INFINITIVE COMPLEMENTS

Infinitive constructions represent a complex type of nonfinite clauses. The

characteristic marker of the infinitive construction is the particle to which converts a
finite clause into a string with both verbal and nominal properties:
I ordered [CP that John should go to Paris].
(finite complement clause with the verb in the Subjunctive mood)
I ordered John [CP to go to Paris]
(non-finite complement clause)
The infinitive has aspect and voice distinctions which are typical verbal
properties.
The Infinitive complement clauses have the same syntactic functions as NPs
which shows that they have nominal properties as well.
The verbal properties of the infinitive
The infinitive verbal form includes markers of aspect and voice.
The markers of aspect are be ing for the progressive, have en for the perfect aspect:
They were supposed to be coming round tonight.
(progressive infinitive)
Men were known to have married their housekeepers. (perfect infinitive)
He expected her to have been reading at the time. (perfect
progressive
infinitive)
The markers of the passive voice are be -en:
I allowed John to interrogate the witness.
(active infinitive)
I allowed the witness to be interrogated by John.
(passive infinitive)
She was charged with receiving the fur coat knowing it to have been stolen.
(perfect infinitive in the passive voice)
Like other progressive forms, the progressive infinitive is used to suggest that actions
and events are/ were/ will be continuing around the time we are talking about:
Its nice to be sitting here with you.
I noticed that he seemed to be smoking a lot.
Perfect infinitives can have the same kind of meaning as perfect tenses or past tenses:
Its nice to have finished work.

(= Its nice that I have finished

work.)
Im sorry not to have come on Thursday.

(= that I didnt come)

Sometimes we use perfect infinitives to talk about unreal past events - things that did
not happen:
I meant to have telephoned, but I forgot.

Negation is indicated by the negator not inserted in front of the particle to:
[For you not to have answered by a frown] was significant.
Position of the auxiliary adverbs in the infinitive complement clause
There are two types of infinitives according to the distribution of such adverbs as:
ever, already, always, still, just, merely, utterly, slowly, etc. The adverbs may be placed
before the particle to in the so-called non-split infinitive:
I remember plainly to have refused his offer.
When the adverb is placed after the particle to, we speak of the split infinitive
construction: to clearly understand, to fully appreciate, to flatly refuse, etc.
They came to fully realise the importance of the event.
I remember to have plainly refused his offer.
She seems to have always been admired.
Lifes aim is simply to be always looking for temptations.
Sometimes more than one adverb may be inserted (or even a more complex phrase, a
parenthetical expression) after the particle to:
She seems to have always been kindly received.
Police were trained with new tactics, to, if possible, entrap him and
handcuff him.
The subject of the infinitive complement clause
The structure of the infinitival complement clauses includes, besides the
infinitival verbal form, the Subject of the infinitive. The subject of the infinitive may be
analysed as being retained, deleted or raised.
1. The preserved or retained subject of the infinitive
There are instances when the subject is present in the structure of the complement clause:
It is possible [CP that he should go to Paris].
It is possible [CP for him to go].
He, which is the nominative subject of the finite clause, is preserved in the non-finite
clause, as him, a subject in the accusative case of the infinitive. The overt Su (him) of an
infinitive construction is considered to be a retained Subject which may or may not be
preceded by for:
[CP For the clothes to dry properly], they must be hung out in the sun.
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2. The deleted subject of the infinitive

There are other instances however, when though absent, the Su in infinitive complements
can be easily understood from the context:
The President isnt sure [CP whether he should approve the project].
The President isnt sure [CP whether PRO to approve the project].
The Complement clause has an overt pronoun Subject in the first example, but a covert
(empty or invisible) pronoun Subject in the second. This empty pronoun Subject is
conventionally called PRO.
What concerns us now is to explain when and why the infinitive does not have an
overt Su, in other words in what contexts and why the deletion of the Su of the infinitive
is allowed:
Deletion of the Su of the infinitive may operate in the following contexts:
a.
I intend. I should sit for the exam.
If these simple sentences are combined to form a complex sentence containing an
infinitive complement, the result would be:
I intend to sit for the exam.
It is clear that the person who intends to do something I is the same as the person who sits
for the exam, PRO. We can therefore co-index i and PRO to show that they are coreferent.
Ii intend [ PROi to sit for the exam].
The Su of ICC has been deleted because it is identical with the subject of the main clause.
b.
I forced Bill. Bill should go to Africa.
I forced Bill to go to Africa.
I forced Billi [PROi to go to Africa].
We notice that the Su of the IC is identical with the DO of the main clause.
c.
I commanded him. He should go to Africa.
I commanded him to go.
I commanded himi [ PROi to go].
The Su of the IC refers to the same person as the IO of the main clause.
We can say that there are certain contexts in which the deletion of the Su of the infinitive
is allowed because the Su is identical with one of the arguments of the main clause.

