due to their belief that female teachers were lenient and more gentle than male teachers,
build
to
their self-confidence
to
teachers
encourage students
were able
while experienced
by emphasising the meaning of communication rather than accuracy.
Regarding teachers' oral error correction techniques, female students expressed strong
feelings in having their errors corrected in order to be able to communicate perfectly in
English. Male students had more varied options and freedom even if scholastically
female
business.
job
By
for
look
to
their
i.
contrast,
or
run
own
a
unsuccessful, e. to
home,
be
to
however
even
stay at
expected
academically successful, would still
students,
after graduation.
Female students desired accuracy and were sensitive if they committed errors in their oral
communication.
They preferred to be corrected by male teachers, especially the
270
experienced ones, because male teachers motivated and encouraged them more than
female teachers. In addition, experienced teachers
gave much time to the students in
involve
to
them in the operation of oral error correction. Experienced teachers did
order
not exaggerate students' oral errors when they occurred but accepted those errors as a
step to achieving effective learning of English language.
Teachers' praise, encouragement, patience, facial expressions, ways and time of oral
error correction affected students' participation in oral activities and varied from teacher
to teacher regarding his/her experience and gender.
I have made an attempt to present a more complete picture of error correction in EFL
by
focusing
classes
on teachers' gender and experience as well as students' reactions to
in
findings
correcting;
other words, my
contribute modestly to the theory of error
in
language
learning.
teaching
correction
and
8.4 Pedagogical Implications of the Study

The findings of this study indicate that education authority inspectors and teachers might
be able to intervene in the process of teaching English and the way of oral error
in
be
It
to
correction
enhance students' performance
oral activities.
might
suggested that
teachers encourage their students to communicate in English without over emphasis on
error correction, especially with shy and weak students. Flexibility
is considered as being
for
for
both
English
to
teachers
a crucial aspect
students,
speak
without too
and students:
for
lead
is
important
in
building
teachers,
to
much emphasis on accuracy
self confidence:
them to believe that too much error correction might lose students' confidence in
participating in oral activities. The results might help the less experienced teachers to see
the need to consider the effect of students' self-correction in their oral communication
before they provide students' with error correction. Students' self-correction might build
lead
to successful error correction. Students' self-correction
self-confidence and could
learn
their
to
this technique and give them
teachers
students
encourage
might arise when
time for doing that correction.
"
This research contributes to that body of knowledge which shows how teachers'
in
gender affects students' participation oral error correction.
271
"
The Education Authority might change their

ways of examining students' proficiency
at the end of the year in all aspects of language, such as listening, speaking, reading
and writing and avoid emphasis on grammatical issues only.
boys
As
less
9
seem
active and are less careful than girls, they may need different
learning styles and need more "boy-centric"
rewards. Teachers might be encouraged
to consider the importance of techniques to deal with boys' behaviour. Bourdillon and
Storey (2002: 210) suggest some strategies to support boys' achievements and
improve their motivation:
1. Taking time to listen to the boys in order to build relationships which show those
students are valued and respected as both learners and individuals,
2. Some boys are under pressure and require pastoral support,
3. Using examples that boys can relate to. However, while boys may appear to have
be
different
from
be
I
that
the
certain needs
may
girls,
suggestions made above could
equally applied to girls.
9
Teachers could encourage students by offering a non-discriminatory
environment and
interaction.
does
is
However,
there
this
that
teacher-student
not mean
not
encouraging
is
because
in
for
Libyan
there
the
no use of
context
need
correcting major oral errors,
English outside the classroom in daily life, and as a mater of fact, the learners'
English can be corrected only inside the classroom.
"
In secondary education in Libya and other Arab countries, the focus is mainly on the
know
Students
language
English
than
the
may
conveying meaning.
rather
structure of
the grammar rules well, but be unable to communicate orally with others outside the
locations.
Therefore,
English
teachers
to
they
travel
speaking
classroom or when
fluently
language
English
to
their
and emphasise
produce
students
could encourage
the meaning of the message rather than form. This may lead teachers to avoid
do
inhibit
not
communication;
correcting minor errors which
(2002:
Lochtman
as
273) pointed out, error correction is very rare in everyday situations outside the
classroom.
"
Error correction techniques should be part of the agenda of course designers at

