TRAINING REPORT

A STUDY OF PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC

CONTROLLERS & DISTRIBUTED CONTROL
SYSTEMS

At

HINDUSTAN PETROLEUM CORPORATION LIMITED

VISAKH REFINERY
(May 2015)
By
Srihero Yennana and B.K Shyam Anand
B.Tech VII Semester,Electronics and Communication Engineering
GITAM UNIVERSITY.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Srihero Yennana and B.K Shyam Anand, VII
semester B.tech student (Electronics and Communication Engineering) of
GITAM UNIVERSITY, Visakhapatnam has successfully completed 2
Weeks In-Plant training and successfully completed a training project
report titled A STUDY OF PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS
(PLCs) & DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEMS (DCS) at HPCL-VR

during the period 1-05-15 to 15-05-15.

D Bullabai
(Chief Manager - Minor Projects.)

M Sudha Mohan
(Sr. Manager- HR)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere thanks to Mrs Sudha Mohan Sr. Manager HR for

permitting me to undergo a month long Industrial Training at the HPCL
Visakh Refinery.
I also thank Mr D Bullabai, Chief Manager (Minor Projects.) for guiding me
throughout the training and for associating me with experienced engineers
and for providing me with all the facilities required.
I am also thankful to my training guides Mr E Saichand , Mr P C Shijin for
imparting ample knowledge and for their constant guidance, assistance and
encouragement during the training period.
Further I am also thankful to all the other engineers at HPCL-VR who helped
me during my training by providing valuable information and constant
guidance and support.

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION

Origin and Growth of HPCL Visakh Refinery

Refinery Overview

2. CONFIGURATION OF REFINERY
Process Units : Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) & Fluidized Catalytic Cracking
Unit (FCCU)
Treating Units : Merox Unit & Diesel Hydro Desulphurization Unit
Oil Movement and Storage Units
Power and Utilities : Captive Power Plant (CPP) & DeMineralization Plant
Environment Related Units : Effluent Treatment Plant & Sulphur Recovery
Unit

3. FIELD INSTRUMENTS

Critical Instruments
Classification of Instruments
Pressure Detectors
Temperature Detectors
Level Measurement
Flow Measurement
Miscellaneous

4. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC)

History
A PLC System
Programming Languages for PLCs
Vendors of PLCs used in HPCL-VR
Tata Honeywell PLC Model 620 Series
Honeywell Fail Safe Control Safety Manager (FSC SM) PLC
Configuration of other PLCs
Applications of PLCs
Advantages of PLCs

5. DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEMS (DCS)

History
The Hierarchy of DCS
Distributed Control Systems in HPCL-VR
Honeywell Automation India Limited
Yokogawa India Limited
ASEABrown Boveri (ABB)

6. DATA COMMUNICATION

Serial Communication
Parallel Communication
Fiber Optic Communication
Ethernet
Modbus

INTRODUCTION
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL) is a Global Fortune 500
company in the Energy sector. HPCL has two refineries located in Mumbai
(West Coast) and Visakh (East Coast) with capacities of 5.5 MMTPA and 7.5
MMTPA respectively, churning out a wide range of petroleum products, viz.
LPG, MS, SKO, ATF, HSD, Bitumen etc. and over 300 grades of lubricants,
specialties and greases as per BIS standard. HPCL has successfully contributed
close to 20% of India's total refining requirements. Over the years HPCL's
capacity of production has expanded massively through various up gradation
initiatives. The refineries, known for the full utilization of capacity and world
class performance are the foundations of HPCL's successful journey towards
meeting India's energy requirements.
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation (HPCL) came into being in mid 1974 after take
over and merging of erstwhile Esso and Lube India undertakings. Catlex was taken
over by government of India in 1976 and subsequently merged with HPCL.
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited thus emerged after merging Refining/
Marketing facilities of ESSO and CALTEX.
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited today is the second largest integrated oil
company in India playing a significant role in the nations economic development and
growth. against the backdrop of economic liberalization, HPLC is consistently
improving its existence by strengthening its infrastructural facilities as well as
diversifying upstream and downstream into exploration and producti9on and power
and petrochemicals and horizontally into LNG sector.
HPCL produces the entire range of petroleum products and serves all sectors of the
economy-industry, agriculture, transport, domestic, public utilities and also major
consumers like the railways, power plants, defense, fertilizer plants, etc.;
Visakh refinery performance had been consistently excellent over the years. The
major performance indicators are crude thruput, total distillate, fuel and loss and
implementation of ENCON and environmental projects.

Origin and growth of HPCL-VR

Commissioned in 1957 as Catlex oil refinery India limited (CORIL). First oil refinery
on the East Coast and the major industry in the city of Visakhapatnam, Andhra
Pradesh.

Installed capacity of 0.65 Million Metric Tones per Annum {MMTA} in 1957 for
refining of crude oil into petroleum products [13200 bbl/day]. CORIL was taken over
by the government of India and merged with HPCL in 1978.

Refinery Overview
Visakh refinery is fuels based refinery generating major products of mass
consumption like petrol, diesel and kerosene. Hence, crude meeting general purpose
characteristics can be processed with this refinery configuration. Visakh refinery can
process crude from Prussian gulf under non-bituminous category, bituminous crude
(crude yielding bitumen, used for paving road).
The crude processed at refinery include
CRUDE
Kuwait
Dubai
Ummshaif
Upper zakum
Murban
Arab medium
Iran mix
Lavan Blend
Barash Lt

COUNTRY
Kuwait
UAE
UAE
UAE
Saudi Arab
Saudi Arab
Iran
Iran
Iran

Products And Treatment Facilities

Production Units:
S.NO

Process unit

Capacity (in MMPA)

1.

CDU-I

1.5

2.

CDU-II

3.0

3.

CDU-III

3.0

4.

BBU

0.225

5.

VBU

1.0

6.

FCCU-I(R)

0.95

7.

FCCU-II

0.60

8.

DHDS

1.8

9.

PRU

0.1

Legend:
CDU: Crude Distillation Unit

FCCU : Fluidized Catalytic Cracking

DHDS: Diesel Hydro De-Sulphurization Unit

VBU : Vis Breaker Unit

BBU : Bitumen Blowing Unit

PRU : Propylene Recovery Unit

Products:
S.NO

Daily production

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Crude Processing
LPG
Propylene
Sulphur
Diesel
Naphtha
LSHS
Fuel oil

Capacity (in tones)

22,500
610
100
17+65
7,800
2,150
1,790
3,500

Treatment Units:

DHDS:Diesel Hydro De-Sulphurization Unit:1.8 MMPTA

LPG Amine Treatment Unit
LPG, ATF and Petrol Merox Units Amine Regeneration Unit

Environmental Control Facilities:

Sulphur Recovery Units: 3 no. [2 Locate Technology of Clauss process]

Sour water striping Units: 2 no.
Effluent Treatment Plants: 4 no.
CO Boilers: 2 no.

CONFIGURATION OF REFINERY
Visakh Refinery is being operated under the following major units:
Process Units
Treating Units
Power and utilities
Oil movement and storage units
Environment related units

Process Unit
The Process unit consists of three units:
1. CDU
2.FCCU

3.PRU

Crude Distillation Unit

CDU consists of two sections:
Atmos section
Vacuum section
Atmos section:
Crude oil is first preheated from 30-1250c and pressure about 10kg/cm2 enters the
Desalter. The salts from crude are removed in the desalter units. The desalted crude is
then boosted to a pressure of 30-35kg/cm2, pre-heated to around 3600c.
The oil is allowed into the flash zone of atmos distribution column and the product
to stripper with steam to strip off the lighter products. The over head-vapors of the
atmos column are condensed in a series of conductors and the liquid in the receiver.
Heavy Naphtha, kerosene / ATF & Diesel product are withdrawn as side steams and
stripped off as lighter ends with supper heater MP steam in the respective strippers.
The bottom stream in atmos column is called RCO.
Products: Fuel Gas, LPG, Light-Naphtha, Heavy-Naphtha, kerosene, diesel &
Oil.

Reduced Crude

Vacuum section:
Hot reduced crude oil from atmospheric column bottom is heated in a vacuum to
380oc and introduced into the flash zone of vacuum column. The stop distillate out is

withdrawn first. The hydrocarbon vapors rising in the column are condensed into
Heavy Vacuum Gas Oil (HVGO) and Light Vacuum Gas Oil (LVGO). VGO is feed
to FCCU as feed. The bottom product of vacuum column is vacuum residue. The
vacuum in the column is maintained by a multistage ejector system.
Products: LVGO and the HVGO obtained are fed to FCCU, the combination of Short-Residue
and the slop cut forms the fuel oil which is consumed by the refinery.

Vis Breaking Unit (VBU)

Vacuum reside from either CDU I II or III or storage is received in visbreaking feed
surge drum. It operates at a pressure which is floating on main fractioning pressure
visbreaking feed @ 5.0 kg/cm2g, 1200c 1600c from surge drum is pumped by
visbreaking feed charge pump which are of screw type to a pressure of 7.6 kg/cm2g it

is then heated in visbreaking tar exchange to 3200c by visbreaking crude is then routed
to heater through booster pumps @ 5.8kg/cm2g preheated visbreaker feed entries
both passes of visbreaker heater under individual pas
Control visbreaker heater is a two-pass single shell heater with bridge wall type
configuration turbulizing water (BFKL) is injected to both the passes at a point where
visbreaking reaction starts. Fuel gasses heat visbreaker feed to 4550c (4700c) Residual
heat recovered by superheating LP & MP steam. Gas oil quench works primarily by
vaporization quench effluent entries main fractionators @ 4250c and 7 kg/cm2g
where it is separated into visbreaker tar or fuel oil as side stream product and naphtha
and gas as overhead product.
Bitumen Blowing Unit (BBU)
The unit normally receives hot vacuum residue directly from vacuum unit. The feed is
cooled to about 2320c in a stream generator before entering the bitumen converter. In
bitumen converter the vacuum residue is blown with air, since the reaction
exothermic, the heat evolved has to be removed. This is done injected steam into the
reactor at the top. Heat is recovered from bitumen leaving converter bottom by
generating steam and the bitumen is further trim cooled before sending to storage.
The hydrocarbon vapors steam and unreacted air leave the converter top to water
quench drum where hydrocarbons are condensed along with some water.
Hydrocarbon layer is sent to slop oil whereas water sent to waste water treatment
plant (WWTP) after separation of same in the settler.
Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU)
Vacuum Gas Oil from vacuum unit and recycle streams are pumped to raw oil furnace
for preheating the fresh feed. This fresh feed is mixed with regenerated catalyst and
enters the reactor at the base of riser where they are vapourized and raised to the
reactor temperature by the hot catalyst. The mixture of oil, vapour and catalyst travels
up the riser into reactor. The gas oil commences to crack immediately when it contact
the hot catalyst in the riser and continues until the oil vapour is disengaged from the
catalyst in the reactor.
The cracked products in vapour form continue through the reactor vapour line to
fractionators. The catalyst stripper surrounds the upper portion of the reactor passes
around the reactor grid and into the stripper, where if flows over baffles counter
current to the rising stripping steam, displaces oil vapours to the reactor. Coke is
deposited on the circulation catalyst in the reaction zone. The fuel gas leaving the top
of the regenerator goes to co-boilers where super heat is produced.

The regenerated catalyst is recycled with the incoming feed to the reactor. Vapours
from reactor are sending to Fractionators section where they are fractionated into
recycle gas oil which is returned to the reactor and produces Clarified Oil, Cycle Oil,
Motor Sprint (Petrol), and Gas products. This is achieved by first sending the reactor
products to fractionators where recycled gas oil and clarified oil are taken as bottom
products, cycle oil as side draw off and unstabilised motor sprint and gas as overhead
products. The overhead gas is compressed and liquefied and separated from the
separator is scrubbed with unstabilised motor sprint in an absorber to recover the C3
&C4 in it.

!
The liquids form the separator and the absorbers are stripped off ethane and the gas
stripped off is recycled back to the gas compressor and liquefaction system to recover
C3s and C4s carried with the stripped gases. The liquid form stripper bottom is send

to a Debutanizers where LPG is taken as overhead product and stabilized MS as

bottom product.
Products: Fuel Gas, Cracked LPG, Cracked Gasoline, Cracked Naphtha, Diesel component [Light
Cyclic Oil (LCO), Heavy Cyclic Oil (HCO), Clarified Oil, Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS) Used
as fuel for Industries and boilers from low sulphur crude processing. Also used in Ships, Jute Batch
Oil, Wash Oil-B, Propylene.

Propylene Recovery Unit (PRU)

The Propylene Recovery Unit is defined to recover Propylene from Cracked LPG,
which is one of the product streams of Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU).
Cracked LPG is a mixture of Propane, Propylene, and Butane with some traces of C2
& C5 Hydrocarbons. The unit is designed to process about 1,00,000TPA of cracked
LPG produced at FCCU-I & II and to recover 22,000TPA of Propylene. The process
consists of four steps. In the first step, the feed to unit i.e., Cr. LPG is prepared by
draining out the traces of caustic carryover.
In the second step Cracked LPG is separated into C3s and C4s in a distillation column
consisting of 55 trays. C3s being lighter is recovered from the column top.
In the third step, the C3s are again separated into propylene and propane in the
second distillation column consisting of 98 trays. Propylene being lighter is recovered
from the top of the column. In the fourth step, the Propylene recovered is subjected
to chemical treatment with a mixture of Mono Ethanol Amine (MEA) and Caustic,
then water washed and passed through a mechanical coalesce to knock off moisture
to meet the following specifications:

Purity : 95 %
Water : NIL
Total Sulphur : 5 ppm

The bottom products of the first column consisting of Butane & Butylenes along the
bottom product of second column consisting Propane are routed to LPG Spheres.
On special Propylene is routed to its spheres and off- Special is routed to LPG
spheres.

Treating Units
1. Merox Unit
Merox Unit

2. Diesel Hydro De-Sulphurisation

The LPG containing is treated here and the sulphur is removed from it. The
Kerosenes flash point is increased in this unit and the sore water containing gas is
treated here and the water is recycled for usage.
LPG Merox Units
While separate facilities are provided for straight run and cracked LPGS for
extraction, a common facility is provided for caustic generation. After Amine washing
LPG enters the caustic pre-wash tower, the purpose of which is to remove traces of
hydrogen sulphide. The LPG extractor which is perforated tray column. In this type
of extraction column, caustic soda containing dispersed Merox catalyst is would lead
to caustic soda entertainment. The LPG is introduced near the bottom of the column
below the first perforated tray. LPG, with mercaptans, is transferred to the caustic
solution forming sodium mercaptides. The LPG then goes in to the LPG settler. The
spent caustic carried over from the LPG extractor decants and treated LPG is
recovered and sent to storage.
Gasoline/motor Spirit Merox

The feed mixture of straight run light naphtha from crude distillation unit and FCCU
unit motor spirit is first sent to the caustic pre wash where hydrogen sulphide is
removed from the hydrocarbons. The charge is then mixed with air and routed to
reactor to a reactor where catalyst is fixed on charcoal bed. The foul smelling
Mercaptans are converted to non smelling disulphides, two reactors are provided of
which one shall be stand by and the other on stream.

