CHAPTER 05

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126

CHAPTER 5
X-RAYS
5-1 X-RAY SPECTRUM
Example 5-1
An X-ray tube operates at 30 kV. Calculate the maximum
speed of electrons striking the target.
Solution
1
m0v 2 = V0e
Now
2
2V e
v2 = 0
m0
v=

2V0e
=
m0

2(30 103 )(1.602 1019 )

(9.109 10 31 )

v = 1.027 10 8 m / s
Example 5-2
Find the minimum wavelength and corresponding
frequency of X-rays produced by an X-ray tube operated
upon 10 6 volts.
K.U. B.Sc. 2003
Solution
The minimum wavelength min is given by
h c (6.626 10 34 )(2.998 108 )
min =
=
V0e
(105 )(1.602 10 19 )
0

= 1.240 10 11 = 0.124 A
The corresponding frequency is
c
2.998 10 8
=
= 2.418 1019 Hz
=
11
min 1.240 10

CHAPTER 05
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127
Example 5-3
Electrons are accelerated in television tubes through
potential difference of about 10 kV. Find the highest
frequency of the electromagnetic waves emitted when these
electrons strike the screen of the tube? What kind of waves
are these?
Solution
The minimum wavelength min is given by
hc
min =
V0e
c
Ve
max =
= 0
min
h
(10 103 )(1.602 10 19 )
= 2.42 1018 Hz
6.626 10 34
These waves are X-rays.
Example 5-4
Calculate the wavelength min for the continuous spectrum
of X-ray emitted when electrons of energy 35000 eV fall on a
target.
P.U. B.Sc. 2000
Solution
The minimum wavelength min is given by
hc
min =
V0e

max =

(6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )

(35000 1.602 1019 )
= 3.543 10 11 m = 0.3543

min =

Example 5-5
If V is the potential difference through which the electron
is accelerated in an X-ray tube, the show that the minimum
wavelength of emitted X-rays is given by
0
12400
min ( A) =
V (volts )

CHAPTER 05
X-RAYS
Solution
The minimum wavelength min is given by
hc (6.626 10 34 )(2.998 10 8 )
min =
=
Ve
V (1.608 10 19 )

128

1.240 10 6 12400 10 10
min (in metres) =
=
V
V
0
12400
min ( A) =
V (volts )
Example 5-6
An X-ray tube operates at 50 kV and current through it is
20 mA. Only one percent of the total energy supplied is
emitted as X-rays. Calculate
(i) the rate at which heat must be removed from target
in order to keep it at steady temperature.
(ii) the velocity of electrons when they hit the target.
(iii) the lower wavelength limit of the X-rays emitted.
B.U. B.Sc. (Hons.) 1991A
Solution
(i) P = V0I = (50 10 3 )(20 10 3 ) = 1000 W or J s -1
Rate of dissipation of heat energy
99
99
=
P=
1000 = 990 Js 1
100
100
(ii) The kinetic energy is given by
1
m0v 2 = V0e
2
v=

2 V0 e
=
m0

2(50 10 3 )(1.602 10 19 )
= 1.326 10 8 m / s
31
9.109 10

(iii) The lower wavelength limit of emitted X-rays is given by

h c (6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )
min =
=
V0e
(50 103 )(1.602 1019 )
= 2.480 10 11 m

or 0.248

CHAPTER 05
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129
Example 5-7
X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube by a target potential
of 50 kV. If an electron makes three collisions in the target
before coming to rest and loses one-half of its remaining
energy on each of the first two collisions, determine the
wavelengths of the resulting photons. Neglect the recoil of
the heavy target atoms.
Solution
Energy of the incident electron
E = V0 e = (50 10 3 )(1.602 10 19 ) = 8.01 10 15 J
Energy of the electron after first collision
E 1 = (E/2) = 4.005 10 15 J
Energy of the electron after second collision
E 2 = (E2/2) = 2.0025 10 15 J
The wavelengths of the resulting photons are given by
hc (6.626 10 34 )(2.998 10 8 )
1 =
=
= 4.960 10 11 m
15 )
E1
(4.005 10
hc (6.626 10 34 )(2.998 10 8 )
=
= 9.92 10 11 m
15
E2
(2.0025 10 )
Example 5-8
Determine Plancks constant from the fact that the
minimum X-ray wavelength produced by 40.0 keV electron
is 31.1 pm.
Solution
The minimum wavelength min is given by
hc
E max =

2 =

or

h=

min
E max min
c

(40 10 3 1.602 10 19 )(31.1 10 12 )