Less
institutes
experienced teachers' understanding of various
and colleges.
teachers'
due
to
fact
is
to
the
that some
reacting
students'
when
errors
techniques
essential
272
types of error correction techniques might facilitate

more student response than others
(see Mackey et al., 2004: 321).
"
The results show that a teacher's manner

of oral error correction might affect and
reflect
on a student's
way of expressing dissatisfaction
and/or enthusiasm at
participating in oral communication. A smile and pleasant manner help students to get
involved in oral error correction and in continuing
oral communication.
"
Error correction is an important step in the process of teaching

and learning English
but particular importance should be placed on how, when,
what and who corrects
in
errors
order to enhance learning, rather than concentrating on the correction itself.
Therefore, new teachers need to be aware of various methods and techniques which
are meant to fulfil
students' needs during communication and oral error correction
(see Bourdillon and Storey, 2002: 169).

"
The results
emphasised that
students'
reactions
towards
overcorrection
was
undesirable and students reacted somewhat anxiously with some facial expressions,
such as blushing and wet foreheads; these tendencies were especially predominant
female
among
and shy students.
"I
believe that learning a foreign language is both a mental and behavioural process in
which I integrate the behaviourist and mentalist theories as complementary of each
other, rather than against each other. Regarding this integration, error correction is
framework
to
this
theoretical
meant
cope with
which considers that error correction
follows
the route of behaviourists
learning
facial
in
FL.
Thus,
and mentalists
expressions, physical movements, gestures and all visual error correction techniques
behavioural
serve as
indirect
direct
techniques,
and
error
while
error correction
For
be
techniques
of oral error correction.
correction could
regarded as mental
behavioural
example: repeating as a
completely
parroting
principle
of oral error correction
is not
but
is
also a mental process of
erroneous words only,
Moreover,
recasts, self-correction, peer correction, eliciting
contextualising speech.
the correct form from explanation, all these are the integration of both mental and
behavioural theories.
"
Finally, the results of this study showed that students reacted differently towards error
impact
techniques
techniques
such
and
could
on students' achievement and
correction
273
participation
positively
in oral classroom activities. Therefore, in order to help students cope

with
techniques, teachers should eliminate
all
techniques which cause alarm and create a negative attitude towards error correction.
8.5 Limitations of the Study
Certainly, this study is not one hundred percent perfect and there are some points where
others can criticise and record points of limitation. The study was focused on oral error
during
oral communication
correction
and ignored other crucial skills such as written
activity and techniques of correcting students' written work. Therefore, further studies
investigate
to
this aspect in order to construct a complete picture of
are recommended
foreign
by
in
learning
language.
techniques
teachers
correction
error
used
a
The main interest of this study was to find out the differences between male and female
teachers' ways of oral error correction techniques and the difference between experienced
less
in
imbalance
less
the
there
teachers
experienced and
was an
and, as
experienced
and
factor
investigate
further
this
to
teacher
studies are recommended
samples,
experienced
by increasing the sample and equality in each sex in order to make the picture clearer.
As this study placed an emphasis on students' reaction towards their teachers' oral error
the
fact
due
that
teaching
study
the
elements
to
of
various
consists
correction and
depended on the questionnaire as a tool to collect information from the participants. On
developed
been
have
ideas
deeper
hand,
would
the other
understanding of participants'
a
However,
time
tool.
triangulation
interviews
was at
a
and classroom observations as
with
in
interviews
did
I
not wish to cause students embarrassment
a premium and additionally,
by asking about their teachers' ways of error correction. Therefore, I limited myself to the
students' questionnaire.
8.6 Recommendation for Further Study

findings,
in
the
the
this
Taking into account the research methods used
main
study and
following are some suggestions for further investigation:
"
foreign
be
language
in
It
Ajelate
itself
teachers
to
limited
of
can
city.
This study
level
in
Libya
the
to
in
at
same
of
secondary
compare
schools
cities
other
replicated
274
findings with the findings of this study in order to