Kerosene Merox
Kerosene after a caustic pre wash goes to the Merox reactor consists of a catalyst bed
of activated charcoal impregnated with Merox catalyst. Air is injected with the feed to
the Merox reactor.
Diesel Hydro De-Sulphurisation
Sulfur in Diesel enhances the pollution & contributes significantly to SOx in exhaust
emissions. It leads to corrosion and wear of engine systems. In order to make eco-

friendly diesel, it is desirable to remove impurities by treating the Diesel streams at

certain operating conditions in presence of catalyst and H2 through a process known
as DHDS. Straight run/Cracked diesel streams have certain inherent impurities viz
Sulphur, Oxygen, Olefins, metals etc. Quantity of these impurities depend on crude
quality, generally poorer the crude quality, higher the impurities.
With the
implementation of Bharat Stage-II and Euro-III spec, it is mandatory to produce
Diesel with ultra low Sulphur content.
The Process Steps in this unit are:
Feed (Naphtha) Pre-desulphurization
Final desulphurization
Steam Naphtha Reforming
CO HT shift conversion
Final purification of H 2 (PSA)
To remove Sulphur from Naphtha, which is poison to reformer catalyst Naphtha and
recycle H2 are heated and sent to Reactor where Sulphur compounds are converted
to H2S over Cobalt-Molybdenum based catalyst.
R-SH + H2 R-H + H2S

Sulphur reduction from 1000ppm to 10ppm. To reduce the sulphur content of

Naphtha from 10 ppm to < 0.5 ppm., Naphtha and H2 are heated and processed in
Reactor-II to convert S compounds to H2S over Cobalt-Molybdenum based catalyst.
The H2S removed from the Reactor-II is absorbed in ZnO reactor.
ZnO + H2S ZnS + H2O

De-Sulphurised Naphtha is mixed with steam and passed through a Nickel catalyst
packed in vertical narrow 108 tubes mounted in the reformer at high temperature
CnHm + nH2O nCO + (2n+m)/2H2
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 (endothermic)
C + H2O CO + H2 (endothermic)
Shift: CO + H2O CO2 + H2 (exothermic)

Process is endothermic and heat is supplied by fuel firing with 40 top-fired burners.
Pressure Swing Adsorption
PSA unit works on the principle that the adsorbent attracts and retains the impurities
at higher pressure and releases them at lower pressure. Four basic steps carried out by
an automatic PLC controlled control valves

Adsorption
Co-current Depressurization
Counter-current Depressurization
Purging
Re-Pressurization

Adsorption: During the adsorption step, the feed gas enters the bottom of the
adsorber and the impurities are retained in the adsorbent bed. High purity hydrogen
is produced from the top of the adsorber. The bed is switched from the
adsorption step to its next step before the impurities front has reached the top
of the bed.
Co-current Depressurization: The adsorber is partially depressurized. Hydrogen that
would otherwise be lost is transferred to other adsorbers. This patented feature allows
for high hydrogen recovery. The appropriate valve at the top of the absorber opens to
allow pure hydrogen to pass into another adsorber to provide the gas for purging and
to perform pressure equalization. Depressurization step is referred to as Co-current
Depressurization and was one of the first features to obtain patent coverage. Since
its invention, it has been a standard of each PSA unit with the benefit that hydrogen
recovery is improved.
Counter-current Depressurisation: The adsorber is depressurised to its lowest
pressure level. The adsorbent is partially regenerated and some impurities are
rejected. The adsorber is depressurized in the counter current direction to purge gas
pressure to remove the impurities from the adsorbent.
Purging: Hydrogen is used to purge the remaining impurities and complete
regeneration of the adsorbent. The adsorber is now purged at low pressure with
pure hydrogen from another adsorber undergoing co-current depressurization; this
step serves the purpose of completing the removal of impurities from the adsorbent.
Re-Pressurization: The adsorber is re-pressurised with hydrogen to the feed pressure
level, completing the cycle. It is now ready to begin another adsorption step.
The adsorber is re-pressurized to adsorption pressure initially with hydrogen
recovered from other adsorbers on co-current depressurization step, and finally with
a slip stream of pure hydrogen product.
At the end of this step, the
adsorber is ready to begin a new cycle.

Power And Utilities:

Captive Power Plant (CPP)

Capacitive power plant meets the total power demand of the HPCL. This unit
comprises for four gas turbine generators (GTG), two with 9mw capacity (FRAME-3
Machines) each and two with 25mw capacity (FRAME-5 Machines) each.FRAME-3
Machine is a two shaft machine whereas FRAME-5 Machine is a single shaft machine.
HSD and Naphtha are used for the combustion of gas turbine.
FRAME-3 Machine Functioning
The fuel for the capacitive power plants (Diesel/Naphtha) goes to a surge tank where
in it is centrifuged so that the dirt particles are thrown away. The fuel for the
generation unit is from the top of the surge tank. From here the fuel is pumped by
two pumps (redundant to each other) at a pressure of 10kg/cm2 in to a 20 micro filter
for further filtration of impurities. There is an FSR where a feeder feeds fuel Tories
inlets with a pressure of 6kg/cm2. .These inlets terminate six combustion chambers of
GTG/GTG2. The combustion chambers are placed 30m either side of the
compressor discharge casing. The first two have vertical and horizontal igniters to
produce spark for ignitions and others have flame scanners.
To start a GTG there is an accessory compartment which houses a diesel engine and
an accessory gear drive which is coupled to the HP shaft. Initially, the diesel engine is
started and it reeves up as the HP turbine shaft is coupled to it, it too gains resolution.
When the diesel engine reeves up 54% of the max rpm of the HP shaft the clutch is
released and it gets disengaged from the HP shaft. The HP shaft now is self-sustained.
There is an air duct, which sucks air in to the compressor. Here the compressor
compresses air to a pressure of 80kg/cm2. The compressed air rotates the blades of
the HP. The air is also sent to the atomizer and the combustion chamber. In the
combustion chamber atomized air mixes with the fuel and a spark from the spark plug
ignites the mixture. There is an expansion and this drives the hp to higher rpm.
In the combustion chamber there are flame scanners, which in case of false start, trips
the fuel valve. When the HP shaft runs up to 47% of its maximum speed, the gases
from the HP turbine blades passes through the secondary variable nozzle and these in
turn rotate the LP blades. The HP has a full speed of 7100 rpm area the LP has a full
speed of 6500 rpm. The LP shaft is connected to a load gear of box with a down turn
of 4.33:1 to generate a 50HZ power source from a generator having 4 poles the rpm
of the turbine is given by N=F*120/p=1500 rpm

So the LP shaft has to be maintained at 1500 rpm always. The exhaust gases from
GTG1 &GTG2 are about 5430c hot and it is wastage of energy to leave such hot
gases into the atmosphere. Hence these gases are sent to boilers to generate steam.
HRSG1 &HRSG2 are such steam generators.

No. of gas turbines: 4

Each GTG capacity: 9MW*2
: 25MW*2

Fuel used for GTG is diesel for start up and naphtha for continuous running.
GTG Control: Speedtronic MARK V Control System
The SPEEDTRONIC Control System is evolved by General Electric, USA from a
combination of discrete solid-state components, meters, relays and annuciators, to a
system of redundant microprocessor based system. The primary objective of this
development has always been to improve all Gas Turbine reliability, availability
application flexibility and serviceability.
Basic Control Requirements
The Gas Turbine Control system is designed to crank the turbine, bring to purging
speed (approx. 20%), fire it and then bring the unit to operating speed. On generator
drives the control system synchronizes the gas turbine to the line, on compressor or
processor or process drives it checks the process constraints and then loads the gas
turbine to the appropriate point. This sequence must occur automatically and is done
while minimizing the thermal stresses in the gas turbine hot gas path parts and
associated hardware.
The total control system can be divided into three functional sub-systems.
1. Control
2. Protection
3. Sequencing
Control Philosophy:
Mark V is the second generation Triple Modular Redundant turbine control system.
The basic control philosophy of Mark IV has been retained with many improvements.
Figure 1 shows the standard Mark V control system configuration. As with the Mark
IV system the three identical control processors, called <R> <S> and <T> are at the
core. These processors handle all critical control algorithms, turbine sequencing, and
primary protective functions. They also gather data and generate most of the alarms.
The three control processors accept input from various arrangements of redundant
turbine and generator sensors. By extending; the fault tolerance to include sensors, as

with the Mark IV system, the overall control system availability is significantly
increased. Some sensors are brought in to all three-control processors, but many, like
exhaust thermocouples, are divided among the control processors. The individual
exhaust temperature measurements are exchanged on the voter link so that each
control processor knows all exhaust thermocouple values. Voted sensor values are
computed by each of the control processors. These voted values are used in control
and sequencing algorithms that produce the required control actions.
An independent protective module <P> is internally triple redundant with three (3)
independent cards <X><Y <Z> with their own processors and power supplies. It
accepts speed sensors, flame detectors, and potential transformer inputs to perform
emergency electronic over speed, flame detection, and synchronizing functions.
Hardware voting for <P> solenoid outputs is accomplished on a trip card associated
with the module. The trip card merges trip contact signals from the emergency over
speed, the main control processors, manual trip push buttons, and other hard-wired
customer trips. Another function of <P> core is to interface directly with the
ultraviolet flame scanners on gas turbines. Automatic synchronization function is
independently performed in both the <RST> cores and <P> core, which reduces the
probability of machine out of phase synchronizing to the lowest achievable values.
The automatic synchronizing voltage matches and issues breaker based on the actual
system speed matches, a command to close the breaker closure time as monitored
from the last breaker closure. Two (2) out of three (3) <X><Y><Z> processors
must agree that the breaker will close within the predefined phase slip window before
a command will be issued.

Simultaneously, the <R><S><T> controllers provide an independent backup set of

phase-slip windows, which must be satisfied prior to automatic or manual
synchronizing. This eliminates the need for the traditional GXS check relay.
The Interface Data Processor, called <I>, includes a monitor, keyboard, and printer.
Its main functions are driving operator displays, managing the alarm process, and
handling operator commands. <I> also does system configuration and download,
offline diagnostics for maintenance, and implements interfaces to remote operator
stations and plant distributed control systems.
The Common Data Processor, or <C>, collects data for display, maintains the alarm
buffers, generates and keeps diagnostic data, and implements the common I/O for
non-critical signals and control actions. Turbine supervisory sensors such as wheel
space thermocouples come directly to <C>. The <I> processor communicates with
<C> using a peer-to-peer communication link which permits one or more <I>
processors. <C> gathers data from the control processors by participating on the
voting link.
Software Configuration
Improved methods of implementing the triple modular redundant system center on
SIFT (Software Implemented Fault Tolerance) technology and result in a more robust
control. SIFT' involves exchanging information on the voter link directly between
<R> <S> <T> and <C> controllers. Each control processor measures all of its
input sensors so that each sensor signal is represented by a number in the controller.
The sensor numbers to be voted are gathered in a table of values. The values of all
state outputs such as integrators, for example the load set point, are added to the
table. Each control processor sends it's table out on the voter link and receives tables
from the other processors. Consider the <R> controller: it outputs its table to, and
receives the tables from, the <S> and <T> controllers. Now all three controller tables
will be in the <R> processor which selects the median value for each sensor and
integrator output, and uses these voted outputs in all subsequent calculations. <S>
and <T> follow the same procedure.
The basic SIFT concept, then, brings one sensor of each kind into each of <R> and
<S> and <T>. If a sensor fails, the controller with the failed transducer initially has a
bad value. But it exchanges data with the other processors, and when the voting takes
place, the bad value is rejected. Therefore, a SIFT based system can tolerate one failed
transducer of each kind. In previous systems, one failed transducer was likely to cause
one processor to vote to trip. A failure of a different kind of transducer on another
controller could cause a turbine trip. This does not happen with SIFT because the
input data is exchanged and voted.

<C> is also connected to the voter link. It eavesdrops while all three sets of variables
are transmitted by the control processors and calculates the voted values for itself. If
there are any significant disagreements, <C> reports them to <I> for operator
attention and maintenance action. If one of the transducers has failed, its output will
not be correct and there will be a disagreement with the two correct values. <C> will
then diagnose that the transducer, or parts immediately associated with it, have failed
and will post an alarm to <I>.
Logic outputs are voted by dedicated hardware relay driver circuits that require two or
three "on" signals to pick up the output relay. Control power for the circuit and
output relay is taken from all three control sections.
Protective functions are accomplished by the control processors and, for over speed,
independently by the Protective Module <P> as well. Primary speed pickups are
wired to the control processors and used for both speed control and primary over
speed protection. The trip commands, generated by the primary over speed protective
function in the control processors, each activate a relay driver.
The driver signals are sent to the trip card in the protective model where independent
relays are actuated. Contacts from each of these three primary protective trip relays
are voted to cause the trip solenoid to drop out. Where mechanical over speed bolt is
not used, separate over speed pickups are brought to the independent protective
module. Their relay contacts are wired in a voting arrangement to the other side of
the trip solenoid, and independently cause the trip solenoid to drop out on detection
of over speed.
The <I> processor is equipped with a hard disk, which keeps the records that define
the site software configuration. It comes from GE with the site-specific software
properly configured. The information for <C> is stored in EEPROM there. The
information for the control processors is passed through <C> and stored in
EEPROM in <R> <S> and <T>. Once the download is complete, the <I>
processor can fail and the turbine will continue to run properly, accepting commands
from the local backup display, while <I> is being repaired.