(2.998 10 8 )
Q

= 6.647 10 34 J.s

1 eV = 1.602 10 19 J

CHAPTER 05
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130
Example 5-9
What is the minimum potential difference across an X-ray
tube that will produce X-rays with a wavelength of 0.126
nm?
Solution
The minimum wavelength min is given by
hc
min =
V0e

or

V0 =

hc

min e

(6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )

(0.126 10 9 )(1.602 1019 )

V0 = 9.814 103 volts = 9.841 kV

Example 5-10
What voltage must be applied to an X-ray tube for it to emit
X-rays with a minimum wavelength of 30 pm?
Solution
The minimum wavelength min is given by
hc
min =
V0e

or

V0 =

hc

min e

(6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )

(30 1012 )(1.602 1019 )

V0 = 4.13 10 4 volts = 41.3 kV

Example 5-11
What is the voltage of an X-ray tube that produces X-rays
with wavelength down to 0.01 nm but no shorter?
Solution
The minimum wavelength min is given by
hc
min =
V0e

V0 =

hc

min e

(6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )

(0.01 10 9 )(1.602 1019 )

V0 = 1.24 105 volts = 124 kV

CHAPTER 05
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131
Example 5-12
Duane and Hunt observed that an X-ray tube operated with
30,000 V emits a continuous X-ray spectrum with a shorter
wavelength = 0.414 . (a ) Calculate (h/e) and (b)
Calculate h using the accepted value of e
Solution
hc
min =
(a)
V0e
h V0min
=
J s/C
e
c
h V0min (30000)(.414 1010 )
(b)
=
=
= 4.143 1015
8
e
c
2.998 10
15
h = (4.143 10 )e
h = (4.143 10 15 )(1.602 10 34 ) = 6.637 10 34 J s
Example 5-13
Find the minimum potential difference that must be applied
to an X-ray tube to produce X-rays with a wavelength equal
to Compton wavelength of the electron.
Solution
The Compton wavelength for the electron is defined as
h
c =
m0 c
hc
Now c = min =
V0e
Equating the right hand sides of above equations
h
hc
=
m0c V0e
m0c 2 (9.109 1019 )(2.998 108 ) 2
=
e
1.602 1019
= 5.11 105 volts or 5.11 kV

V0 =

CHAPTER 05

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132

5-2 MOSELEYS LAW

Example 5-14
The wavelength of K line of an element is 1.790 . Can you
identify the target element?
Solution
For K line we have
1 3
4
= R ( Z 1) 2 or
= ( Z 1) 2
4
3R
2
Z =1+
3R
where R = 1.097373 10 7 m 1 is the Rydberg constant. Hence
2
Z =1+
= 27
10
3(1.790 10 )(1.097373 107 )
The target element is cobalt.
Example 5-15
The wavelength of the K line for a certain element is 0.3368
nm. What is the element?
Solution
For K line we have
1 3
4
= R ( Z 1) 2 or
= ( Z 1) 2
4
3R
2
Z =1+
3R
2
Z =1+
= 20
3(0.3368 10 9 )(1.097 107 )
The target element is Calcium.
Example 5-16
Calculate the wavelength of K line for molybdenum target
( Z = 42).
Solution
1 3
Now
= R ( Z 1) 2
4

CHAPTER 05

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133
4
4
=
=
3R( Z 1) 2 3(1.097373 10 7 )(42 1) 2

or

= 7.23 10 11 m
= 0.723
Example 5-17
Calculate the energy, in eV, of K of Sodium (Z = 11).
Solution
The energy of K line is given by
hc 3hcR
E=
=
( Z 1) 2 in Joules
k
4
3hcR
( Z 1) 2 in eV
4e
3(6.626 10 34 )(2.998 10 8 )(1.097 10 7 )(11 1) 2
E=
4(1.602 10 19 )
= 1020eV
E=

Example 5-18
The K line of Thallium (Tm-69) has a wavelength of 0.246
. Compare the energy of this K photon with the rest mass
energy of an electron.
Solution
The energy of the given photon is calculated as
h c (6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )
E=
=
= 8.075 1015 J
10

0.246 10
15
8.075 10
E=
eV = 5.041 104 eV = 50.41 keV
19
1.602 10
The rest mass energy of electron is given by
E0 = m0c 2 = 0.511 MeV = 511 keV
Hence
E 50.41
=
0.099 0.1
E0
511
E = 0.1E0