d. But deletion may also be triggered by an adjunct from the main clause:
Our task is to solve the problem. (= Our task is this. We should solve the
problem.)
Ouri task is [ (for usi) to solve the problem].
The Su of the infinitive complement refers to the same person as the possessive attribute
of the Su in the main clause.
Thus the Subject of the Infinitive complement clause may be deleted when it is
coreferential or equivalent with some other NP in the main clause. The NP from the main
clause which triggers the deletion of the Su in the IC is called the CONTROLLER. Thus
I, Bill, him and our are controllers. The controller may have different syntactic functions
in the main clause: 1. Su controller (I) 2. DO controller (Bill) 3. IO controller (him) 4.
ATTRIBUTE controller (our). This process is called EQUIVALENT NP DELETION or
EQUI NP DELETION (i.e. the equivalent NP is deleted)
The Infinitive constructions with a retained subject are known as FOR - TO
constructions, those in which he subject is deleted are called Equi constructions.
3. The raised Subject of the Infinitive
(for a discussion of raised subjects see the section on the syntactic process of raising)
The nominal properties of the infinitive complements
Infinitive complement clauses fulfill syntactic functions typical of the NPs. The
Infinitive complement may function as the Su of the main clause. When it is part of the
Predicate Phrase, the infinitive complement may fulfill the syntactic functions of DO,
PO, Predicative or Adverbial of Purpose or Result.
The Infinitive Complement Clauses (ICC) functioning as Subjects
The infinitive may function as Su with one-place predicates and two-place
predicates (traditionally known as intransitive and transitive verbs):
1. The IC as subject with one-place predicates:
[For me to interfere] was dangerous.
It is the custom [to take chocolates when visiting a patient in a hospital]...
It remains [to be seen what the long term effects will be].
The infinitive complement clause functions as Su of the main clause. In the first two
examples the main clause contains copulative predicates followed by an adjectival or a
nominal predicative. The adjective dangerous and the noun custom behave like one-place
predicates i.e. they have only one position to be filled, that of the Su, which is filled by an
infinitive. The third example contains an intransitive verb functioning as a one-place
predicate.
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Thus the Su position of the main clause may be filled by an infinitive construction when
the main clause contains a one-place verb, adjective or noun. Other examples are:
- adjectives: possible, impossible, likely, probable, necessary, unnecessary,
common, customary, normal, essential, indispensable, odd, typical, usual,
unusual, right, wrong, moral, immoral, pleasant, unpleasant, safe, unsafe, etc.
- nouns: a pleasure, an advantage, a tragedy, time, etc.
- verbs: remain, will do, suffice, be.
Tough movement constructions
The Infinitive complement functioning as Subject of a one-place predicate gives
rise to an interesting construction:
a. It is tough [PRO to park cars in Manhattan].
b. Carsi are tough [PRO to park ti in Manhattan].
a. It is difficult for John [PRO to give a kiss to Mary].
b. Maryi is difficult for John [PRO to give a kiss to ti].
If we look at examples (a), we notice that the main clause contains a one-place predicate
and the infinitive functions as its subject. If we analyse the internal structure of the
infinitive, we can say that the subject of the infinitive is covert and that the infinitival
verb form is followed by the DO cars or the IO Mary. In examples (b) the DO cars / IO
Mar which were within the infinitival construction in (a) have been moved out of it into
the Subject position of the main clause.
This type of construction which appears as a result of the movement of a nonsubject constituent from the infinitive construction into the main clause Su position is
called TOUGH MOVEMENT CONSTRUCTION. The adjective tough, used in the by
now classical example given above, seemed to be a suitable label for this kind of less
frequent movement.
However there are instances when the Tough Movement does not apply:
c. It is exciting for Frank [ for his children to talk about the old country].
d. *The old country is exciting for Frank for his children to talk about.
c. It is unpleasant [ for it to be hot and stuffy in the classroom].
d. *The classroom is unpleasant for it to be stuffy and hot in.
The question is how we can account for the ungrammaticality of the above
examples. If we compare the two sets (a) and (c) we notice that the Subject of the
Infinitive is covert in (a) (the person that experiences the toughness of a situation is
probably a driver and it is the same with the person that has to park a car) and overt in (b)
(the person that experiences a feeling of excitement is Frank and it is not identical with
the persons that talk about the old country, the children).