Operation and Maintenance

The operator interface is comprised of a color graphics monitor, keyboard, and
printer. Displays for normal operation center around the unit control display. It shows
the status of major selections and presents key turbine parameters in a table that
includes the variable name, value, and engineering units. A list of the oldest three
unacknowledged alarms appears on this screen.
Alarm Management
Alarm management screens list all the alarms in the chronological order of their time
tags. The most recent alarm is added to the top of the display list. The line shows
whether the alarm has been acknowledged or not, and whether the alarm is still active.
When the alarm condition clears, the alarm can be reset. If reset is selected and the
alarm has not cleared, the alarm does not clear and the original time tag is retained.
The alarm log prints alarms in their arrival sequence, showing the time tags which are
sent from the control modules with each alarm.
Diagnostics
The trip diagnostic screen traps the actual signal condition that caused a turbine trip.
This display gives detailed information about the actual logic signal path that caused
any trip. It is accomplished by freezing information about the logic path when the trip
occurs. This is particularly useful in identifying the original source of trouble if a
spurious signal manages to cause one of the control processors to call for a trip and
does not leave a normal diagnostic trail. In Mark V controls, all trips are annunciated,
and information about the actual logic path that caused the trip is captured. In
addition to this information, contact inputs are resolved to one millisecond, which
makes this sequence of events information more valuable.
The previously mentioned comparison of voting values is another powerful
diagnostic tool. Normally these values will agree, and significant disagreement means
that something is wrong. Diagnostic alarms are generated whenever there is such a
disagreement. Examination of these records can reveal what has gone wrong with the
system. Many of these combinations have specific diagnostics associated with them,
and the software has many algorithms that infer what has gone wrong from a pattern
of incoming diagnostic signals. In this way the diagnostic alarm will identify as nearly
as possible what is wrong, such as a failed power supply, blown fuse, failed card, or
open sensor circuit.
Some of the diagnostics are intended to enhance turbine-generator monitoring. For
instance, reading and saving the actual closing time of the breaker is an excellent
diagnostic on the health of the synchronizing system. An output from the flame

detectors which shows the effective ultraviolet light level is another new diagnostic
routine. It is an indicator of degradation in the ultraviolet flame detection system.
Once the diagnostic routines have located a failed part, it may be replaced while the
turbine continues to run. The moot critical function of the diagnostics is to identify
the proper control section where the problem exists. Wrong identification could lead
to powering down a good section, resulting in a vote to trip. If the failed section is
also voting to trip, the turbine will trip. A great deal of effort has been put into
identifying the correct section. To effect the repair, the correct section is powered
down. The module is opened and tilted out, the offending card located, cables
disconnected, card replaced, and cables reconnected. The rack is closed and power is
reapplied to the module. The module will then join in with the others to control the
turbine, and the fault tolerance is restored.
Steam Generation Unit
Steam Generation unit is sub divided in to two i.e. Power plant I& II. In these units
the DM water is converted in to steam by combusting the fuel oil in the presence of
air in the boilers CO produced in FCCU is brought in to CO2 for pollution in power
plant II. The steam produced here is utilized for unit purposes. It is Kg/cm2.
Demineralization water unit
De-Mineralization is a process of removing mineral salts from water by using ion
exchange process. In this unit the raw water is treated & the PH value is maintained at
7 by making the free from acids, bases, etc, and making it a neutral solution, to use in
boilers.

Environment Related Plant

Effluent treatment plant
The waste water from every plant containing oil is separated and then reused. The
remaining water containing contaminants is neutralized and sent to the sea to control
the environmental pollution.

Sulphur Recovery Unit (SRU):

Sulphur Recovery Unit is designed to process and remove Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
gas from fuel gas (3386 - 8838) Nm3/hr, Sour water Stripper gas (38 -257) Nm3/hr
and Amine Acid Gas (1.6 - 26) Nm3/hr, the process is based on the modified Claus
reaction.
H2S + 1/2 O2 H2O + S

This reaction is accomplished by a solution called LO-CAT solution supplied by M/S

ARI Technologies Inc., USA. All the three gas streams mentioned above are treated
with LO-CAT solution. Due to wide variation in the qualities the fuel gas is treated
separately in an absorber column and the other two streams are treated combined in
the absorber section of the oxidizer vessel. In oxidizer vessel, the spent LO-CAT
solution is regeneration using air.
The sulphur generated due to the above reaction remains finely suspended in the LOCAT solution. A slipstream form the oxidizer is routed to the sulphur removal system
consisting of mainly a vacuum belt filter, Sulphur Smelter and a molten sulphur
storage tank. After removing sulphur the balance LO-CAT solution routed back to
the oxidizer. The treated fuel gas is then routed to the Refinery Fuel Gas Header. The
vent gases forms the oxidizers (free of H2S) are then vented through a stack.

FIELD INSTRUMENTS
Field Instruments are a major component of the Instrumentation and Control
operations in a refinery. Field instruments play a major role in the

Continuous online measurement of Process parameters

Monitoring & Automatic Controls on the process parameters
Ensuring availability of safety process interlocks
Online analysis and Safety related Instruments
Planning the resources (material, services)
To ensure availability of safety protection systems

Critical Instruments
Instruments and Systems which may cause production loss, safety hazard and unsafe
operating conditions are considered as critical.

Classification of Field Instruments

Field instruments may be classified as: Measuring Instruments & Control Instruments
1. Measuring
Local Indicators (Pressure/Temperature/Level Gauges)
Electronic Transmitters
Switches (Pressure/Temperature/Level)
Thermocouple/RTDs/Pyrometers (Temperature)
Radar/Displacer/DP level Instruments
2. Control
Control Valves
On-Off Valves
Solenoid Valves
I/P Converters

Pressure Detectors
Pressure is a force applied / distributed over a surface. Pressure detectors are used for
measuring pressure itself, flow, level and even temperature. All pressure measurement
systems generally consist of:
A Primary Element which is directly/ indirectly in contact with fluid and
interacts with pressure changes.
Secondary Element which translates this interaction into values for use in
indication, recording and control.
Pressure detectors are of two main types: Mechanical and Electronic
Mechanical Pressure Detectors
Bellows
The need for a pressure sensing element that was
extremely sensitive to low pressures and provided
power for activating recording and indicating
mechanisms resulted in the development of the
metallic bellows pressure sensing element. The
metallic bellows is most accurate when measuring
pressures from 0.5 to 75 psig. However, when used
in conjunction with a heavy range spring, some
bellows can be used to measure pressures of over
1000 psig.
The bellows is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless
metallic unit that has deep folds formed from very thin-walled tubing. The diameter
of the bellows ranges from 0.5 to 12 in. and may have as many as 24 folds. System
pressure is applied to the internal volume of the bellows. As the inlet pressure to the
instrument varies, the bellows will expand or contract. The moving end of the bellows
is connected to a mechanical linkage assembly. As the bellows and linkage assembly
moves, either an electrical signal is generated or a direct pressure indication is
provided. The flexibility of a metallic bellows is similar in character to that of a

helical, coiled compression spring. Up to the elastic limit of the bellows, the relation
between increments of load and deflection is linear. However, this relationship exists
only when the bellows is under compression. It is necessary to construct the bellows
such that all of the travel occurs on the compression side of the point of equilibrium.
Therefore, in practice, the bellows must always be opposed by a spring, and the
deflection characteristics will be the resulting force of the spring and bellows.
Bourdon Tubes
The bourdon tube pressure instrument is one of the oldest pressure sensing
instruments in use today. The bourdon tube consists of a thin-walled tube that is
flattened diametrically on opposite sides to
produce a cross-sectional area elliptical in
shape, having two long flat sides and two
short round sides. The tube is bent
lengthwise into an arc of a circle of 270 to
300 degrees. Pressure applied to the inside
of the tube causes distention of the flat
sections and tends to restore its original
round cross-section. This change in crosssection causes the tube to straighten
slightly. Since the tube is permanently
fastened at one end, the tip of the tube traces a curve that is the result of the change
in angular position with respect to the center. Within limits, the movement of the tip
of the tube can then be used to position a pointer or to develop an equivalent
electrical signal (which is discussed later in the text) to indicate the value of the
applied internal pressure).
Diaphragms
A second type of aneroid gauge uses the
deflection of a flexible membrane that separates
regions of different pressure. The amount of
deflection is repeatable for known pressures so
the pressure can be determined by using
calibration. The deformation of a thin diaphragm
is dependent on the difference in pressure
between its two faces. The reference face can be
open to atmosphere to measure gauge pressure,
open to a second port to measure differential
pressure, or can be sealed against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to

measure absolute pressure. The deformation can be measured using mechanical,

optical or capacitive techniques. Ceramic and metallic diaphragms are used. Useful
range: above 10-2 Torr
For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side
are often used.
Shape:

Flat
corrugated
flattened tube
capsule

Electronic Pressure Detectors

Capacitive Type
Capacitive-type transducers consist of two
flexible conductive plates and a dielectric.
As pressure increases, the flexible conductive
plates will move farther apart, changing the
capacitance of the transducer. This change in
capacitance is measurable and is proportional
to the change in pressure.

Temperature Detectors

The most commonly used temperature detectors are thermocouples. Other than
these, Bimetallic Strips, RTDs and Pyrometers (for very high temperatures) are also
used.

Thermocouple

A thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar

metal wires joined at one end. When one end of each
wire is connected to a measuring instrument, the
thermocouple becomes a sensitive and highly
accurate measuring device. Thermocouples may be
constructed of several different combinations of
materials. The performance of a thermocouple
material is generally determined by using that material
with platinum. The most important factor to be
considered when selecting a pair of materials is the
"thermoelectric difference" between the two
materials. A significant difference between the two
materials will result in better thermocouple
performance. For example: Chromel - Constantan is
excellent for temperatures up to 2000F; Nickel/Nickel-Molybdenum sometimes
replaces Chromel-Alumel; and Tungsten-Rhenium is used for temperatures up to
5000F. Some combinations used for specialized applications are Chromel-White
Gold, Molybdenum-Tungsten, Tungsten-Iridium, and Iridium/Iridium-Rhodium.
Thermocouples will cause an electric current to flow in the attached circuit when
subjected to changes in temperature. The amount of current that will be produced is
dependent on the temperature difference between the measurement and reference
junction; the characteristics of the two metals used; and the characteristics of the
attached circuit.
Thermocouples are housed in a metallic housing called Thermo-Well before
installation.
Types

A variety of thermocouples are available for different measuring applications. They

are usually selected based on the temperature range and sensitivity needed.
Thermocouples with low sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly lower
resolutions. Other selection criteria include the inertness of the thermocouple
material, and whether or not it is magnetic.
Type K (chromelalumel) is the most common general purpose thermocouple. It is
also the most commonly used thermocouple at HPCL VR. It is inexpensive and

available in a wide variety of probes. They are available in the 200C to +1350C
range. The type K was specified at a time whenmetallurgywas less advanced than it is
today and, consequently, characteristics vary considerably between examples. Another
potential problem arises in some situations since one of the constituent metals,nickel,
is magnetic. One characteristic of thermocouples made with magnetic material is that
they undergo a deviation in output when the material reaches its Curie point; this
occurs for type K thermocouples at around 150 C. Sensitivity is approximately
41V/C.
Other types include E, J, N, B, R, and S.

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys
that increase in resistance as temperature increases
and, conversely, decrease in resistance as
temperature decreases. RTDs act somewhat like an
electrical transducer, converting changes in
temperature to voltage signals by the measurement
of resistance. The metals that are best suited for use
as RTD sensors are pure, of uniform quality, stable
within a given range of temperature, and able to
give reproducible resistance-temperature readings.
Only a few metals have the properties necessary for
use in RTD elements.
RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel. These metals
are best suited for RTD applications because of their linear resistance-temperature
characteristics, their high coefficient of resistance, and their ability to withstand
repeated temperature cycles. The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance
per degree change in temperature, usually expressed as a percentage per degree of
temperature. The material used must be capable of being drawn into fine wire so that
the element can be easily constructed. RTD elements are usually long, spring-like
wires surrounded by an insulator and enclosed in a sheath of metal.
Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal
radiation. This device can be used to determine the temperature of an object's

surface. A pyrometer has an optical system and detector. The optical system focuses
thethermal radiationonto detector. The output signal of thedetector(Temperature
T) is related to the thermal radiation or irradiance j* of the target object through
the StefanBoltzmann law, the constant of proportionality , called the StefanBoltzmann constantand theemissivity of the object.
j* = T4
This output is used to infer the object's temperature. Thus, there is no need for direct
contact between pyrometer & object, as with the thermocouple and Resistance
temperature detector(RTDs).

Level Measurement
Liquid level measurement plays an important role in many of the control applications
in the refinery. Level measurement devices can be classified as:
Direct Level: Dip Gauging, Level Displacer and Float Types
Pressure Operated: Differential Pressure Type
Radar Type
Level Displacer
Displacement type level switches offer the industrial user a wide
choice of alarm and control configurations. Each unit utilizes a
simple buoyancy principle and is well suited for simple or complex
applications.
Force on the Displacer imparts rotary motion on the torque tube,
which influences transmitter to convert the change in Level to Current output signal
for indication.

Differential Pressure Type

The differential pressure (DP) detector method of liquid level measurement uses a
DP detector connected to the bottom of the tank being monitored. The higher
pressure, caused by the fluid in the tank, is compared to a lower reference pressure
(usually atmospheric). This comparison takes place in the DP detector.

Radar Type

RADAR sensors are ideal for use in moist, vaporous,

and dusty environments as well as in applications in
which temperatures vary. RADAR microwaves will
penetrate temperature and vapor layers that may cause
problems for other techniques, such as ultrasonic.
Microwaves are electromagnetic energy and therefore
do not require air molecules to transmit the energy
making them useful in vacuums. Microwaves, as
electromagnetic energy, are reflected by objects with
high dielectric properties, like metal and conductive
water. Alternately, they are absorbed in various degrees
by low dieletric or insulating mediums such as plastics,
glass, paper, many powders and food stuffs and other solids.
Microwave sensors are executed in a wide variety of techniques. Two basic signal
processing techniques are applied, each offering its own advantages: Time-Domain
Reflectometry (TDR) which is a measurement of time of flight divided by the speed
of light, similar to ultrasonic level sensors, and Doppler systems employing FMCW
techniques. Just as with ultrasonic level sensors, microwave sensors are executed at
various frequencies, from 1GHz to 30GHz. Generally, the higher the frequency, the
more accurate, and the more costly. Microwave is also executed as a non-contact
technique, monitoring a microwave signal that is transmitted through the medium
(including vacuum), or can be executed as a radar on a wire technique. In the latter
case, performance improves in powders and low dielectric media that are not good
reflectors of electromagnetic energy transmitted through a void (as in non-contact
microwave sensors).