seewhether there are similarities or
differences in the findings.
"
Because the study focused on teachers' gender as well as experience in the ways of
oral error correction techniques, and omitted written error correction techniques,
which are considered an important part of language communication, I recommend
further studies to be carried out with the same variables to explore this issue and to
explore the results.
"
Although the sample of this study is reasonable, I suggest further research on larger
samples of both male and female teachers from different secondary schools. This
information
would provide more
on how teacherscorrect students' oral errors.
"
Further research is also needed on larger and equal samples of experienced and less
experienced teachers in order to give a wider and clearer picture of how each group
deals with error correction.
"
Since errors and error correction techniques, and teachers' gender and experience, are
important and might affect students' participation positively or negatively regarding
their achievements, further studies are needed to understand students' reactions more
designers
Teachers'
help
from
different
This
the
of
course
may
angles.
precisely
Training Colleges and Higher Institutes to take these issues into consideration and
develop teachers' pre-service programmes.
"I
female
teachers who used more systematic approacheswhen a student
came cross
from
but
to
this
where
study was unable explain
unfortunately
committed oral errors
is
from;
the
therefore,
worth exploring
this systematic approach came
systematicity
by
further
for
this
is
the
study.
research
recommended
areas
and one of
"
This study is carried out in Ajelate city in Libya. It is the first study concerning oral
in
Libyan
EFL
the
to
their
teachers
techniques
gender and
of
relation
error correction
in
for
further
It
work
as
other
may
a
starting
point
studies
experience.
of
years
instance,
in
For
language
the
teaching
circumstances.
researchers
contexts and
275
western world may like to carry out similar research in ELT in their own context to
explore to what extent their findings
would contest or support the description
presented here. In other words, I am suggesting "this is the situation I studied, and
these are the things I found going on there. Look at it in detail. How does it compare
with the situations you know? Are there processes here which compare with things
that you've observed? Are your processes a bit different? What is it in our two
situations that could account for these differences" (Nunan, 1992: 69-70)?
"
Finally, I hope this study will contribute by offering a picture of oral error correction
regarding teachers' gender and experience as well as students' reactions in order to
help learners to gain better achievements in L2.
276
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490354the Oral Error Correction Techniques Used by Libyan Secondary School Teachers of English Muhsen Abobaker A. Ali A

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The Oral Error Correction Techniques

Used by Libyan Secondary School

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment

Sunderland for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

few studies have examined the

genders and the other to different

genders. SPSS programme

Means were used to establish the differences between participants'

1.2.2.3 Secondary Schools

Education Level (19-22 years)

1.2.4 Teaching English in Libya

1.2.6 Teaching English at Preparatory Schools

1.4 The Research Questions

1.5 Aims of the Study

1.10 Summary and Conclusion

Chapter Two: Correction

2.2 What is Correction

2.3.1 The Teacher

2.3.2 The Teacher

2.3.4 The Aims of Language Teaching

2.3.5 Methods of Error Correction

2.3.6.1 Errors of Intelligibility

2.3.6.2 Global or Major Errors

2.3.6.3 Minor Errors

2.3.6.4 Fossilised Errors

2.3.6.5 Errors Related to the Aim of the Lesson

2.5.1.1 Showing Incorrectness

2.5.2 Peer Correction

2.6.1.2 Choral Repetition

2.6.8.2 Facial Expression

2.6.8.3 Eye Contact

Chapter Three: Errors and Certain Aspects of Error Correction

3.3 Definitions of Terms Employed in the Study

3.3.1 Errors and Mistakes

3.3.2 Teachers and Error Correction

Four: Methods and Instruments

4.3.3 Reliability and Validity

4.8 Teacher Participants

4.11.1 Semi-Structured Interviews

4.13.1 Procedure of Data Collection

4.13.2 Procedure of Data Analysis

5.2.1 Observations ...............................................................................

5.2.1.1. a Direct Correction Technique

5.2.1.1. d Correcting Students by Giving a Chance for Peer Correction.........

5.2.1.2. d Rejecting (No)

5.2.2.1 Steps and Techniques of Direct Correction and Feedback

5.2.2.2 Time of Correction

5.2.2.4 Types of Errors to be Corrected

5.3.1.1 Time of Correction

5.3.1.2 Who Corrects Errors

5.3.2.4 Types of Errors to be Corrected ..........................................

5.5 Summary and Conclusion

Chapter Six: Results and Analysis of Qualitative Data

6 3.1.1 Manner of Oral Error Correction

6.3.1.4 Language Skill and Components

6.3.2 The Differences

6.3.2.2 The Time of Correction

Chapter Seven: Findings

The subject areas in secondary schools in Libya

Table 2.1 &2.2

The communication continuum

Some of the main differences between behaviourists and Mentalists points

The population and the randomised samples