Thus we can say that the presence of the Su in the infinitive construction blocks
Tough Movement in examples (d).
Other adjectives and nouns that allow the movement of a non-subject NP out of
the Infinitive Complement Clause into the Su position of the main clause are:
Adjectives: easy, impossible, difficult, hard, simple, dangerous, unhealthy, stimulating,
boring, (un) interesting, entertaining, amusing, gratifying, tough.
Nouns: bitch, breeze, pleasure, delight, joy, a snap, a pain in the ass/ neck, etc.
It is easy [ for anybody to play folk songs for children on that guitar]
(TM is blocked)
It is easy [ PRO to play folk songs for children on that guitar]. (TM is allowed)
Folk songsi are easy [PRO to play ti for children on that guitar.]
Childreni are easy [PRO to play folk songs for ti on that guitar.]
That guitari is easy [PRO to play folk songs for children on ti]
The positions from which the non-subject NPs have been moved are marked by the trace
[t]. The trace is co-indexed with the NP which was moved.
Up to now we have dealt with one-place predicates requiring their subject position
to be filled by an infinitive complement.
2. The IC as Subject with two-place predicates
Infinitive complements may function as Su of several classes of transitive verbs:
- psychological verbs: bother, embarrass, grieve, please:
It grieved me [to leave you like that].
-

bisentential verbs: show, prove, imply:

[For him to steal money] proves that he was hungry.

To conclude we can say that the infinitive may be the Subject of certain one-place and
two-place predicates.
Infinitives Complement Clauses functioning as Direct Objects.
Infinitive clauses often function as DOs with simple transitive verbs:
Hei started [ PROi to run].
a. aspectual verbs: begin, start, continue, cease.
Hei began [PROi to write his essay].

b. verbs that have to do with responsibility, control, success of an action, process, change
of state: attempt, seek, endeavour, manage, contrive (= manage), refuse, decline,
condescend, deign, scruple, affect (= pretend), presume (= be bold enough), venture,
arrange, learn, omit.
Power stationsi are seeking [PROi to reduce their use of oil].
c. verbs with obligatory Su control, the Su of the main clause being an Experiencer:
abide, bear, afford, deserve, need, scorn.
Hei could not afford [PROi to be associated with them].
d. verbs of liking and disliking and intention: choose, desire, expect, like, dislike, intend,
mean, hate, plan, prefer, propose, want, wish,
Hei passionately desired [PROi to continue his career in politics].
e. verbs that have an alternative that-complement construction: mental state verbs:
remember, forget, regret, etc. or verbs of linguistic communication: ask, conclude, claim,
suggest, profess, threaten.
Theyi forgot [PROi to apply for American visas].
Theyi claimed [PROi to have shot down twenty-two planes].
As these are binary predicates, the only possible controller syntactically is the Su in the
main clause.
The Infinitive Complement Clause functioning as Prepositional Objects
ICC function as PO after verbs or adjectives with obligatory preposition:
- verbs: apply for, consent to, persist in, insist on, plead for, pray for, strive for, bother
about, hesitate about, fail in, proceed with, ache over, long for, rejoice at, shudder at,
care for, etc.
They are longing [to see you].
I never bother [to iron my shirts].
- adjectives: able, anxious, afraid, eager, careful, concerned, proud, solicitous, glad,
sorry, relieved, unable, fit, inclined, disinclined, prone, disposed, angry, important,
prepared, welcome, ready, willing, pleased, content, certain, wont.. caut prepoitii
She was disinclined [to talk about that].
I was still willing [to marry her].
The Su of the infinitive construction may be retained in For-to constructions:

I am anxious [for you and my sister to become acquainted].

Or deleted in Equi constructions:
Hei said he was glad [PROi to hear it].
Ii am curious [PROi to see how he will carry it off].
All the above examples contain two-place predicates that allow an infinitive to fill the PO
position. In what follows we will see what happens when tree-place predicates are used in
the main clause.
Control predicates
Predicates which take an infinitive complement with a PRO subject whose
reference is controlled by some NP in the main clause are known as Control Predicates.
Control Predicates are of two types: Object-Control and Subject-Control predicates.
Object-Control predicates are verbs that require PRO to refer back to an object
(direct, indirect or prepositional) in the main clause.
Subject-control predicates are verbs which take an infinitival complement with a
PRO subject which is controlled by the subject of the main clause:
Consider the following tree-place verbs: to persuade sb. about sth, to promise sth. sb. to
order sb. sth.:
1.

I persuaded him [that he should go to Paris].