Flow Detectors
Measurement of flow quantities through pipelines is a very critical part of the control
processes at the refinery, for eg: measurement of the mass flow rate of fuel oil into
burners is essential to control the temperature. Flow detectors are classified as:
Head type
Area type
Mass flowmeter
Head flowmeters
Head flow meters operate on the principle of placing a restriction in the line to cause
a differential pressure head. The differential pressure, which is caused by the head, is
measured and converted to a flow measurement. There are two elements in a head
flow meter; the primary element is the restriction in the line, and the secondary
element is the differential pressure measuring device.
Orifice Plate
The orifice plate is the simplest of the flowpath restrictions used in flow detection, as
well as the most economical. They are the most widely used flowmeter instruments at
HPCL VR. Orifice plates are flat plates 1/16 to 1/4 inch thick. They are normally
mounted between a pair of flanges and are installed in a straight run of smooth pipe
to avoid disturbance of flow patterns from fittings and valves.
The concentric orifice plate is the most common of the three types. As shown, the
orifice is equidistant (concentric) to the inside diameter of the pipe. Flow through a
sharp-edged orifice plate is characterized by a change in velocity. As the fluid passes
through the orifice, the fluid converges, and the velocity of the fluid increases to a
maximum value. At this point, the pressure is at a minimum value. As the fluid
diverges to fill the entire pipe area, the velocity decreases back to the original value.
The pressure increases to about 60% to 80% of the original input value. The pressure
loss is irrecoverable; therefore, the output pressure will always be less than the input
pressure. The pressures on both sides of the orifice are measured, resulting in a
differential pressure which is proportional to the flow rate.
Segmental and eccentric orifice plates are
functionally identical to the concentric

orifice. The circular section of the segmental orifice is concentric with the pipe. The
segmental portion of the orifice eliminates damming of foreign materials on the
upstream side of the orifice when mounted in a horizontal pipe. Depending on the
type of fluid, the segmental section is placed on either the top or bottom of the
horizontal pipe to increase the accuracy of the measurement. Eccentric orifice plates
shift the edge of the orifice to the inside of the pipe wall. This design also prevents
upstream damming and is used in the same way as the segmental orifice plate.
Orifice plates have two distinct disadvantages; they cause a high permanent pressure
drop (outlet pressure will be 60% to 80% of inlet pressure), and they are subject to
erosion, which will eventually cause inaccuracies in the measured differential pressure.
Venturi
The venturi tube is the most accurate flow-sensing element when properly calibrated.
They are mainly used with pipes of larger diameters. The venturi tube has a
converging conical inlet, a cylindrical throat, and a diverging recovery cone. It has no
projections into the fluid, no sharp corners, and no sudden changes in contour.

The inlet section decreases the area of the fluid stream, causing the velocity to
increase and the pressure to decrease. The low pressure is measured in the center of
the cylindrical throat since the pressure will be at its lowest value, and neither the
pressure nor the velocity is changing. The recovery cone allows for the recovery of
pressure such that total pressure loss is only 10% to 25%. The high pressure is
measured upstream of the entrance cone. The major disadvantages of this type of
flow detection are the high initial costs for installation and difficulty in installation and
inspection.

Annubar
Anannubaris similar to apitot tubeused to measure the flow
of gas or liquid in a pipe.
The pitot tube measures the difference between the static
pressure and the flowing pressure of the media in the pipe.
The volumetric flow is calculated from that difference
usingBernoulli's principleand taking into account the pipe inside
diameter.
The biggest difference between an annubar and a pitot tube is
that an annubar takes multiple samples across a section of a pipe
or duct. In this way, the annubar averages the differential
pressures encountered accounting for variations in flow across
the section. A pitot tube will give a similar reading if the tip is
located at a point in the pipe cross section where the flowing
velocity is close to the average velocity.
Annubar is a registered trade name with Emerson Process Management /
Rosemount.
Area Meters
In head flow meters, the restriction area is kept constant generating a pressure
differential. In an area meter, the area is varied to hold the differential pressure
constant. Hence the change in area is a measure of the flow rate. The head causing
the flow through an area meter is relatively constant such that the rate of flow is
directly proportional to the metering area. The variation in area is produced by the rise
and fall of a floating element. This type of flow meter must be mounted so that the
floating element moves vertically and friction is minimal.
Rotameter
The Rotameter is an area flow meter so named
because a rotating float is the indicating element.
The rotameter consists of a metal float and a
conical glass tube, constructed such that the
diameter increases with height. When there is no
fluid passing through the rotameter, the float
rests at the bottom of the tube. As fluid enters
the tube, the higher density of the float will

cause the float to remain on the bottom. The space between the float and the tube
allows for flow past the float. As flow increases in the tube, the pressure drop
increases. When the pressure drop is sufficient, the float will rise to indicate the
amount of flow. The higher the flow rate the greater the pressure drop. The higher
the pressure drop the farther up the tube the float rises.
Mass Flowmeters
Ultrasonic Flow Equipment
Devices such as ultrasonic flow equipment
use the Doppler frequency shift of
ultrasonic signals reflected from
discontinuities in the fluid stream to obtain
flow measurements. These discontinuities
can be suspended solids, bubbles, or
interfaces generated by turbulent eddies in
the flow stream. The sensor is mounted on
the outside of the pipe, and an ultrasonic
beam from a piezoelectric crystal is
transmitted through the pipe wall into the
fluid at an angle to the flow stream. Signals
reflected off flow disturbances are detected by a second piezoelectric crystal located
in the same sensor. Transmitted and reflected signals are compared in an electrical
circuit, and the corresponding frequency shift is proportional to the flow velocity.
Transit Time Flowmeters: The most commonly used ultrasonic flowmeter is the
transit-time flowmeter which is used for liquids and gases.
Transit-time flowmeters work by measuring the time of flight difference between an
ultrasonic pulse sent in the flow direction and an ultrasound pulse sent opposite the
flow direction. This time difference is a measure for the average velocity of the fluid
along the path of the ultrasound beam. By using the absolute transit time and the
distance between the ultrasound transducers, the current speed of sound is easily
found. The measuring effect can be adversely affected by many things including gas
and solid content.
Coriolis Flow Meter

Amass flow meter, also known as aninertial flow meteror acoriolis flow meter, is a
device that measuresmass flow rateof afluidtraveling through a tube. The mass flow
rate is themassof the fluid traveling past a fixed point per unit time.

The figures represent how curved tube mass flow meters are designed. When the fluid
is flowing, it is led through two parallel tubes. An actuator induces a vibration of the
tubes. The two parallel tubes are counter-vibrating, to make the measuring device less
sensitive to outside vibrations. The actual frequency of the vibration depends on the
size of the mass flow meter, and ranges from 80 to 1000 vibrations per second.
The amplitude of the vibration is too small to be seen, but it can be felt by touch.
When no fluid is flowing, the vibration of the two tubes is symmetrical, as shown in
the animations.
When there is mass flow, there is some twisting of the tubes. The arm through which
fluid flows away from the axis of rotation must exert a force on the fluid to increase
its angular momentum, so it is lagging behind the overall vibration. The arm through
which fluid is pushed back towards the axis of rotation must exert a force on the fluid
to decrease the fluid's angular momentum again, hence that arm leads the overall
vibration. The inlet arm and the outlet arm vibrate with the same frequency as the
overall vibration, but when there is mass flow the two vibrations are out of sync, the
inlet arm is behind, the outlet arm is ahead. The two vibrations are shifted in phase
with respect to each other, and the degree of phase-shift is a measure for the amount
of mass that is flowing through the tubes.

Miscellaneous
I to P Converters
A current to pressure converter (I/P) converts an analog signal (4 to 20 mA) to a
proportional linear pneumatic output (3 to 15 psig). Its purpose is to translate the
analog output from a control system into a precise, repeatable pressure value to
control pneumatic actuators/operators, pneumatic valves, dampers, vanes, etc. They
use an electromagnetic force balance for converting an electrical signal into pneumatic
pressure. Its force balance principle is a coil suspended in a magnetic field on a

flexible mount. At the lower end of the coil is a flapper valve that operates against a
precision ground nozzle to create a backpressure on the servo diaphragm of a booster
relay. The input current flows in the coil and produces a force between the coil and
the flapper valve, which controls the servo pressure and the output pressure.
Differential Pressure Transmitter
A Differential Pressure Transmitter converts pneumatic
pressure into current. Most pressure transmitters are built
around the pressure capsule concept. They are usually capable
of measuring differential pressure (that is, the difference
between a high pressure input and a low pressure input) and
therefore, are usually called DP transmitters or DP cells.
A differential pressure capsule is mounted inside a housing.
One end of a force bar is connected to the capsule assembly
so that the motion of the capsule can be transmitted to
outside the housing. A sealing mechanism is used where the force bar penetrates the
housing and also acts as the pivot
point for the force bar. Provision is
made in the housing for high- pressure
fluid to be applied on one side of the
capsule and low-pressure fluid on the
other. Any difference in pressure will
cause the capsule to deflect and create
motion in the force bar. The top end
of the force bar is then connected to a
position detector, which via an
electronic system will produce a 4 - 20
mA signal that is proportional to the
force bar movement. The electronic
system basically comprises of a
capacitor with one fixed and one
moving plate. Any deflection in the
diaphragm produces a change in
capacitance.
Pressure Switch

Pressure switches are devices that are configured to sense a change in pressure and
respond in a specified manner. Generally, a pressure switch is included in any type of
equipment that includes components that generate some type of pressure during
operation. The pressure may relate to electrical current, the flow of natural gas or
liquids, or the creation of steam. With each application, the pressure switch will
include components that monitor the amount of pressure generated. As long as the
pressure remains within acceptable levels, the pressure switch serves as an easy way to
monitor activity. However, most switches will sound some sort of alarm when the
level of pressure begins to exceed what is considered a safe range.
Designs for the pressure switch vary, based on the type of action that is required.
When manual intervention is desired, the pressure switch is often constructed as a
toggle switch. This design allows for easy operation when an alarm sounds and there
is a need to either activate a venting process or immediately shut down the machinery.
For switches that are configured to work in conjunction withcomputer technology, a
microswitch design is common. The micro switch receives commands from the
computer program once a safety shutdown or a pressure release is determined to be
the next logical step in the sequence.
Since the inception of the pressure switch, the device has proven to be an ideal means
of preventing a number of injuries that could result from an overload or explosion.
Just about every piece of machinery that employs the use of compressors will include
a pressure switch at key phases as part of the safety requirements for operation of the
equipment. While automated switches have become more popular in recent years,
manual pressure switches are still often installed as a backup that can be utilized in the
event of an electrical failure.
Control Valves
A valve is a device for adjusting, or manipulating the flow rate of liquid or gas in a
pipeline. The valve contains a flow passage, or port, whose flow area can be varied.
The valve stem transmits some external motion to the port, thus changing its flow
area. The external motion can originate manually (eg. from a hand wheel or a lever)
or from some actuator which is positioned pneumatically, electrically or hydraulically
in response to some external positioning signal. This combination of valve and
actuator is called an automatic control valve, or simply, a control valve.

Plug-in-Seat
A typical valve employing the plug-in-seat principle is
the globe valve. The stem raises or lowers a plug into
a seat. The plug tip can be shaped so that as the plug
rises, the annular space between the plug tip and the
seat ring bore varies in the manner which achieves
smooth flow manipulation over the full valve stroke.
At the fully closed position, the bevelled edge of the
plug is forced against a mating surface on the seat.
The plug-in-seat combination is called the trim or
inner valve.
Rotatable Plug
The ball valve is a typical valve employing this
principle. The ball or plug can be rotated within the
body through a quarter of a turn. The plug has a
passage through it. There are three common
variations upon this principle. In the first, the plug is
a ball with a line sized circular flow passage; such a
valve offers minimal flow restriction when fully open.
The second is a ball with a V-shaped passage (theVball); this allows smooth control at low flows as well
as at high flows. The third is the cock which uses a
conical shaped plug. Whilst cocks are traditionally popular in the gas industry, they are
seldom used as automatic control valves because the plug tends to jam in the body.
Valves employing rotatable plug achieve tight shutoff. This is the function of a
ball valve's seat rings, which are normally made of elastrometric material.
Rotating Vane
The butterfly valve's vane is shaped so that it closes
off the flow passage when it is positioned normal to
it. The vane can be rotated with a quarter turn
actuator.
The rotating vane principle may be used for
rectangular as well as circular shaped ducts. It is
called a butterfly valve when the flow-passage is
circular and a damper when rectangular. For

large rectangular ducts, a set of louvres is used instead of a single vane. However,
valves employing the rotating vane principle share some common features. Firstly, it is
difficult to eliminate all leakage between vane and body when the valve is closed;
various butterfly valves have been designed so that the vane (or disc) seats against
some elastometer to overcome this difficulty.
Secondly, aerodynamic effects
generate large unbalance forces on the vane when it is nearly fully open or fully
closed; the actuator must therefore be designed to resist these forces.
Valve Materials
Generally the process piping material will be selected according to the pressure,
temperature and corrosive nature of the process fluid. A safe rule is to make the
valve body from the same material as the process piping.
The following materials are commonly used to make valve bodies:
Cast iron
Cast steel
Bronze
Stainless steel
High temperature alloy steel
Hastelloy
Plastic, e.g. polyvinyl chloride
Lined steel, e.g. rubber lined, enamelled.
The valve internals must be aligned to close tolerances, especially for small valves, if
the valve is not to leak when closed. Consequently, iron, steel and bronze are
generally not used for these parts.
Furthermore, where erosion can occur, the valve port can be hard faced, e.g. with
stellite. Most valves employ metal-to-metal seating, which generally has an acceptably
low leakage rate. Where tighter shutoff is needed rubber other than soft materials can
be used for the seat if the fluid pressure and temperature are not severe.
Valve Characteristics
Linear: The linear characteristic results in the change in flow coefficient
being directly proportional to a change in valve travel.
Equal Percent: With equal percent characteristic, equal increments of valve
travel produce equal percentage changes in the existing flow coefficient.
Quick Opening: The quick opening characteristic results in a rapid increase in
flow coefficient with the valve reaching almost maximum capacity in the first
50% of its travel.

 Shape of Opening: The characteristic is caused by the change in the shape of

the port as valve travel changes. For example, in sliding stem valves, the equal
percentage is achieved by having a small opening at the low travels.

Actuators
Actuator - a part of the final control element that translates the control signal into
action of the final control device in the process eg. motors, solenoids, cylinders. The
actuator selected must be capable of providing adequate torque output to overcome
the dynamic torque forces on the disc or ball of the valve under flowing conditions.
The actuator must also be capable of exceeding the 'breakout' torque requirements of
the disc or ball at shutoff, in order to initiate rotation of the rotary valve shaft.
Current to Pressure Transducers and Positioner
Pneumatically operated valves depend on a positioner to take an input signal from a
process controller and convert it to valve travel. These instruments are available in
three configurations:
1. Pneumatic Positioner: A pneumatic signal (usually 3-15 psig) is supplied to the
positioner. The positioner translates this to a required valve position and supplies the
valve actuator with the required air pressure to move the valve to the correct position.
2. Analog I/P Positioner: This positioner performs the same function as the one
above, but uses electrical current (usually 4-20 mA) instead of air as the input signal.
3. Digital Controller: Although this instrument functions very much as the Analog
I/P described above, it differs in that the electronic signal conversion is digital rather
than analog. The digital products cover these categories.

