CHAPTER 10

HEAT TRANSFER TO LAMINAR FLOW INSIDE DUCTS

10.1. Introduction
Heat transfer to fluid passing through tubes and other type of ducts has a broad range of
engineering applications. The study of heat transfer to flow flowing through circular tubes is
commonly referred to as the Graetz problem [1]. This chapter discusses the fundamental aspects
of flow in various shaped ducts. For most cases, the flow is considered to be fully developed.
The descriptions of heat transfer in ducts with various cross sections are in [2-3]
10.2. General Formulation of Velocity and Temperature
Flow though a circular pipe or other passages, as shown in Fig. 10.1, is governed by the
momentum equation; for a fully developed flow the momentum equation is
2u

p
0
x

(10.1)

Flow
x

u(y)

C
Temperature

T = Tw
Unheated

Heated Region

T = Ti
0

xo

Figure 10.1. A schematic of a flow passage and the coordinates

when fluid flows in the direction of x, and entering at temperature Ti while the wall temperature
remains at T Ti when x x and then increases to Tw . The energy equation in the absence of
frictional heating has the following form
1

T
k

2T
x c p

(10.2)

The energy balance on a differential fluid element produces the relation

hC (Tw Tb ) U Ac p (dTb / dx)

(10.3)

where U is the average velocity, C is the contour of the duct, A is the passage area, Tw is the wall
temperature, and Tb = Tb (x) is the local bulk or mean temperature of the fluid defined by the
relation

Tb

1
u
TdA
A A U

(10.4)

In general, one can designate Lc to be a characteristic length and selected based on the shape of
a passage. As an example, the characteristic length is Lc ro for a circular pipe with radius ro .
The energy balance relation, appeared earlier, produces the working relation for computing the
dimensionless local heat transfer coefficient hLc / k as
hLc A dTb ( x ) / dx

k
C Tw Tb ( x )
A d ( x ) / dx
b

C b ( x )

(10.5)

where b ( x) [Tb ( x ) Tw ] /(Ti Tw ) , x x /(Pe Lc ) , Pe c p LcU / k , A A / L2c ,

C C / Lc , and where Ti is the fluid temperature entering the heated section. The left side of
this equation represents a standard definition of the Nusselt number Nu Lc hLc / k . Based on
the hydraulic diameter Dh 4 A / C , the Nusselt number takes the following form
hDh
k
D 2 d ( x ) / d x
h b
.
4 L2
(
)

x
b

Nu D

(10.6)

In general, the average heat transfer coefficient for flow through ducts is defined by the relation,
h

1 x
h dx ,
x 0

and, after integration, it becomes

2

(10.7)

 A ln ( x )
h Lc
b
k
C x
with the average Nusselt number based on the hydraulic diameter being
D 2 ln b ( x )
h Dh
h
.
4 L2 x
k
c

(10.8)

(10.9)

10.3. Parallel Plate Channels

Consideration is given to flow between two parallel plates, a distance 2H apart as shown in
Figure 10.2. For a fully developed velocity profile, the momentum equation, Eq. 10.1, yields the
following velocity profile,

Flow
T i

2H

u(y)
Tw

Figure 10.2. A schematic of a parallel plate channel and the coordinate system.
u 3 y
1
U 2 H

(10.10)

where 2H is the spacing between two plates and U is the average velocity. The temperature
distribution in the flow field is obtainable from the energy equation
u

T
k 2T

x c p y 2

(10.11)

Introducing the dimensionless axial coordinate x x /(Pe H ) in which the Peclet number is
Pe= c p HU / k , the energy equation, Eq. (11), reduces to
u 2

U x y2

(10.12)

where is the dimensionless temperature defined as (T Tw ) /(Ti Tw ) , Ti is the inlet

temperature, and Tw is the wall temperature. The solution of this equation is obtainable once the
wall temperature is specified. The solution when Tw is a constant is the next task.
The solution of this partial differential is obtainable using the method of separation of
variables; that is, to set ( x , y ) X ( x )Y ( y ) after substitution for to get
u X Y