CHAPTER 05
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134
Example 5-19
Calculate the ratio of the wavelengths of K line for Niobium
(Z = 41) to that for Gallium (Z = 31).
Solution
For K line we have
1 3
= R ( Z 1) 2
4
4
1
=
or
2
3R ( Z 1)
( Z 1) 2
If 1 and 2 represent the wavelength of K lines for niobium
and gallium respectively, then
1 ( Z 2 1) 2 31 1 9
=
=
or 9:16
=
2 ( Z 1 1) 2 41 1 16
Example 5-20
Calculate the wavelengths of K line of Manganese (Z = 25)
if K line of Titanium (Z = 22) is 275 pm.
Solution
If 1 and 2 represent the wavelength of K lines for manganese
and titanium respectively, then
1 ( Z 2 1) 2
=
2 ( Z1 1) 2
2

Z 1
22 1
1 = 2 2 =
(275) = 211 pm
25 1
Z1 1

Example 5-21
X-rays from a cobalt target (Z = 27) show a strong K line at
1.798 for cobalt and a weak line at 1.435 due to some
impurity. What is the impurity element?
Solution
According to Moseleys law
1 3
= R ( Z 1) 2
4

CHAPTER 05
X-RAYS
4
( Z 1) 2 =
= Constant
3R
2 ( Z 2 1) 2 = 1 ( Z 1 1) 2

( Z 2 1) 2 =

1 ( Z 1 1) 2
1

Z2 = 1+

1
1.798
( Z 1 1) = 1 +
(27 1) = 30
2
1.435

The impurity element is zinc.

135

CHAPTER 05

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136

5-3 ABSORPTION OF X-RAYS

Example 5-22
The mass absorption coefficient of silver is 38 cm2 /g for Xrays of wavelength 0.4 . Determine the atomic absorption
coefficient of silver for this measurement. (The average
atomic mass of silver is 107.868 g / mol)
Solution
The atomic absorption coefficient is given by
(38)(107.868)
M
=
a = m
N0
6.022 10 23

= 6.81 10 21 cm2 / atom or 6.81 10 25 m2 / atom

Example 5-23
The mass absorption coefficient of X-rays of wavelength
= 0.7 is 5 cm2 /g. The density of aluminum is 2.7 g /cm 3.
What thickness in centimeters of aluminum is needed to
reduce the intensity of the X-rays passing through it to onehalf its initial value?
Solution
Now
I = I 0 exp( x)
I0
= I 0 exp( x)
2
exp( x) = 2
x = ln (2)
x=

ln (2)

ln (2)

ln (2)
= 0.051 cm
(2.7)(5)

Example 5-24
The absorption coefficient of low energy rays in lead is
1.50 cm-1. What thickness of lead is required to reduce the
intensity of the rays (a) to half the original intensity? (b) to
0.01 of the original intensity?
Solution
According to exponential decay law for intensity of gamma rays

CHAPTER 05
X-RAYS
I = I 0 exp( x)
exp( x) = ( I 0 / I )

x = ln ( I 0 / I )
x=

(a) I = 0.5 I0 ,
(b) I = 0.01 I0 ,

ln ( I 0 / I )

ln ( I 0 / 0.5I )
= 0.462 cm
1.50
ln ( I 0 / 0.01I )
x=
= 3.070 cm
1.50

x=

137

CHAPTER 05

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138

5-4 X-RAY DIFFRACTION

Example 5-25
If d = 2.52 for a crystal grating and the wavelength of Xray is 1.1 , find the directions of strong diffracted beams.
P.U. B.Sc. 1980
Solution
From Braggs law, we have
2d sin = m
m
m(1.1 10 10 )
sin =
=
= (0.21825)m
2d 2(2.52 10 10 )
Now
m = 1 , sin = 0.21825 , 1 = 12.6 0
m = 2 , sin = 0.4365 , 1 = 25.9 0
m = 3 , sin = 0.65475 , 1 = 40.9 0
m = 4 , sin = 0.873
, 1 = 60.8 0
m=5
, sin = 1.09125
As the value of sin can not
exceed unity, therefore only fourth- order diffracted beams
exist. The angles of the directions of strong diffracted beams
are 12.6 0 , 25.9 0 , 40.9 0 and 60.8 0 .
Example 5-26
A beam of X-rays of wavelength 29.3 pm is incident on a
Calcite (CaCO3 ) crystal of lattice spacing 0.313 nm. Find the
smallest angle between the crystal planes and the beam that
will result in constructive reflection of the X-rays.
Solution
According to Braggs law
2d sin = m
m (1)(29.3 10 12 )
sin =
=
2d (2)(0.313 10 9 )
sin = 0.04681