 Digital Non-Communicating: A current signal (4-20 mA) is supplied to the

positioner, which both powers the electronics and controls the output.
HART: This is the same as the digital non-communicating but is also capable of
two-way digital communication over the same wires used for the analog signal.
Transducers and positioners convert electronic instrumentation signals into pneumatic
or hydraulic pressures that control actuators and valves. A positioner is normally used
when it is necessary to position a valve stem accurately with respect to the value of
the instrumentation signal. When less accurate positioning is allowable, a transducer
can be used to provide a more economical installation.
An effective I/P must provide air quickly, accurately and in sufficient quantity to a
receiver. It must be able to exhaust air quickly when the signal decreases and be
physically strong enough to withstand the difficult environmental conditions often
found on industrial sites.
The input current signal, through a coil/armature arrangement, acts on a beam. The
beam, a flapper, positions itself against a nozzle. This restricts the flow of air from
the nozzle creating a back pressure which provides feedback via a bellows to position
the flapper accurately. The result is a pneumatic signal proportional to the 4-20mA
signal. This relatively small signal is fed to the booster replay to provide the final
20-100 kPa (or 3-15 psi) output.
If a rack mounted I/P is mounted at some distance from the final actuator, usually
simple operations, for example observing the reaction of a valve actuator to changes
of the I/P signal, become difficult, especially when there is no clear line-of-sight
between the two pieces of equipment.

The length of the pneumatic signal lines creates further difficulties. It is more likely a
booster or positioner will be necessary and the control loop gains another lag,
adding to the difficulty of tuning the loop and sometimes degrading the resulting

control.
Other locally mounted I/P types include the piezoceramic bender/nozzle and
deflector/nozzle.

Shut Down Valves

A shut down valve (also referred to as SDV or Emergency shutdown valve, ESV,
orESDV) is anactuatedvalveinstalled in apipeline. It isolates aprocess unitfrom an
upstream or downstream (gaseous or liquid) inventory upon activation of the process
unit alarm and shutdown system.
Metal seatedball valvesare used as shut-down valves (SDV's). Use ofmetalseated ball
valves leads to overall lower costs when taking into account
lost production and inventory, and valve repair costs resulting from the use of soft
seated ball valves which have a lower initial cost.
They are used as provisions for emergency shutdowns, for eg in the fuel supply lines.
Solenoid Valves
Asolenoid valveis anelectromechanicalvalvefor use withliquidorgascontrolled by
running or stopping an electric current through a solenoid, which is a coil of wire,
thus changing the state of the valve. The operation of a solenoid valve is similar to
that of a light switch, but typically controls the flow of air or water, whereas a light
switch typically controls the flow of electricity. Solenoid valves may have two or more
ports: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or off; in the case of a
three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports. Multiple
solenoid valves can be placed together on amanifold. They are often used as actuators
for shut down valves.
A solenoid valve has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. The solenoid
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in turn, opens or closes the
valve mechanically. A Direct Acting valve has only a small flow circuit, shown within
section E of this diagram (this section is mentioned below as a pilot valve). This
Diaphragm Piloted Valve multiplies this small flow by using it to control the flow
through a much larger orifice. Solenoid valves may
use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have
electrical interfaces to allow for easy control.
Aspringmay be used to hold the valve opened or
closed while the valve is not activated.The diagram
to the right shows the design of a basic valve. At
the top figure is the valve in its closed state. The
water under pressure enters at A. B is an elastic
diaphragm and above it is a weak spring pushing it
down. The function of this spring is irrelevant for
now as the valve would stay closed even without

it. The diaphragm has a pinhole through its center which allows a very small amount
of water to flow through it. This water fills the cavity Con the other side of the
diaphragm so that pressure is equal on both sides of the diaphragm. While the
pressure is the same on both sides of the diaphragm, the force is greater on the upper
side which forces the valve shut against the incoming pressure. In the figure, the
surface being acted upon is greater on the upper side which results in greater force.
On the upper side the pressure is acting on the entire surface of the diaphragm while
on the lower side it is only acting on the incoming pipe. This results in the valve being
securely shut to any flow and, the greater the input pressure, the greater the shutting
force will be.
Slide Valves
Theslide valveis arectilinearvalve used to control the admission of steam into, and
emission of exhaust from, the cylinder of a steam engine. At HPCL-VR it is used in
the FCCU between in the Reactor and Regenerator in the Catalytic Unit. The amount
of catalyst exchanged cannot be controlled using control valves and so slide valves are
used. Four slide valves are used:

For fresh catalyst

For spent catalyst
At Reactor top
At Regenerator top

A double-acting slide valve cylinder.

Steam enters via the steam portSP, and is admitted by the slide valveSV through the
upper passageS to push down the pistonP. At the same time, exhaust steam from

below the piston passes back up the lower passage S, via the valve cavity, to
exhaustE. As the piston descends, the valve moves upwards to admit steam below the
piston and release exhaust from above.
Agar Probes
Agar probes are installed in Desalter in the CDU for accurate measurement of
interface level. The probes measure the water concentration around the probe. There
are three probes provided at three elevations across the vessel. The bottom most
probe LI1102D, indicates the sludge accumulation and normally reads close to 100%,
indicating clear water phase at the bottom of the vessel. The interface probe
LC1102A is located between the try cock two and three. 80% water concentration
around this probe will ensure clear water in effluent and no water carry over in crude.
The emulsion probe LI1102E normally should indicate 0% as long as there is a clear
cut inter-phase between crude and water. A rise in the reading of emulsion probe
indicates growing of emulsion phase, which may lead to carry over of water / sludge
in crude. Demulsifier injection rate can be optimized based on the emulsion probe
reading.

Programmable Logic Controller

A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC for short, is simply a special computer
device used for industrial control systems. It is a sequence controller, i.e it accepts
inputs from switches and sensors, evaluates these in accordance with a stored
program, and generates outputs to control machines and processes. They are used in
many industries such as oil refineries, manufacturing lines, conveyor systems and so
on. Where ever there is a need to control devices the PLC provides a flexible way to
"softwire" the components together. It uses a programmable memory to store
instructions and execute specific functions that include ON/OFF control, timing,
counting, sequencing, arithmetic, and data handling.

History
The early history of the PLC is fascinating. Imagine if you will a fifty foot long
cabinet filled with relays whose function in life is to control a machine. Wires run in
and out of the system as the relays click and clack to the logic. Now imagine there is
a problem or a small design change and you have to figure it all out on paper and then
shut down the machine, move some wires, add some relays, debug and do it all over
again. Imagine the labor involved in the simplest of changes. This is the problem
that faced the engineers at the Hydra-matic division of GM motors in the late 1960's.
Fortunately for them the prospect of computer control was rapidly becoming a reality
for large corporations as themselves. So in 1968 the GM engineers developed design
criteria for a "standard machine controller". This early model simply had to replace
relays but it also had to be:
A solid-state system that was flexible like a computer but priced competitively
with a like kind relay logic system.
Easily maintained and programmed in line with the all ready accepted relay
ladder logic way of doing things.
Work in an industrial environment with all the dirt, moisture, electromagnetism
and vibration.
Modular in form to allow easy exchange of components and expandability.
This was a tall order in 1968 but four companies took on the challenge.
1. Information Instruments, Inc. (fully owned by Allen-Bradley a year later).
2. Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC)
3. Century Detroit

4. Bedford Associates
Bedford Associates won the contract and quickly formed a new company around the
technology called MODICON after Modular Digital Control. By June of 1969 they
were selling the first viable Programmable Controller, the "084" which sold over one
thousand units. These early experiences gave birth to their next model the "184" in
1973 which set Modicon as the early leader in programmable controllers. Not to be
outdone, the powerhouse Allen-Bradley (all ready known for its rheostats, relays and
motor controls) purchased Information Instruments in 1969 and began development
on this new technology. The early models (PDQ-II and PMC) were deemed to be too
large and complex. By 1971 Odo Struger and Ernst Dummermuth had begun to
develop a new concept known as the Bulletin 1774 PLC which would make them
successful for years to come.
Allen-Bradley termed their new device the
"Programmable Logic Controller" (patent #3,942,158) over the then accepted term
"Programmable Controller". The PLC terminology became the industry standard
especially when PC became associated with personal.

A PLC System
The basic units have a CPU (a computer processor) that is dedicated to run one
program that monitors a series of different inputs and logically manipulates the
outputs for the desired control. They are meant to be very flexible in how they can be
programmed while also providing the advantages of high reliability (no program
crashes or mechanical failures), compact and economical over traditional control
systems.

Unlike a personal computer, though the PLC is designed to survive in a rugged

industrial atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it interfaces with inputs and
outputs to the real world.
PLCs come in many shapes and sizes. They can be so small as to fit in a shirt pocket
while more involved controls systems require large PLC racks. Smaller PLCs (a.k.a.
bricks) are typically designed with fixed I/O points. The PLCs used at HPCL are
the modular ones. Its called modular because the rack can accept many different
types of I/O modules that simply slide into the rack and plug in.
The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.

The power supply and rack

The central processing unit (CPU)

The input/output (I/O) section

!
Power Supply and Racks:
The rack is the component that holds everything together. Depending on the needs
of the control system it can be ordered in different sizes to hold more modules. Like
a human spine the rack has a backplane at the rear which allows the cards to

communicate with the CPU. The power supply plugs into the rack as well and
supplies a regulated DC power to other modules that plug into the rack. The most
popular power supplies work with 120 VAC or 24 VDC sources.
The CPU:
The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. This module typically lives in the
slot beside the power supply. Manufacturers offer different types of CPUs based on
the complexity needed for the system.
The CPU consists of a microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated circuits to
control logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU has different operating
modes. In programming mode it accepts the downloaded logic from a PC. The CPU
is then placed in run mode so that it can execute the program and operate the
process.
Since a PLC is a dedicated controller, it will only process this one program over and
over again. One cycle through the program is called a scan time and involves reading
the inputs from the other modules, executing the logic based on these inputs and then
updated the outputs accordingly. The scan time happens very quickly (in the range of
1/1000th of a second). The memory in the CPU stores the program while also
holding the status of the I/O and providing a means to store values.
I/O System:
The I/O system provides the physical connection between the equipment and the
PLC. Opening the doors on an I/O card reveals a terminal strip where the devices
connect.There are many different kinds of I/O cards which serve to condition the
type of input or output so the CPU can use it for its logic. It's simply a matter of
determining what inputs and outputs are needed, filling the rack with the appropriate
cards and then addressing them correctly in the CPUs program.
Input Module: These modules act as interface between real-time status of process
variable and the CPU.
Analog input module: Typical input to these modules is 4-20 mA, 0-10 V. For eg:
Pressure, Flow, Level Tx, RTD (Ohm), Thermocouple (mV)
Digital input module: Typical input to these modules is 24 V DC, 115 V AC and 230
V AC. For eg: Switches, Pushbuttons, Relays, pump valve on off status.
Output Module: These modules act as link between the CPU and the output devices
in the field.
Analog output module: Typical output from these modules is 4-20 mA, 0-10V. For eg:
Control Valve, Speed, and Vibration

Digital output module: Typical output from these modules is 24 V DC, 115 V AC and
230 V AC. For eg: Solenoid Valves, lamps, Actuators, dampers, Pump valve on off
control.

!
PLC and PC are said to be similar in their physical construction but differ in their
functions.
A PLC is specifically designed for harsh conditions with electrical noise, magnetic
fields, vibration, extreme temperatures or humidity. Common PCs are not designed
for harsh environments. Industrial PCs are available but cost more. By design PLCs
are friendlier to technicians since they are in ladder logic and have easy connections.
Operating systems like Windows are common. Connecting I/O to the PC is not
always as easy. PLCs execute a single program in sequential order. They have better
ability to handle events in real time. PCs, by design, are meant to handle simultaneous
tasks. They have difficulty handling real time events.

Programming languages for PLCs

The term PLC Programming Language refers to the method by which the user
communicates information to the PLC. The three most common language structures
are: Ladder Drawing Language, Boolean Language and Functional Chart. Commonly
used programming languages are:
Ladder Logic (LAD/LD)
Structured Text (ST)
Instruction List (IL)
Sequential Functional Chart (SFC)
Function Block Diagram (FDB)

!
Ladder Logic
A Program is a user developed series of instructions or commands that directs the
PLC to execute actions. A Programming Language provides rules for combining the
instructions so that they can produce the desired actions. The most commonly used
Programming Language is Ladder Logic. It is an adaptation of an electrical relay
wiring diagram, also known as ladder diagram.
Ladder Logic is a graphical system of symbols and terms even those not familiar with
relay wiring diagram can easily learn it. It is evolved from electrical ladder diagrams,
which represents how electrical current flows through the devices to complete an
electrical circuit. An electrical diagram consists of two vertical bus lines or power
lines, with current flowing from left bus to the right bus. Each electrical circuit in the
diagram is considered a rung. Every rung has two components.

 It contains at least one device that is controlled

It contains the condition(s) that control the device.
Ladder Logic Instruction:
In Ladder Logic actual flow of current through circuits doesnt take place. In electrical
diagram the devices are described as open or closed (ON or OFF), where as in Ladder
Logic, instructions are either TRUE or FALSE.
A Ladder Logic Program must contain at least one control instruction (output) and
usually contains one or more conditions (inputs). The instructions in PLC ladder logic
program are:
Normally open (NO) instruction
Normally closed (NC) instruction
Output energized (OTE) instruction

!
NORMALLY OPEN INSTRUCTION (--I I--):
A Normally Open instruction examines a PLC memory location for an ON
condition. If PLC detects ON condition, the instruction is True and has Logical
continuity.
Let us take an example of a Push Button PB1.
When The PB1 is pressed ON

When PB1 is released (OFF)

NORMALLY CLOSE INSTRUCTION (--I\I--):

A Normally Open instruction examines a PLC memory location for an OFF
condition. If PLC detects OFF condition, the instruction is True and has Logical
continuity. Let us take an example of a Push Button PB1.
When PB1 is released (OFF)

When PB1 is pressed (ON)

OUTPUT ENERGIZE INSTRUCTION (--( )--):

When Logical continuity exists on a rung, the On condition (binary 1) is written to the
location in the memory associated with the output energize instruction.
Higher Level Instructions:
While relay logic is suitable for simple On/Off sensing and control, many
applications require more powerful instructions. These instructions deal with
numerical data beyond simple 1s or 0s by manipulating data in bytes or words.
Examples of higher level instructions include Counters, Timers, and Sequencers,
Math, Comparison and other operations.