I persuaded himi [PROi to go to Paris].

The infinitival clause functions as a PO. The DO him, which is realised by an obligatory
element in the argument structure of the clause containing the verb persuade, controls the
reference of the subject of the infinitive, PRO. Thus persuade is a verb with DO control.
2.

I promised him [that I should go to Paris]

Ii promised him [PROi to go to Paris].

The infinitival clause fulfills the function of the DO. The Su of the three-place predicate
promise controls the Su of the infinitive in other words promise is a verb with Su control.
3.

I ordered him [that he should to go Paris].

I ordered himi [PROi to go].

The infinitival clause functions as a DO. The IO of the main clause controls the Su of the
infinitive. Order is a verb with IO control. In this cases the oblique NP is a basic term of
the main clause causing Equi, not a derived raised term.
Classes of three-place verbs that exhibit obligatory control

Verbs belonging to Control Predicates may be classified according to semantic

criteria:
1. Verbs with obligatory DO control fall into several subclasses:
a. Exercitive verbs expressing linguistic or non-linguistic causation: authorize, advise,
assist, bind, condemn, compel, challenge, condition, defy, hire, enable, engage, excite,
encourage, influence, incite, instigate, lure, force, induce, move, oblige, inspire, prepare,
press, provoke, prompt, urge, trouble, tempt, will, send, persuade, convince, inform
All these verbs are followed by an NP and a PP, where the PP position is a complement
clause or a simple NP:
His words incited the soldiers [NP to anger].
His words incited the soldiers [CP PRO to rise up against the officer].
b. A second group of verbs with obligatory DO control includes a few operative
illocutionary verbs: appoint, elect, choose, nominate, name, vote. They are
subcategorized for DO PO, where the preposition is as. They have the peculiar property
that the only verb which appears in the complement clause is BE; occasionally other
copula-like or regular verbs may appear:
We chose [NP him] [pp as our president].
We chose himi [PROi to remain our president].
They appointed [NP him] [PP as a special envoy overseas.]
We appointed himi [PROi to rule this country].
The verb be and the preposition as may be deleted:
We appointed himi [PROi tv president].
A limited number of verbs are subcategorized by the context PP - PP, where the first PP
is the controller and the second the complement clause: rely on, count on, prevail on,
depend on, look to, impose upon sb, look upon, apply to sb, etc.
Some industries rely heavily [PP on government] [PP for finance].
You may rely [PP on mei] [CP PROi to help you].
2. Verbs with obligatory Su control: promise, swear, pledge, vow, etc:
Ii promised (him) [PROi to help].
3. Verbs with IO obligatory control are grouped in two semantic classes:

- exercitive verbs, actually performatives of command and permission: order, give orders,
command, bid, permit, allow, grant, forbid, suggest, propose, recommend, trusts:
I suggested to himi [PROi to leave by the back door].
- verbs of linguistic communication, which acquire exercitive function: tell,
communicate, report, answer, repeat, insinuate, mention.
She told to the servantsi [PROi not to announce her].
So far we have discussed instances when the controller is uniquely determined
and sometimes obligatory. There are also verbs, which in the same syntactic
configurations, allow more than one syntactic controller. The verbs under consideration
are three place predicates where one of the arguments is optional:
a. verbs subcategorized for NP PP, where the infinitive is a PO: beg sb. for sth., ask sb.
for sth., beseek/ implore sb. for sth.
Shei implored mej [PROi/ j to come].
b. verbs subcategorized for PP PP: plead with sb. about sth., argue/agree with sb. about
sth. The last two verbs are semantically symmetrical, the matrix Su and the oblique term
share their privileges as controllers:
Ii agreed with Billj [ PRO i/ j/ i+j to go]. (possible controllers: I, Bill, both)
The Infinitive construction functioning as a Predicative
The Infinitive construction can function as a predicative. Its subject may be retained (in a
FOR TO construction) but it is often deleted under indefiniteness:
A solution would be [for the shops to open at noon].
[PROarb To see] is [PROarb to believe].
PROarb has a generic reference meaning: one, somebody, people, etc.
The Infinitive complement as an Attribute
Infinitive complements may be subcategorized by simple nouns: right, idea, power,
instinct, etc. and nominalizations: ability, capacity, wish, desire, etc.
I had no desire [to revive old memories].
He had only one desire for his family to be in good health.
The Infinitive as an Adverbial of Purpose and Result
I had remained there [to see what was happening].

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(Adverbial Modifier of Purpose)

I had only to look at him [to see his superiority].
(Adverbial Modifier of Result)

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