Y
U X

(10.13a)

That can be written as

1
X u Y

2
X U Y
This relation, Eq. (10.13b), leads to two ordinary differential equations; they are

X ( x ) 2 X ( x ) 0

(10.13b)

(10.14a)

and
u
Y ( y ) 2 Y ( y ) 0
(10.14b)
U
The parameter serves as the eigenvalue in this eigenvalue problem and the temperature
solution is

BmYm ( y ) e m x

(10.15)

m 1

2
The term e m x in this equation uses the parameter m instead of . Moreover, the

eigenfunction Ym ( y ) is obtainable from the series solution

Ym ( y )

cn ( y)n

(10.16)

n 0

The coefficients c n in this equation are c0 1 , c 2 3 / 4 , c1 c3 c5 0 and the

remaining. The odd coefficients vanish because of temperature symmetry about y=0 plane. The
other c n values are deterministic through the recursive relation

cn

1
3 cn 4
for n=4, 6,
2 cn 2
2 m
n(n 1)

(10.17)

The proper values of m must make Ym (1) =0 in order to satisfy the boundary condition at y=H.
These roots are ordered and identified as 1 , 2 , . Then, the mth eigenvalue m m
corresponds to the function Ym ( y ) and the first 50 values are in Table 10.1, as reported in [4].
Once the eigenvalues are known; the solution for requires the determination of the constants

Bm . This task leads to the classical orthogonality condition

Table 10.1. Selected eigenvalues, m , coefficients Am , and norms N m for laminar flow
through parallel plate channels [4].
m

Am 103

Nm

Am 103

Nm

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

1.37302
4.62942
7.89409
11.1596
14.4254
17.6912
20.9571
24.2230
27.4890
30.7549
34.0209
37.2868
40.5528
43.8188
47.0848
50.3507
53.6167
56.8827
60.1487
63.4146
66.6806
69.9466
73.2126
76.4786
79.7446

758.102
-177.639
95.0026
-63.3752
46.9552
-36.9987
30.3595
-25.6376
22.1191
-19.4029
17.2471
-15.4975
14.0511
-12.8368
11.8040
-10.9155
10.1437
-9.46745
8.87040
-8.33969
7.86507
-7.43828
7.05259
-6.70246
6.38329

0.631315
0.593791
0.590715
0.589884
0.589548
0.589380
0.589285
0.589225
0.589185
0.589158
0.589138
0.589123
0.589111
0.589102
0.589095
0.589089
0.589084
0.589080
0.589077
0.589074
0.589072
0.589069
0.589068
0.589066
0.589065

26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

83.0105
86.2765
89.5425
92.8085
96.0745
99.3405
102.606
105.872
109.138
112.404
115.670
118.936
122.202
125.468
128.734
132.000
135.266
138.532
141.798
145.064
148.330
151.596
154.862
158.128
161.394

-6.09124
5.82307
-5.57603
5.34777
-5.13627
4.93980
-4.75684
4.58608
-4.42637
4.27668
-4.13613
4.00393
-3.87936
3.76180
-3.65069
3.54553
-3.44585
3.35126
-3.26138
3.17587
-3.09444
3.01680
-2.94270
2.87192
-2.80423

0.589063
0.589062
0.589061
0.589060
0.589060
0.589059
0.589058
0.589058
0.589057
0.589057
0.589056
0.589056
0.589055
0.589055
0.589055
0.589054
0.589054
0.589054
0.589054
0.589053
0.589053
0.589053
0.589053
0.589053
0.589053

1 u

0
Ym ( y )Yn ( y )dy
0 U
Nm

when n m
when n m

(10.18)

where
Nm

1 u

2
Ym ( y ) dy
U

Y ( y )
1 Ym ( y )
m

2 m y y 1 m y 1

(10.19)