Vendors of PLCs used in HPCL:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

ICS Triplex
Schneider Electric
Honeywell Authority India Limited (HAIL)
Modicon
GE Fanuc
Various PLCs used in Visakh Refinery:

S No
1

PLC
SCHNEIDER

SYSTEM MODEL

LOCATION

UNITS

BACKUP CONTENTS

QUANTUM

CENTUM

OLD CO BLR

LADDER LOGIC

2/5

CPP

CPP

HRSG1 SUPPLM FIRING

2/5

CPP

CPP

HRSG2 SUPPLM FIRING

5/20

PP1 F/R

PP1

WIL8 LADDER LOGIC

ALLEN
2

BRADLEY
ALLEN

BRADLEY
ALLEN

BRADLEY
ALLEN

BRADLEY

42F01/F02/46F01 LADDER
5/40

CENTUM

CDU3

LOGIC

5/60

LPG C/R

LPG

LPG LOGIC WITH MMI

ALLEN
6

BRADLEY
ALLEN

BRADLEY

2F04 SOOT BLOWERS

SLC

CDU-I

CDU-I

LADDER

SLC

CENTUM

DHDS-SRU

65K201A LADDER LOGIC

SLC

CENTUM

DHDS-SRU

65K201B LADDER LOGIC

SLC

CENTUM

DHDS-SRU

65K101B LADDER LOGIC

SLC

CENTUM

DHDS-SRU

65K101A LADDER LOGIC

ALLEN
8

BRADLEY
ALLEN

BRADLEY
ALLEN

10

BRADLEY
ALLEN

11

BRADLEY
ALLEN

12

BRADLEY

13

ANSHUMAN

14

GE-FANUC

15
16

STACK ANALYSERS
SLC

PP1 F/R

PP1

LADDER

DMP

DMP

SILICA ANAL LADDER

LM 90/30

CENTUM

PP1

NCO BOILER LADDER

GE-FANUC

LM 90/30

DMP C/R

DMP2

DM2 LOGIC WITH HMI

GE-FANUC

LM 90/30

DMP C/R

DMP3

DM3 LOGIC WITH HMI

17

GE-FANUC

LM 90/30

F&S BLDG

F&S

FIRE SIREN SYSTEM

18

ICS-TRIPLEX

REGENT PLUS+

CENTUM

FCCU1(R)

MAB / CAB LADDER LOGIC

19

MARK-V

TMR

CPP C/R

CPP

I-Station T1/T2 Backup

20

MARK-V

TMR

CPP C/R

CPP

I-Station T3 Backup

21

MARK-V

TMR

CPP C/R

CPP

I-Station T4 Backup

22

MODICON

MICRO

CPP

CPP

ANALYSERS LADDER

23

MODICON

TXS QUANTUM

CENTUM

H2

PSA CONTROLS WITH MMI

24

SIEMENS

MICRO

ETP2

F&S

FIRE WATER SYSTEM

11F01 SOOT BLOWERS

25

SIEMENS

S5

CENTUM

CDU2

LADDER

26

SIEMENS

S5-SIMATIC

PP1 F/R

PP1

BHPV BOILER LADDER

27

SIEMENS

S7

FCCU1

FCCU1

CAT TIMER LADDER

28

THL

620-12

PP2 F/R

WIL B BLR

LADDER LOGIC

29

THL

620-16

CPP

CPP

HRSG3 S/B LADDER

30

THL

620-16

CPP

CPP

HRSG4 S/B LADDER

31

THL

620-35

CPP

CPP

HRSG4 SUPPLM FIRING

32

THL

620-35

CPP

CPP

HRSG3 SUPPLM FIRING

33

THL

620-35

CDU1 F/R

2F01/F02

LADDER LOGIC

FCCU1(R)
34

THL

620-35

CENTUM

WGC

LADDER LOGIC

FCCU2 MAB

LADDER LOGIC

FCCU2
35

THL

620-35

FIELD
FCCU2

36

THL

620-35

FIELD

FCCU2 WGC

LADDER LOGIC

37

THL

620-35 WITH LMM

CENTUM

2F04

LADDER LOGIC

FCCU1(R)
38

THL

620-35 WITH LMM

CENTUM

RR

LADDER LOGIC

39

THL

FSC

CENTUM

D-SRU

FSC BACK UP

40

THL

FSC

CENTUM

DHDS

FSC BACK UP

41

THL

FSC

CENTUM

H2

FSC BACK UP

42

THL

FSC SOE

CENTUM

DHDS

COFIGURATION BACKUP

SMOKE DET
43

THL

SYSTEM

DEVELOPEMENT PC
F&S BLDG

F&S

BACKUP

Tata Honeywell PLC Model 620 Series

System Specifications:

AC Voltage
Frequency
DC Voltage
Operating Temp
Storage Temp
Height
Width
Depth
Real I/O Capacity
Internal Control I/O Capacity
Data registers
Register Size
Memory Sizes
Memory Usage
Memory type
Battery type
Battery backup (minimum)
Scan rate

:115/230 V AC, 250 V AC max.

:47 to 63 Hz
:20-28V DC
:0-60 C
:-40 to 70 C
:10.7 in.(27.2 cm)
:19 in.(48.3 cm)
:7.5 in.(19.1 cm)
:2048
:up to 2048
:2048 or 4096
:17 bit
:2k,4k,8k,16k,24k,32k
:1 word per ladder diagram element
:CMOS RAM
:size D(in power supply module)
:1.5 years
:2.5ms/k

Logic Manager
Logic Manger (LM) a process-Connected that resides on the Total Plant Solution
(TPS) Universal control network as a peer to the process manager. The LM consists
of a standard HoneyWell 620-35 Logic Controller that contains a two slot option
module know as the logic manager Mo0dule (LMM),and is mounted in one or more
standard TPS cabinets.
The HoneyWell 620 Logic Controller uses two basic types of racks to house the
numerous kinds of available plug in modules:
Processor Rack
I/O rack
In addition, a programming device to enter the ladder logic is required. These are
described in the following sections.

!
Logic manager as a TPS

The LM processor Subsystem:

The processor card file serves as the central (brain) for the system.
The figure shown below shows the module layout of the non-redundant processor
card file. The standard configuration contains the following modules:

Logic manager module

Honeywell 620-35 processor consists of five sub-modules:
Memory module
Register module
System control module
Processor module
I/O control module
Power supply module-2 slot
Serial link module

 Parallel link driver module

Modules in non-redundant process card files

Logic Manager Module

The logic manager module serves as the interface between the Honeywell 620-35
Logic controller and the UCN. It exchanges data between its own cables and the
tables of the logic controller. It collects and processes information from the 620 LC
and the ladder logic program; converts the information to TPS data type; and
performs engineering unit conversions, alarm handling, annunciation, diagnostic
status reporting, peer to peer communications and other UCN functions. It processes
information and converts it to the appropriate formats for passage to the LC. Its
UCN communication channel is redundant.
Memory Module
The memory module holds the ladder logic program. Model no. 620-0024, with a
capacity of 24 K words is provided with the LM. Additional memory modules are not
available for the logic manager.
Register Module
The register module contains the logic controllers I/O data cables. Much of the
information exchanged between the LC and the LMM is transferred from or into the
RM tables. Register module no 620-0056(4k 4k) is provided with the logic manager

System Control Module (SCM)

The system control module (model no> 620-0054),a functional extension of a
processor module, co-ordinates the interaction of all the modules in the processor.
The SCM also contains a single-bit processor that solves all relay logic in the control
program.
Processor Module (PM)
The processor module model no 620-0080 executes the program stored in MM and
handles arithmetic computation and data movement instructions.
I/O Control Module (IOCM)
The I/O Control Module coordinates communications between the LM processor
and the 621 I/O systems and formats the data flowing between the I/O system and
the processor. It also monitors individual I/O module fault diagnostics. The I/O CM
works in conjunction with the PLDM and or SLM to control data flow to I/O.
Module no. 620-0085 with a capacity for 2048 I/O points (2040 points with serial I/
O) is provided with the LM.
Power Supply Module (PSM)
The PSM provides power to operate the processor. A battery compartment contains a
lithium battery which provides backup power to the memory and the registered
modules. Both 115/230V ac and 24V dc model are available.
Serial Link Module (SLM)
The serial link module provides the interface to remote serial I/O subsystem. One
SLM is provided with every LM, and a second one can be accommodated by a
reserved slot in a processor rack.
Parallel Link Driver Module (PLDM)
The PLDM works with the I/O CM to control I/O communications. The PLDM
also controls system status by a processor mode key switch on the front panel, and it
determines I/O response to system faults and various operating parameters The
PLDM helps control LM system I/O whether it be parallel I/O or serial I/O.

The LMs PLDM key switch has four positions for selecting processor mode of
operation. The positions are labeled: PROGRAM, DISABLE, RUN/PROG and
RUN.
I/O Modules
The I/O subsystem offers much different type of I/O modules. These modules
contain varying number of points and voltage types designed for compact ability with
the various kinds of field devices and power sources to which I/O modules are
connected.

Digital input
Analog input
Digital output
Analog output
Special function

Logic Controller Operation

The LM features four primary modes of operation: RUN, PROGRAM, RUN/
PROGRAM, and DISABLE. There is also a sub mode called SOFTWARE
PROGRAM MODE, which can be initiated when in either the RUN/PROGRAM or
DISABLE primary mode. Control over the operating mode is exercised through the
four position key switch on the front panel of the parallel link driver module,
although the mode can also be changed under certain conditions from the loader/
terminal or communications interface module. This is discussed in the further
paragraphs.
RUN MODE: The system is in the RUN mode when the front panel key switch is in
the RUN or RUN/PROGRAM position. The RUN mode is in the main control
mode for the logic manager. The figure given below illustrates the normal LC scan
cycle, which is asynchronous to the LC cycle. The system executes the relative scan
when it first enters the RUN mode during the retentive outputs from 0 to 4095 are
turned off. The retentive outputs retain the state they were in during the last scan
executed prior to being remote from the run mode.
After the retentive scan is complete, the user program scan begins by verifying the
beginning of program input status scan (ISS) instruction located in the first memory
location of the user program.

During the ISS time window, some other functions are performed in addition to the
collection of input status from the I/O subsystem. This includes diagnostics and
option card communication.
The logic manager then does a program memory scan by reading the second location
in the MM and continues through the user ladder logic program until it encounters a
return to beginning of program or end of memory instruction. Either of these
instructions causes the scanning sequence to repeat, beginning with a new ISS .In this
instance, a return to beginning of program is an optional instruction programmed by
the user. The end of memory instruction is automatically deposited in the memory
module by the device that loaded the program into memory.

!
Logic Controller Scan cycle

PROGRAM MODE: The logic manager is in the PROGRAM When the Logic
Manager is in the PROGRAM mode, a signal is transmitted to the I/O System which
allows individual I/O racks to be selected to freeze or clear outputs.
Contacts may be forced if the Force Enable Switch (SW2 switch 4) on the PLDM is
CLOSED/ON. Timer/counter data stored in the Register Module may be changed.
The system can be placed in the PROGRAM mode by the Loader/Terminal or some
other remote programming device. If this is the case, the Software PROGRAM mode
request must be removed from the Logic Manager, causing the system to return to the
mode of operation specified by the position of the key switch.
RUN/PROGRAM MODE: RUN/PROGRAM mode is used for making program
changes. When the Logic Manager system is in the RUN/PROGRAM mode the
system operates identically to the RUN mode with the added capability of program
editing. The user's program is executed as it is in the RUN mode.

The RUN/PROGRAM permits the following functions: element status may be

forced by the Loader/Terminal if the force enabled switch on the PLDM is closed,
and preset and accumulated values of timer and counters may be changed by the
Loader/Terminal if the data change enable switch on the PLDM is closed.
AUGMENTED RUN MODE PROGRAMMING (ARMP): The capability to
make program changes while in the RUN/PROGRAM mode has been refined with
the introduction of Augmented RUN Mode Programming (ARMP). This feature
allows users to make control program additions and selections while in the RUN/
PROGRAM mode with no adverse affect on system operation, other than temporarily
increased scan time (20 ms maximum).
DISABLE MODE: The DISABLE mode can be entered by default as well as
through the front panel key switch. DISABLE by default occurs if the system does
not detect a selected mode.
Logic Manager Control Functions
When the system is in the DISABLE mode the Logic Manager scans through the
user's program executing the instructions as it would for normal machine control
operation. At the same time the hardware on the Parallel Link Driver Module sends a
power fail signal to the I/O system. Outputs are cleared or held in the last state in the
DISABLE mode depending on the PIOM setting for each rack. The out strobe for
updating the I/O is held disabled, preventing I/O output updating. The Logic
Controller can be placed in the Software PROGRAM mode while in DISABLE. The
DISABLE mode forces the Logic Manager Module into the IDLE state.
Software Program (Sub) Mode: The system can be placed in the Software
PROGRAM mode by the MS-DOS Loader or a Communications Interface Module.
The Logic Manager must be in the RUN/PROGRAM or DISABLE mode, and the
on-line programming function enabled according to SW2 switch 6 on the PLDM. The
system enters the Software PROGRAM mode only after the scan being executed is
completed.
When the Loader removes the Software PROGRAM mode request, the Logic
Manager leaves the software PROGRAM mode and returns to the original mode,
after the system successfully executes the retentive scan and self-diagnostics. Software
PROGRAM mode changes are made through the MS-DOS Loader mode change
auxiliary menu. This function is particularly useful in the program debug stage for
extensive changes. The user may monitor program execution, find a bug, change it,
and execute the program from the keyboard.

Honeywell Fail Safe Control Safety Manager (FSC SM) PLC

The Honeywell FSC-SM provides a dual redundant fault tolerant controller for safety
and shutdown applications on the TotalPlant solutions systems UCN. It consists of a
Honeywell FSC controller with an FSC Safety Manager Module (SMM) interface card.
Because of its integration into the UCN, it shares important features with its UCN
peers, such as:
Direct peer to peer communication with other Safety Managers, PM, APM etc
Communication with engineers, operators etc. at TPS operator stations
FSC-SM database restoration with History Module.
The FSC is used only for very critical processes. Three such systems are in use at
HPCL-VR right now. They are used for the DHDS, DHDS-Hydrogen and DHDSSRU.