or

= 2 0 4059 or 2.68 0

CHAPTER 05
X-RAYS
139
Example 5-27
Monochromatic high-energy X-rays are incident on a
crystal. If first-order reflection is observed at Bragg angle
3.400, at what angle would second-order reflection be
expected?
Solution
According to Braggs law
2d sin = m
For first and second order reflections it becomes
2d sin 1 =
2d sin 2 = 2
or d sin 2 =
Dividing Eq.(2) by Eq.(1)
sin 2
=1
2 sin 1

or

(1)
(2)

sin 2 = 2 sin 1 = 2 sin 3.40 0 = 0.11861

2 = 6 0 4843 or 6.810
Example 5-28
At what angle an X-ray beam of wavelength 0.110 nm must
be diffracted if the interplanar spacingd of NaCl is 0.252
nm?
K.U. B.Sc. 2001
Solution
According to Braggs law
2d sin = m
m (1)(0.110)
sin =
=
= 0.21825
2d (2)(0.252)

= sin 1 (0.04681) = 12.60

Example 5-29
X-rays of wavelength 1 are reflected strongly at glancing
angle of 10 0 4 in the second order. What is the interplanar
spacing of the reflecting surface?
Solution
According to Braggs law
2d sin = m

CHAPTER 05
X-RAYS
m
(2)(1 10 10 )
d=
=
= 5.72 10 10 m
0
2 sin
2 sin(10 4)

140

Example 5-30
The smallest angle of Bragg scattering in potassium chloride
(KCl) is 28.40 for 30 nm X-rays. Find the distance between
atomic planes in potassium chloride.
Solution
According to Braggs law
2d sin = m
m
(1)(30)
d=
=
= 31.7 nm
2 sin 2 sin(28.40 )
Example 5-31
X-rays of wavelength 0.122 nm are found to reflect in the
second order from the face of lithium fluoride crystal at a
Bragg angle of 28.10. Calculate the distance between
adjacent crystal planes.
Solution
According to Braggs law
2d sin = m
m
(2)(0.122)
d=
=
= 0.259 nm
2 sin 2 sin(28.10 )
Example 5-32
How far apart are the planes of NaCl crystal for radiation
of wavelength 1.54 making glancing angle 150 54 in first
order?
K.U. B.Sc. 2003
Solution
According to Braggs law
2d sin = m
m
(1)(1.54)
d=
=
= 2.81
2 sin 2 sin(15054)

CHAPTER 05
X-RAYS
141
Example 5-33
A beam of X-rays of = 0.842 is incident on a crystal at a
glancing angle of 8 0 35 when the first order Braggs
reflection occurs. Calculate the glancing angle of third order
reflection.
(K.U. B.Sc. 2001)
Solution
First the value of d is calculated for given data. According to
Braggs law
2d sin = m
m
(1)(0.842)
d=
=
= 2.821
2 sin 2 sin(8 0 35)
Now
m (3)(0.842)
sin =
=
= 0.44771
2d (2)(2.821)
= 26 0 3550 the desired glancing angle of third order
reflection.
Example 5-34
Using Braggs X-ray spectrometer, the glancing angle for
the first order spectrum was observed to be 8o. Calculate the
wavelength of X-rays if d = 2.82 .
B.U. B.Sc. (Hons.) 1993A
Solution
According to Braggs law
m = 2d sin
2d sin 2(2.82) sin 8 0
=
=
= 0.7849
m
1
Example 5-35
A monochromatic beam of X-rays produces a first order
Bragg maximum when reflected off the face of a NaCl
crystal with glancing angle = 200 . The spacing of the
relevant plane is d = 0.28 nm. What is the minimum possible
voltage of the tube that produced the X-rays?

CHAPTER 05
X-RAYS
142
Solution
According to Braggs law
m = 2d sin
2d sin 2(0.28 10 9 ) sin 20 0
=
=
= 1.915 10 10 m
m
1
hc
Now
min =
Ve
hc
96.626 10 34 )(2.998 10 8 )
V=
=
= 6.48 10 3 volts
emin (1.602 10 19 )(1.915 10 10 )
Example 5-36
A first order Bragg reflection occurs when a
monochromatic X-ray incident at an angle of 300 is reflected
from rock salt (NaCl) crystal. Determine the wavelength of
the incident X-rays (d = 2.82 ).
Solution
According to Braggs law
m = 2d sin
2d sin
=
m
2(2.82 10 10 ) sin 300
=
= 2.82 10 10 m = 2.82
1