This orthogonality condition in instrumental in determination of Bm from the relation,

Bm

1 1 u
Am

Ym ( y )d y

Nm Nm 0 U

Ym ( y )

N m 2m y y 1
1

Ym ( y )

m y 1

(10.20)

In addition to eigenvalues, m , the constants Am , and N m are also listed in the Table 10.2. Once
the temperature solution is known, the local and average Nusselt numbers are obtainable as
discussed earlier. Samples of computed average and local Nusselt numbers are in the second
table for different dimensionless axial coordinate. The following relation describes the average
heat transfer coefficient with an error of less than 1%,
0 .344

x / Dh

1 .55
Pr Re D

N u D 7 .541

x / Dh
1 3 .4
Pr Re D

(10.21a)

A proper differentiation of this equation yields the local heat transfer coefficient,
0.344

x / Dh
1 3.47

Pr Re D

0.344
Nu D 7.541
4
x / Dh

x / Dh
1 3.47

1
3
.
47

Pr
Re

Pr Re D

x / Dh
1.557
Pr Re D

(10.21b)

An alternative correlation that emphasizes an accurate solution near the thermal entrance region
[5] is
7.541
hDh 3.106

3/ 4
k
( x )1 / 3
1 112( x )0.9 / 125
7.541 for 0.25 x

Nu D

for 0 x 0.25

(10.22a)

and the corresponding average Nusselt number is

Nu D

4.6587

7.541

when 0 x 0.25
1 1.32 x 0.7
0.358
7.541
when 0.25 x
x
x1 / 3

Table 10.2. Referenced heat transfer values for parallel plate

ducts [4].
(

1
x
)(
)
Dh Pr Re D

5.0107
1.0106
2.0106
5.0106
0.00001
0.00002
0.00005
0.0001
0.0002
0.0005
0.001
0.002
0.005
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1
2
5

hDh
k

h Dh
k

Tb Tw
Ti Tw

154.26
122.93
97.538
71.830
56.999
45.245
33.379
26.560
21.188
15.830
12.822
10.545
8.5167
7.7405
7.5495
7.5407
7.5407
7.5407
7.5407
7.5407
7.5407
7.5407

232.76
184.55
146.42
107.83
85.557
67.890
50.027
39.736
31.598
23.416
18.752
15.125
11.623
9.8249
8.7133
8.0103
7.7755
7.6581
7.5877
7.5642
7.5524
7.5454

0.99953
0.99926
0.99883
0.99785
0.99658
0.99458
0.99004
0.98423
0.97504
0.95425
0.92774
0.88604
0.79258
0.67503
0.49804
0.20148
0.44592101
0.21842102
0.25671106
0.723891013
0.575611026
0.289411065

(10.22b)

10.4. Circular Pipes

Assuming a fully developed flow, the momentum equation, Eq. (10.1) in cylindrical
coordinates as shown in Figure 10.3, yields the following velocity profile,
r
u
2 1
ro
U

(10.23)

where ro is the radius of the pipe, and U is the average velocity. Also, the steady-state form of
the energy equation in cylindrical coordinates is
u

T
k

x c p

2T 1 T

r 2 r r

(10.24)

When (T Tw ) /(Ti Tw ) , Lc ro , r r / ro and x ( x / ro ) / Pe) wherein Pe c p roU / k , Eq.