Basic architecture
The Figure above shows the basic architecture of the FSC system. Two major system
parts can be distinguished:
the Central Part, and
The Input/Output interfaces.
Central Part

The Central Part (CP) is the heart of the FSC system. It is a modular microprocessorbased system specifically designed for safety-critical applications which can be tailored
to the needs of any application.
The most important Central Part modules are:
the Control Processor,
the Watchdog module, and
The Communication Processor.
Control Processor
The central processor unit (CPU) is the heart of each FSC system. It controls all
system operations. The Control Processor (or Central Processing Unit, CPU) reads
the process inputs and executes the control program as created by the user in
graphical Functional Logic Diagrams (FLDs). The results of the control program are
then transmitted to the output interfaces. In FSC architectures with redundant Central
Parts, the Control Processors synchronize their operation through a dedicated
communication link. Continuous testing of the FSC hardware by the Control
Processor ensures safe control of the process and extensive system and process
equipment diagnostics.
The module has a key switch in the front which provides a hardware reset of the
processor. The key switch has two positions:
Vertical: running
Horizontal: stop (CPU reset)
The CPU module is provided with battery back-up circuits for the RAM memory,
which enables back-up supply from the batteries on the diagnostic and battery module
or single bus driver
Watchdog
The Watchdog monitors the operation and the operating conditions of the Control
Processor. The operation of the processor is monitored by verifying if the processor
executes all its tasks within a precalculated time frame, which depends on the
configuration. The operating conditions monitored include the data integrity of the
processor memory and the voltage range of the supply power (both undervoltage and
overvoltage). If the Watchdog detects a fault in the operation of the Control
Processor or its operating conditions, it will deactivate the safety-critical output
interfaces of the FSC system, independent of the Control Processor status.
The watchdog module monitors system parameters including:
the application loop maximum execution time in order to detect if the process
is executing its program correctly and is not looping (hang-up).

 the application loop minimum execution time in order to detect if the processor
is executing its program correctly and is not skipping program parts.
5 Vdc voltage monitoring for overvoltage and undervoltage (5 Vdc 5 %).
memory error logic from CPU, COM and MEM modules. In case of a memory
error, the watchdog output is de-energized.
ESD input to de-energize the watchdog output independently from the
processor. This ESD input is 24 Vdc and galvanically isolated from the internal
5 Vdc.
Communication Processor The Communication Processor allows the FSC
system to exchange information with other computer equipment via serial
communication links. Each Central Part can accommodate up to four communication
modules, providing a maximum of eight communication links per Central Part.
Dedicated modules are available which provide communication capabilities with other
systems:
the FSC Safety Manager Module (FSC-SMM), which integrates the FSC system
into the Universal Control Network (UCN) of Honeywell's TotalPlant
Solution (TPS) system, and
The PlantScape interface module, which integrates the FSC system into
Honeywell's PlantScape system.
The module is placed in the Central Part of the FSC system, and consists of:
a Motorola 68360 Quad Integrated Communication Controller (running on 25
MHz),
EPROM (4 Mbit) for the FSC firmware program
local RAM (16 Mbit with parity) for the application-specific data,
shared RAM (2 Mbit) for all data exchange between this module and the FSC
control processor,
EEPROM (1 kbit) for storing critical configuration data,
a Motorola 68824 token bus controller (running on 10 MHz),
a Motorola 68194 carrierband modem, and
an isolated redundant communication link.

Interconnections
The Central Part interfaces with the I/O system through a Vertical Bus (V-bus),
which is a flatcable that runs vertically in the FSC cabinet. The V-bus is controlled by
the Vertical Bus Driver (VBD) module, which is located in the Central Part rack.
Each of the I/O racks contains a Horizontal Bus Driver (HBD) module, which
connects to the V-bus. The HBD module drives the Horizontal Bus (H-bus), which
relays the signals from the V-bus to the I/O modules via a flatcable. The H-bus
module is located on top of each I/O rack. The horizontal bus and the flatcables are
covered with a sheet steel cover which provides optimum EMC/RFI immunity. The
cover plate contains a paper strip which holds the relevant process tagging for signal
identification.
Input/output interfaces
The FSC system provides a wide range of digital and analog input and output
interfaces, each with different characteristics to meet the demands of a wide range of
field equipment. Table 1-2 lists the input and output interfaces that are available in the
FSC system.
I/O redundancy

The input and output interfaces of the FSC system can be implemented in redundant
or non-redundant (single) architectures.
Redundant I/O
Redundant I/O architectures can be used in FSC systems with redundant Central
Parts. In this fully redundant architecture, each Central Part has its own I/O system to
which it has exclusive access. The result is a highly reliable fault-tolerant system. Every
program cycle each Central Part reads its own input interfaces. After input matching,
both Central Parts execute the user-defined control program and update their output
interfaces according to the results. In addition, the Central Parts compare the
calculated output results to ensure identical operation. Redundant I/O architectures
are typically used for critical control and safety functions in combination with the high
reliability offered by this concept.
Non-redundant (single) I/O
Non-redundant (single) I/O architectures can be used in systems with a nonredundant Central Part as well as in systems with redundant Central Parts. Fully nonredundant systems are typically used for safety applications where redundancy is
present in the process.
In FSC systems with redundant Central Parts, both Central Parts alternately assume
responsibility for the non-redundant I/O interfaces. This ensures that both Central
Parts can always access the I/O interfaces correctly. FSC architectures with redundant
Central Parts and non-redundant I/O interfaces are typically used for critical control
applications with medium demands for system availability, e.g. because of redundancy
in plant equipment.
An FSC system architecture may also comprise redundant Central Parts with a
combination of redundant and non-redundant I/O interfaces. Such architectures are
extremely powerful, with process control functions that demand high reliability being
controlled through the redundant I/O interfaces and less demanding control
functions through the non-redundant I/O interfaces.
Diagnostic and Battery Module (DBM)
The diagnostic and battery module (DBM) 10006/2/1 provides a low-cost interface
to the user for diagnosing the FSC system. The displays on the front of the module
are used to display messages about the faults found by the diagnostic routines. The
message gives type, rack and position number of the module found to be faulty. In
addition to the diagnostic messages, the DBM module is provided with a real-time
clock function which gives the current date and time.
Both date and time can be displayed on the front of the DBM module and can be
read by the application program. The DBM module is able to display the temperature

values measured by two independent temperature sensors inside the Central Part of
the FSC system, as well as the 5 Vdc level and the battery voltage. High and low alarm
points and high and low trip points can be entered for the temperature measurement
during DBM configuration in the system configuration option of the FSC user
software.
Difference between a general purpose PLC and an FSC
A general PLC doesnt have fault tolerant features which an FSC does. Hence, the
FSC finds application in the most critical of processes. It controls the trips and
interlocks of such critical processes.
Digital O/P of a General PLC

Digital O/P of an FSC

In an FSC, the O/P signals are continually monitored and compared with the I/P
signals to check if there is any error in the I/O cards or in the input signals.

Configuration of other PLCs

ALLEN BRADLEY PLC:

 MODICON PLC:

SIEMENS PLC:

Applications of PLCs
PLCs are used in industries where there is a need for the scan time to be the
minimum possible. For emergency shutdown of furnaces, heaters, batch processing,
motor valves, plant interlocks, machine protection system, ESG of any furnaces,
turbine control system, water treatment in de-mineralized plants, fire water auto
cutting systems, fire siren operation systems, etc.

Traditional application of PLCs:

Packaging
Bottling and canning
Material Handling
Power Generation
HVAC/Building control systems
Security Systems
Automated Assembly
Water Treatment
Food and Beverage
Chemicals
Pulp and Paper
Pharmaceuticals
Metals

In industry, there are many production tasks, which are of highly repetitive nature.
Although repetitive and monotonous, each stage needs careful attention of
operator to ensure good quality of final product.
Many a times, flow supervision of process causes high fatigue on operator,
resulting in loss of track of process control.
Sometimes, it is hazardous also as in case of potentially explosive chemical
processes.
Under all the above conditions we can use PLCs effectively in totally eliminating
the possibilities of human error.
Some of the capabilities of PLCs are:
Logic control
PID control
Co-ordination and communication
Operator control
Signaling and listing etc.

Advantages of PLCs
Reduced space:
PLCs are fully solid state and hence extremely compact as compared to hardwired
controller wherein electromechanical devices are used.

Energy saving:
Average power consumption is just one tenth of power consumed by an equivalent
relay logic control.
Ease of Maintenance:
Modular replacement
Easy troubleshooting
Error diagnostics with programmer
Economical:
Considering one time investment PLC is most economical system
Cost of PLC recovers within a short period (low payback period)
Greater Life and Reliability:
Static devices, hence lesser number of moving parts, reduces wear and tear In the case
of hardwired logic the control, hardware is either electromechanical or pneumatic and
therefore it is prone to faults due to wear and tear of moving parts resulting in lesser
ON TIME of the system.
Tremendous flexibility:
To implement changes in control logic, no rewiring is required. So, considerable
time is saved.
PLC can carry out complex functions such as generation of time delays,
counting, comparing, arithmetic operations etc.
Online as well as Offline programming is possible.
High processing speed and greater flexibility in processing in both analog and
digital signals.
Suitability for closed loop tasks with several loops and high sampling
frequencies.
Shorter Project Time:
The hardwired control system can be constructed only after the task is defined. In
PLC, however, the construction of the controller and wiring are independent of
control program definition. This means that the total hardware is standard and desired
control is achieved through program.
Easier Storage Archiving and Documentation:
This is due to its compatibility with PC/AT, Printer and Floppy Disk etc.

Distributed Control System

Distributed Control System is a type of automated control system that is distributed
throughout a machine to provide instructions to different parts of the machine.
Instead of having a centrally located device controlling all machines, each section of a
machine has its own computer that controls the operation. For instance, there may be
one machine with a section that controls dry elements of cake frosting and another
section controlling the liquid elements, but each section is individually managed by a
DCS. A DCS is commonly used in manufacturing equipment and utilizes input and
output protocols to control the machine.

History
Early minicomputers were used in the control of industrial processes since the
beginning of the 1960s. The IBM 1800, for example, was an early computer that had
input/output hardware to gather process signals in a plant for conversion from field
contact levels (for digital points) and analog signals to the digital domain.
The DCS was introduced in 1975. Both Honeywell and Japanese electrical engineering
firm Yokogawa introduced their own independently produced DCSs at roughly the
same time, with the TDC 2000 and CENTUM systems, respectively. US-based Bristol
also introduced their UCS 3000 universal controller in 1975. In 1980, Bailey (now part
of ABB) introduced the NETWORK 90 system. Also in 1980, Fischer & Porter
Company (now also part of ABB) introduced DCI-4000 (DCI stands for Distributed
Control Instrumentation).
The DCS largely came about due to the increased availability of microcomputers and
the proliferation of microprocessors in the world of process control. Computers had
already been applied to process automation for some time in the form of both Direct
Digital Control (DDC) and Set Point Control. In the early 1970s Taylor Instrument
Company, (now part of ABB) developed the 1010 system, Foxboro the FOX1 system
and Bailey Controls the 1055 systems. All of these were DDC applications
implemented within mini-computers (DEC PDP 11, Varian Data Machines,
MODCOMP etc) and connected to proprietary Input/output hardware. Sophisticated
(for the time) continuous as well as batch control was implemented in this way. A
more conservative approach was Set Point Control, where process computers
supervised clusters of analog process controllers. A CRT-based workstation provided
visibility into the process using text and crude character graphics. Availability of a
fully functional graphical user interface was a way away.

The Hierarchy of DCS

 Dedicated control system

Centralized computer control
Distributed control system
Dedicated control system: As the name suggests, a computer is assigned to each
process. However, this makes the system bulky and costly. As there are a greater
number of systems, there may be lack of coordination.

"
Centralized computer control: This system uses a computer called Mainframe
computer. There is said to be only one single computer in the system, controlling all
the functions.

"
The main disadvantage of this system is that as a single computer has to control the
system, it is costly. If there is a problem with any one loop, the total system gets
smashed and identifying the loop is also very difficult. As it needs to handle many
processes, the speed decreases. Programming is very difficult. The system is not
reliable and accurate.

About fifty years back pneumatic system was used for process controls. The
transmitters and controllers were all pneumatic instruments operating on 3 to 15 psi
air signals. The main disadvantages of these pneumatic instruments were
Very slow, response
Highly maintenance oriented
Specialized skill required for maintenance
Developments in the electronic field in 1970s led to the use of electronic instruments.
Electronic transmitters and electronic controllers came to be widely used in process
control applications. They were all analog instruments and 4 to 20 ma became the
industry standard for instrumentation signals. Towards 1980 remarkable progress was
made in digital electronics.
The advent of microprocessor initiated a new era in the field of instrumentation for
process control. The existing process plant pneumatic and electronics instrumentation
is getting replaced with the microprocessor based distributed control system. New
plants are coming up only with the distributed digital control system (DCS). The
benefits that accrue from the introduction of the DCS in then old plants as well as a
new plants are many such as improved productivity, high amount of flexibility,
advanced control and optimization, quick start up of the plant, less maintenance on
the instrumentation, MIS, etc.
Following is a brief description of the various components of the system.
FTA (Field Termination Assembly)
FTA is just a terminal block installed in the marshalling cabinet for interconnecting
field instruments and DCS. Signals from field transmitters and signals to control
valves are connected to FTA. FTA in turn connects these signals to I/O processor
cards, Type of FTA and number of connections on one FTA depends on the type of
I/O processor to which it is connected.
I/O cards (input/output Processors)
I/O processors are electronic cards with built in microprocessor and memory. It
receives signals from field instruments through FTA, does the signal conditioning,
converts the signals into digital form and stores the data regarding each signal
connected to it in its memory. It supplies the stored information to other components
like control unit.
There are different type of I/O processors for different type of signals like 4-20 mA
analog signal, Pt 100 RTD signal, Thermocouple input, digital (contact) input etc.

Similarly there are different types of I/O processors for output signals like mA output
to control valves, Digital output to motor interlock etc.
The numbers of signals a processor can handle vary from processor to processor and
system to system. It could be 8, 16, 32 etc.
The functions of I/O processor, in general are, Analog to digital conversion, Ranging
as per engineering unit Square root extraction, Compensation for different type of
thermocouples, Scaling.
Control unit
Control unit is again electronic cards with built in microprocessors and memory. It
contains all the process control systems like PID controllers, alarm blocks, logic
blocks, totalizer blocks etc. 100s of items in each of these categories can be
configured in a control unit. Each function block receives input signals from and send
output signal to 110 processors as per the configuration. For example, while
configuring a controller, we have to specify from which channel of which 110
processor the input signal has to be taken and also to which channel of which I/O
card the output signal has to be send. The capacity and capability of a control unit
vary from system to system.
Operator Station
Operator Station is the man-machine interface in the DCS. It has got a CRT monitor
to display Process and system through different types of graphic screens, and a
keyboard through which the operator can enter data into the system. There are
various displays available in the Operator station for the operator to monitor and
control the process efficiently. Out of these displays the following are some of the
important displays that are found to be frequently used by the operators.
Detail Display: Detail display shows all the important parameters of a single
instrument, the parameters include Tag name, Description, PV, SP, MV, Alarm status,
Tuning parameters, Alarm set-points, Range limits, Input-Output connections etc. PV,
SP & MV are normally represented in the form of bar graphs also.