CHAPTER 05

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143

5-5 PAIR PRODUCTION

Example 5-37
A positron collides head on with an electron and both are
annihilated. Each particle had a kinetic energy of 1.00 MeV.
Find the wavelength of the resulting photons.
Solution
The energy of the resulting photon is given by
E = 2m0c 2 + K

E = 2(0.511) + 1 = 2.022 Mev

Q m0c 2 = 0.511 MeV

E = (2.022 106 )(1.602 1019 ) J = 3.239 1013 J

The wavelength of the resulting photon is calculated as
hc
E=

h c (6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )

=
=
E
3.239 1013
13
= 8.87 10 m = 0.887 pm
Example 5-38
What is the energy and wavelength of the photon that will
just create an electron-positron pair?
Solution
The desired energy is given by
E = 2 m0c 2 = 2(9.109 10 31 )(2.998 108 ) 2 J = 1.637 10 13 J
1.637 10 13
eV = 1.022 106 eV
1.602 10 19
The corresponding wavelength will be
h c (6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )
=
=
= 1.213 1012 m
13
E
1.637 10
Example 5-39
Determine the total kinetic energy of the electron and
positron formed by pair production from a -ray of
wavelength 0.00247 .
E=

CHAPTER 05
X-RAYS
144
Solution
The total kinetic energy of electron-positron pair will be
hc
2 m0c 2

(6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )

2(9.109 10 31 )(2.998 108 ) 2
0.00247 1010
= 4.604 10 13 J
4.604 10 13
=
eV 4 106 eV = 4 MeV
19
1.602 10

Example 5-40
What is the energy and wavelength of the photon that will
just create a proton-antiproton pair?
Solution
The desired energy will be equal to twice the rest mass energy
of photon i.e.
E = 2 m p 0c 2 = 2(1.673 1027 )(2.998 108 ) 2 J = 3.007 1010 J

3.007 1010
eV = 1.877 109 eV = 1.877 GeV
19
1.602 10
The corresponding wavelength will be
h c (6.626 1034 )(2.998 108 )
=
=
= 6.606 1016 m
E
3.007 1010
E=

CHAPTER 05

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145

5-6 ANNIHILATION OF MATTER

Example 5-41
What is the momentum of the photons created in
annihilation of a proton and antiproton, each with an
original kinetic energy of 1.00 MeV?
Solution
The energy of each photon will be
1
E = h = m p 0c 2 + K .E. = (1.877 / 2) GeV + 1.00 MeV
2
E = (1.877 / 2) 103 MeV + 1.00 MeV = 939.5 MeV
The desired momentum of each photon will be
p=

h c

=

h

1 E
= = 939.5 MeV / c
c c

CHAPTER 05

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146

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
(1) What is the order of wavelength of X-rays?
Answer: - 10 10 m
(2) What are two general kinds of X-ray tubes?
Answer: - (a) The Gas Tube and (b) The Collidge Tube.
(3) What is the order of distance between two adjacent
atoms of a typical solid?
Answer: - 10 10 m
(4) What is the largest Bragg angle through which a beam of
X-rays can be diffracted by a crystal?
Answer: - 900

CHAPTER 05

X-RAYS

147

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
(1) Calculate the wavelength min for continuous
spectrum of X- rays produced due to falling of 30
keV electrons on a molybdenum target.
(P.U. B.Sc. 2003)
(2) At what angles an X-ray beam of wavelength 0.110
nm must be diffracted if the interplanar spacing d
of NaCl crystal is 0.252 nm?
(K.U. B.Sc. 2001)
(3) The spacing between principal planes of Calcite is
3.04 . Calculate the wavelength of X-rays for which
the first order reflection occurs at 14.7o.
{B.U. B.Sc.(Hons.) 1989A}
(4) Calculate the wavelength of the K line of rhodium
(Z=45).
(5) Calculate the wavelength of the K line of uranium
(Z=92).
(6) The wavelength of the K line for a certain element is
0.0794 nm. What is the element?
(7) Calculate the energy, in eV, of K line of Magnesium
(Z = 12).
(8) What is the longest wavelength in the K series of Xrays emitted by cobalt (Z = 27)?
(9) A sample of unknown element is used as target for
the electron beam in an X-ray tube. It emits a series
of characteristic spectral lines in which the two
longest wavelengths are 0.228 and 0.192 .
Identify the element.
Answers
10
(1) 4.133 10 m or 0.4133
(2) 12.60, 25.90. 40.90 and 60.80
(3) 1.543 (4)
11
6.676 10 m
(5) 1.467 10 11 m (6) Z = 40 , Zirconium (7) 1234 eV

(8) 1.798 10 10 m 1.798

(9) Tungsten