(10.24) takes the following form,

Ti

Tw

Flow

ro

x=0
Figure 10.2. A schematic of a circular duct and the coordinate system.

u 2 1

U x r2 r r

(10.25)

As in the previous case, the separation of variables leads to the following two ordinary
differential equations,
X ( x ) 2 X ( x ) 0

(10.26)

and
R(r )

1
u
R(r ) 2
r
U

R(r ) 0

The solution of the second differential equation, Eq. (10.27), is defined as

8

(10.27)

R(r )

0 c (r )
n

(10.28)

The coefficients c n are c0 1 , c2 1 / 4 , and c1 c3 c5 0 , and the remaining cn values

are obtainable from the recursive relation
1
c
for n=4, 6,
(10.29)
c n n4 c n2
2
n 2
m
The boundary condition at r ro implies Rm (1) 0 and proper values of m must be determined

in order to satisfy this boundary condition. These roots are designated as 1 , 2 , and the
corresponding eigenvalues m are obtained from the relation m m / 2 . The first fifty are in
Table 10.3. Once the eigenvalues are available, the equation

B m R m ( r ) e m x

(10.30)

m 1

provides the temperature solution following the computation of Bm . The next step is the
determination of coefficients Bm = Am / N m for insertion in the above equation. The classical
orthogonality condition

when n m
0
u
r Rm (r ) Rn (r ) d r
0 U
N m when n m
1

(10.31)

where
Nm

u
2
r Rm (r ) d r
0 U

R (r )
1 Rm (r )

2 m r r 1 m r 1

(10.32)

is instrumental in computation of Bm . The following relation provides the coefficient Bm for

inclusion in the solution equation for ; that is,
Bm

Am
1

Nm Nm

0 U

r Rm ( r ) d r

Rm (r )

N m 2m r r 1

2

m

Rm (r )

m r 1

(10.33)

Table 10.3. Selected eigenvalues m , coefficients Am , and norms N m for laminar flow
through circular pipes [4].
m

Am 104

N m 103

Am 104

N m 103

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

1.91227
4.72279
7.54722
10.3740
13.2016
16.0295
18.8576
21.6858
24.5140
27.3423
30.1706
32.9990
35.8273
38.6557
41.4841
44.3125
47.1409
49.9693
52.7977
55.6261
58.4545
61.2829
64.1113
66.9397
69.7681

2773.74
-604.913
276.037
-162.237
108.494
-78.4785
59.8457
-47.4034
38.6387
-32.2067
27.3316
-23.5385
20.5227
-18.0809
16.0728
-14.3992
12.9880
-11.7857
10.7522
-9.85634
9.07424
-8.38691
7.77926
-7.23911
6.75656

187.868
75.0397
46.8842
34.0942
26.7872
22.0596
18.7505
16.3046
14.4233
12.9312
11.7188
10.7144
9.86848
9.14638
8.52276
7.97875
7.50002
7.07549
6.69644
6.35594
6.04840
5.76924
5.51471
5.28170
5.06757

26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

72.5965
75.4249
78.2534
81.0818
83.9102
86.7386
89.5670
92.3955
95.2239
98.0523
100.881
103.709
106.538
109.366
112.194
115.023
117.851
120.680
123.508
126.337
129.165
131.993
134.822
137.650
140.479

-6.32349
5.93319
-5.58005
5.25939
-4.96722
4.70018
-4.45540
4.23039
-4.02303
3.83146
-3.65409
3.48949
-3.33645
3.19387
-3.06080
2.93638
-2.81986
2.71056
-2.60789
2.51131
-2.42032
2.33449
-2.25343
2.17679
-2.10423

4.87014
4.68750
4.51808
4.36047
4.21349
4.07609
3.94737
3.82653
3.71287
3.60577
3.50467
3.40909
3.31859
3.23276
3.15126
3.07377
3.00000
2.92969
2.86260
2.79851
2.73723
2.67857
2.62238
2.56849
2.51678

The first 50 values of Am , and N m , in addition to m , are also in Table 10.3. Following the
computation of , the values of the local and average Nusselt numbers are computed and
presented for different dimensionless axial coordinate values Table 10.4. This table also includes
the values of the bulk temperature. The following relation approximated the average heat transfer
coefficient with an error of less than 1%,

10

0.342

x / Dh

1.403
Pr Re D

Nu D 3.657

x / Dh
1 2.537
Pr Re D

(10.34a)

The local heat transfer coefficient is obtainable from the average heat transfer coefficient
following differentiation with respect to x, therefore,

Nu D 3.657

0.342

x / Dh
1 1.27

Pr Re D

0.342

x / Dh 1 2.537 x / Dh

1 2.537

Pr
Re

D
Pr Re D

x / Dh
1.403
Pr Re D

(10.34b)

Similar to for the parallel plate channels, the following equation provides the Nusselt number
values with a high degree of accuracy [5] near the thermal entrance location
1.709
3.657

when 0 x 0.25
4 / 15
2 2/3
1
/
3

3
/
2
( x )
( x )
1 1.86 x
3
3.657 when 0.25 x

Nu D

(10.35a)

while the average Nusselt number is

Nu D

3.657

7.691 11.536

ln(1 2 x 1 / 3 / 3) when 0 x 0.25

2
/
3

x
x

(1 1.02 x 0.52 ) 0.95

0.2008
3.657
when 0.25 x
x

(10.35b)

The above correlations yield heat transfer results with better accuracy that the Hausen correlation
[6] below

Nu D () 3.66

x / Dh
0.0668
Pr Re D
x / Dh
1 0.04
Pr Re D

2 / 3

(10.36)

The methodology presented above can be extended to include the effects of variable wall
temperature, frictional heating, and inclusion of other types of volumetric heat source. This can
be accomplished by examining the Greens function solution [7, see Chapter 10]. In the absence
of axial conduction, the Greens function solution is

11

k
T (r, t )
cp

T
G
1
dP
T
d G
d G S ( y , z , ) dA
n P
cp
n
0
0
P
A

u G ( y, z , x | y , z , 0) T ( y , z , 0) dA

(10.37)

Table 10.4. Referenced heat transfer values for circular pipes [4]
(

1
x
)(
)
Dh Pr Re D

5.0107
1.0106
2.0106
5.0106
0.00001
0.00002
0.00005
0.0001
0.0002
0.0005
0.001
0.002
0.005
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1
2
5

hDh
k

h Dh
k

Tb Tw
Ti Tw

129.74
106.08
84.334
61.877
48.914
38.637
28.254
22.279
17.559
12.824
10.130
8.0362
6.0015
4.9161
4.1724
3.7100
3.6581
3.6568
3.6568
3.6568
3.6568
3.6568

204.34
160.47
127.05
93.334
73.869
58.429
42.812
33.810
26.683
19.501
15.384
12.152
8.9432
7.1552
5.8146
4.6406
4.1556
3.9063
3.7566
3.7067
3.6817
3.6668

0.99959
0.99936
0.99898
0.99814
0.99705
0.99534
0.99147
0.98657
0.97888
0.96175
0.94032
0.90736
0.83622
0.75111
0.62803
0.39530
0.18971
0.43935101
0.54583103
0.36376106
0.161551012
0.1415210-31

where G G ( y, z , x | y , z , ) is called the Greens function, A is the cross-section area, P

represents the duct perimeter, S stands for and other types of volumetric heat source, and is

12

a dummy variable for axial coordinate x. For the two cases discussed earlier, the Greens
function is
G ( y , x | y , )

N
m1 m

Ym ( y )Ym ( y ) e m ( x )

(10.38)

for a parallel plate channel and

G (r , x | r , )

m 1

Nm

Rm (r ) Rm (r )e m ( x )

(10.39)

for circular pipes.

The presentation given above can be repeated, with modifications, for the case of prescribed
wall heat flux. It requires the determination of eigenvalues when the condition of Y(1)=0 is
replaced by Y (1)=0 for parallel plate channels and R(1)=0 is replaced by R 1 for circular
pipes. However, major modifications are needed in order to include the effect of axial
conduction.

Exercise 1. For a fully developed flow in a circular tube with radius r , the velocity is parabolic,

see Eq. (10.23),

r 2
u
2 1
U
r

As an approximation, the temperature profile is estimated (a one-term solution) to change

exponentially by the relation
T Tw F r / r e a x
in the thermally developing region. (a) Show that the bulk temperature, at any axial location x,
will have the form

Tb Tw c e a x
and find the relation between c and F r / r . (b) Calculate the Nusselt number

Nu hD / k 2hr / k as a function of the first eigenvalue, that is, the parameters a.

13

Solution. For a fully developed flow in a circular tube with radius r , the velocity is parabolic

(Eq. (10.23) in your class notes),

r
u
21
r
U

Assuming the temperature profile is given by the relation

T Tw F r / r e a x
Eq. (10.4)
r

2
r
1 Tw F (r / r )e ax r d r
2
r
r

0
r
2
ax

4e
1 r F (r / r ) r d r
Tw

2
r
r

1
u
Tb
TdA
A A U

This makes
r

r
1
c
r
r2
0
4

F (r / r ) r d r

and then Eq. (10.6) with Dh 4( r2 ) /(2 r ) 2 r and Lc r yields

Nu D

D2
hDh
h
4 L2
k
c

d ( x ) / dx
d b / dx c a e a x
b

a
(x)
a x
b
c
e
b

since b (Tb Tw ) /(Ti Tw ) c e a x /(Ti Tw ) and (Ti Tw ) cancels out from the numerator and
the denominator.
Exercise 2: Show the derivation of Eq. (10.5); that is, a relation between the bulk temperature

and the heat transfer coefficient. What is the relation between the bulk temperature and the
average heat transfer coefficient?
Exercise 3. For fully developed laminar flow in a rectangular passage, Eq. (10.1) has the

following form
2u
y

2u
z

14

1 p
x

Assuming p / x constant, the objective is to find the velocity distribution in a square duct.
The next step is the determination of the average velocity the leads to the evaluation of the
friction factor.
Exercise 4. Consider a parallel plate channel whose walls are 2H apart. Near the thermal

entrance location, the heat transfer coefficient is estimated [5] to be

h (2 H )
1.5529
k

1/ 3

UH2

where k is the fluid thermal conductivity and is the fluid thermal diffusivity. Calculate the
average heat transfer coefficient and the bulk temperature as a function of x.

Tw
Flow
x

x=0

u
Heated

Exercise 5. For fully developed flow between two parallel plates 2H apart, the velocity profile is

given by the equation

3
u m [1 ( y / H ) 2 ]
2

The walls are heated so that the heat flux rate qw is constant. Show that, under the thermally
fully developed condition, T / x is a constant and compute the Nusselt number for this specific
condition.

15

qw
H
x

Flow
qw
References

1. J. R. Sellers, M. Tribus, and J. S. Klein, Heat Transfer to Laminar Flow in a Round Tube or
Flat Conduitthe Graetz Problem Extended, Transaction of ASME, Vol. 78, 1956, pp. 441-448.
2. W. M. Kay and K. R. Perkin, Forced Convection, Internal Flow in Ducts, in Handbook of
Heat Transfer Applications, Eds., W. R. Rohsenow, et al., Vol.1, Chapter 7, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1985.
3. R. K. Shah and A. L. London, Laminar Flow Forced Convection in ducts, Academic Press,
New York, 1978.
4. A. Haji-Sheikh, Estimation of Average and Local Heat Transfer in Parallel Plates and Circular
Ducts Filled With Porous Materials, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol. 126, 2004, pp. 400-409.
5. A. Haji-Sheikh and J. V. Beck, Entrance Effect on Heat Transfer to Laminar Flow Through
Passages, International Journal of Heat & Mass Transfer, Vol. 50, No. 17-18, 2007 , pp. 33403350.
6. Burmeister, L. C., Convective Heat Transfer, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1993.
7. J.V. Beck, K. Cole, A. Haji-Sheikh, B. Litkouhi, Heat Conduction Using Green's Functions,
Hemisphere Publ. Corp., Washington D. C., 1992.

16