Group Display: Generally this display consists of a group of eight related tags. PV,
SP and OP of these tags are displayed in bar graph form and numeric form. Other
information like status of the loop (Auto/Man), Alarm status etc are also displayed.
Control is affected generally from this display.
Real Time Trend Display: This display is most widely used by the operators for
monitoring the process parameters by assigning critical process parameters to the
various real time trend pens of different colors, the operator can at a glance find out
if there are any upsets during start up and the normal running of the plant. Generally
8 different parameters can be configured for trending in one page many number of
such pages are possible
Historical Trend Display: History of various tags can be accessed even for the past
days, normally 32 hours or 72 hours trend period is to send for analysis purpose.

Graphic Displays: Graphic display shows a pictorial representation of the plant on

the CRT monitor. By properly configuring the graphic displays, the entire plant can be
monitored and controlled from these displays very effectively. These displays are
generally dynamic as well as interactive i.e. values displayed in the screen will update
automatically and operator can enter data directly from the screen.
Alarm Summary Display: It shows the latest alarms in the process and in the
system. This display is useful for the operator or instrument engineer to view the past
alarm events (process alarms and device alarms) Engineering Functions Functions
related to system configuration like tag definitions, controller configurations, input
output linking, control group assignment, graphics page building, log and report
generation etc.
Operator functions: Controller operations, process monitoring, alarm monitoring,
report retrieval etc.
Printers are usually attached to the operator station to print any abnormal condition in
the system or process. Printers are also configured to print log sheets, reports etc at
pre-set time interval.
Memory unit / Memory unit is a storage device like a computer hard disc which
stores all the system programs and configuration data used in the system.
Data Highway or Network
It is physically a co-axial cable that interconnects all the components described above.
The data is flowing from component to component through this network. For
example, when an operator enter a controller tag name through the key board, the
system identifies the location of that particular tag name and a request is send to the
corresponding control unit through the network, data regarding the controller are
collected from the control unit and transmitted back to the operator station. The
collected data is then displayed on the operator station. The data will be updated
continuously until the display is erased or another display is called.
Data Acquisition
These are programs to periodically collect data from process and store in the memory
unit in a systematic way. The stored data is used to generate reports regarding performance of the plant. These form the input data for the Technical Services
department -to study the plant performance and for the Management for -planning
and maintenance activities.

Supervisory Computer
Computers with special programs can be connected to the system through which the
whole process can be monitored and some interaction with the process can also be
made. Same computer can be linked to many DCS systems. Top management makes
use of these supervisory computers for plant monitoring, production scheduling etc.

Distributed Control Systems in HPCL

The basic functionality of the DCS is The work is distributed depending upon the
functionality. The DCS is said to have a layered structure. Each layer corresponds to
a group of group of functions to be performed on lower layer, on getting some
instructions from the higher layer and each layer can work independently.
Three companies provide HPCL with DCS. They are:
1.
Honeywell Automation India Limited (HAIL)
2.
Yokogawa India Limited (YIL)
3.
Asian Brown Bravery (ABB)
At the HPCL Visakh Refinery,
The CDU-I, FCCU-I, DHDS and SRU are operated by using the Honeywell
DCS.
The Power plants, CDU-II, FCCU-II, MEROX, SRU & PRU units are operated
by using the Yokogawa DCS.
The CDU-III and Oil Movement and Storage units are operated using ABB
DCS.

Honeywell Automation India Limited

HPCL uses two versions of Honeywell system. They are:
1.
TDC 3000 system
2.
EXPERION system
TDC 3000 SYSTEM:
TDC 3OOOx is a data acquisition and control system that can be tailored to meet
specific user requirements. It can be a small system with just a handful of devices, or
it may be highly complex system with hundreds of devices and several kinds of
communications networks interconnecting these devices. It can begin as a small
system, and be easily expanded whenever the need arises.
The backbone of every TDC 3000X is a communication network known as the local
control network. The LCN directly links those devices that provide the following
functions:
Human interface
Interface to UNIX/X window devices
Mass data storage and analysis
Extensive advanced control
Interface to computers
Interface to process networks
Interface between multiple LCNs
This system consists of
1.
I/O Cards
2.
Process Manager
3.
Universal Control Network (UCN).
4.
Network Interface Module (NIM)
5.
Local Control Network (LCN)
6.
Operating station
7.
Engineering Station
It also has accessories like History Manager, Application module, Safety Manager,
Logic Manager. The information coming from the field passes through the junction
box, barriers and terminal box and reaches the I/O cards.
I/O Cards:
I/O cards are used for the conversion of information coming from the field to such a
form that could be accessed by the process manager. There are various cards being

used in the industry. They are classified based on the type of input and output. The
various cards are:

Analog input cards

Analog output cards
Digital input cards
Digital output cards
Temperature cards
Resistance cards

Process Manager:
The signals from the I/O cards are given to the process manager. Advanced Process
Manager (APM) is Honeywells most popular and well established TDC 3000 data
acquisition and control device for industrial process applications. Like the Process
Manage (PM), its predecessor, and the High-Performance Process Manager (HPM),
its successor, the APM offers a range of capabilities that meets todays and

tomorrows process requirements. The APM offers highly flexible I/O functions for
both data monitoring and control. Powerful control functions, including regulatory,
logic, and sequencing control are provided for continuous, batch, or hybrid
applications.
APM is capable of the following:
Performing data acquisition and control functions, including regulatory, logic, and
sequential control functions, as well as peer-to-peer communications with other
Universal Control Network-resident devices.
Providing bi-directional communications to Modbus and Allen-Bradley
compatible subsystems through a serial interface.
Fully communicating with operators and engineers at Universal Stations, UXSs, and
Universal Work Stations. Procedures and displays are identical or similar to those
used with other TDC 3000X controllers, as well as to HPM and PM point displays.
Universal Control Network (UCN):
The communications channel for the Advanced Process Manager is a local area
network called the Universal Control Network (UCN). Introduced to TDC 3000X
users in 1988, the UCN is the secure path for process I/O connections to the TDC
3000X. The UCN features a 5 megabit per second, carrier band communication
system with a token bus network. The UCN uses redundant coaxial cables and can
support up to 32 redundant devices. The UCN supports peer-to-peer communication
between devices on this network. This feature enables sharing information among
HPMs, APMs, PMs, Safety Managers, and Logic Managers on the network, thus
offering tremendous power and flexibility in implementing advanced, coordinate
control strategies.
Network Interface Module (NIM):
The Network Interface Module (NIM) provides the link between the Local Control
Network and the Universal Control Network. Accordingly, it makes the transition
from the transmission technique and protocol of the Local Control Network to the
transmission technique and protocol of the Universal Control Network. The NIM
provides LCN module access to data from UCN-resident devices. It supports
program and database loads to the Advanced Process Manager and forwards alarms
and messages from the network devices to the LCN. The NIM is also available in a
redundant configuration to provide automatic, continued operation in the event of a
primary failure.
LCN time and UCN time are synchronized by the NIM. The NIM broadcasts LCN

time over the UCN. The APM (as well as the HPM) uses it for a number of timedriven functions, such as sequence of events reporting.
Local Control Network (LCN):
The LCN has a maximum of 64 nodes. The operating stations, engineer stations,
history manager etc., sit on LCN through the nodes. The information available on this
network could be accessed by operating stations, engineering station, history manager,
etc.
Operating Station:
Global User Station (GUS) is the powerful and intuitive human interface to the
Honeywell Total Plant Solution (TPS) system. This Microsoft Windows NT-based
station makes plant-wide information easily accessible so users have the business and
control information they need to make better products and increase profits. As a key
module in the TPS Windows NT environment, GUS connects directly to the Plant
Information Network (PIN) and to the real-time Local Control Network (LCN).
It connects operators directly to the process through preconfigured standard displays
and through custom-built displays, and it lets them access information coming from
anywhere else in the plant. GUS stations can be complexed together into operator
console furniture to provide an integrated, friendly work station that ensures
maximum efficiency and minimum user fatigue. Or Global User Stations can stand
alone on desktops throughout the plant. GUS works side-by-side with existing
x
Universal Stations and U Ss, and it communicates with all TPS process-connected
controllers and LCN modules.
Engineering station:
At this station, we can create new loops and any modifications could be done.

"

EXPERION SYSTEM
This system is the advanced version of the TDC 3000 system. The hardware
configuration is similar to that of the TDC 3000 system except for the servers, the
domain controller, switches etc. The process through which the field signal reaches
the LCN is similar to that of TDC 3000. The information on the LCN is accessed by
the servers (ESVTs) and the ESTs.

Experion Server Via TPS (ESVT)

Experion Station TPS (EST)
Experion Station Flex (ESF)
Light interface unit (LIU)
Media Converter (MC)
Fault Tolerant Ethernet (FTE)

The information accessed by the stations and servers is sent to the FTE switches. The
information given to the switch through any port is available at any point of the
switch.
Media converter converts the information to optical form. Through Light Interface
Unit, the information is given to the optical fibers, which carry the data to the field
rooms. At the field room we have an LIU and Media Converter to convert it into the
digital form.
AEA server: Alarms, events and archives server. This is used to generate alarms, etc.
Domain Controller: This is used to set the security levels that are it sets the
accessibility levels. In the industry, only the front end that is the HMI is updated with
the Experion system where as the back end is still TDC 3000.

LCN MODULES
The devices connected directly to the local control network are called LCN
modules. Following is a discussion of the standard modules, which are grouped
according to their function listed below.
Human interface Universal station:
The US is the primary TDC 3OOO human interface. It provides a single window to
the entire system. Weather the data is resident in one of the LCN modules or in one
of the devices on the UCN or hiway, a single station can be used by an operator, by
the process engineer, and by the maintenance technician to accomplish the different
set of task for each is responsible.
System and process operation functions include the following:
Monitoring and manipulating continuous and discontinuous operation
Annunciating and handling alarms.
Displaying and printing trends, logs, journals and reports.
Monitoring and controlling system status and diagnostics.
Process engineering functions include the following;

Network configuration

Building the process database.

Building custom graphics.

Designing reports.

Preparing control language programs.

Maintenance functions include the following:
Diagnostic system problems
Displaying and printing information required during troubleshooting.
Universal Station:
The universal station X is a universal Station that is augmented with an industrystandard coprocessor. Universal Station actually serves two basic functions as a
human interface to the process and as an interface to UNIX-based divides that exist
on a users plant-wide communication network.
The result is a station that in addition to
Performing all functions of the standard US, assumes the functionality of the
work station operating under UNIX in the X Windows software environment.
Using improved performance and higher resolution CRTs, Universal Station is
capable of concurrent presentation of the LCN window along with windows
displaying external data from multiple X Window compliant devices.

 Resizing and moving the windows in accordance with Motif window Manager,
and
Performing other special operations such as magnifying a selected area of a
reduced LCN display.
In the event of UNIX I X Windows failure Universal Station x is designed to revert
to standard TDC 3000 operation.
Universal Work Station
Another alternate human interface module, the UWS, is also available for process
engineering and maintenance functions, and for monitoring by the process supervisor.
It is capable of virtually all of the same functions as the Universal Station, but is
designed for an office environment.
Mass Data Storage and Analysis:
History Module The HM, available with redundant drives and different storage
capacities, makes possible storage of, a quick access to large blocks of data as follows:
History of process alarms, operator changes, operator messages, system status
change, system errors, and system maintenance recommendations; also
continuous process history to support logs and trends.
System files of all types, load images, and other data required any time modules
are reloaded or personalities are changed.
Checkpoint data for maintaining up-to-date device settings in the event a device
is taken out of service.
On-process maintenance, information and analysis.
Archive Replay Module
The ARM integrates a personal computer into the LCN for the specific purpose of
collecting and relating large quantity of historical data. Optical disks serve as the mass
data storage devices. The historical data can be retrieved at any time and, depending
on the type of data, displayed as graphic trends or formatted for analysis by the ARM
or by third party personal computer software packages.
Extensive Advanced Control
Application Module
The AM permits the implementation of certain complex control calculation and
strategies that may not be practical or possible when using only process onnected
devices, A set of standard advanced control algorithm is included, custom algorithm
and packages can be developed by using a process engineer oriented control language

(CL!AM). A number of standard software packages for specific applications are

available for the AM, a few of which are briefly described later in this section.
Interface between Multiple LCNs:
Network Gateway
The NG connects the LCN to a Plant Information Network (PIN), using broadband
technology. By connecting two or more LCNs with a common PIN, a single
TDC3000 system can be extended to include many control rooms within a large
complex, essentially networking hundreds of notes. Data can be easily and securely
exchanged across systems. This provides a single window to the entire plant.
Interface to Computers:
Plant Network Module
The PLNM provide an interface between the LCN and DEC VAX computers. The
VAX provides an environment where the user can develop, debug, and execute
programs to perform such functions as process optimizations, advance custom report
generations, long term data storage, scheduling, and plant management. Two
software packages are available for use in the PLNM. One, CM5OS, uses an Ethernet
LAT communication channel between a VAX and up to 4 PLNMs. The other,
CM5ON, communicates over a DECnet network.
Computer Gateway
The CG provides a standard communication link between the LCN and host
computers that use HDLC and Bisynch protocols. Through the CG, computers from
other third party vendors can perform the same kind of functions described above
for the DEC computers.
Personal Computer Network Manager
The PCNM consists of hardware and software that serves as a secure interface to
multiple personal computers over an Ethernet or Token Ring Local Area Network.
Users on the network have real time access to LCN data for viewing in graphic
displays, on spreadsheets, or in other third party applications.
Interface to Process Networks
Network Interface Module:
The NIM interconnects the LCN with Universal Control Network. The UCN
integrates Honeywells most advanced process connected devices into TDC3000.
These products are discussed in the following section.
Communication Link Module:
The communication Link Module provides the Universal Station operator a window
of access to points located on a non-TDC 3000X network. Designed to reduce the
number of different windows to the process, the CLM interfaces to remote
subsystems in a transparent manner that simulates their direct connection to the Local
Control Network.

UCN - Based Distributed Control

Designed to be compatible with IEEE and ISO standards, the UCN is a high
speed, high security process network. Its peer-to-peer communication capability
allows for easy sharing of process data, making it convenient to implement
sophisticated control schemes involving more than one Process Manager, Advanced
Process Manager, or any combination of these devices.
The Process Manager (PM) is highly flexible data acquisition and control device that
provides a complete range of capabilities. It consists of a powerful control processor
that performs regulatory, logic and sequencing functions, coupled with up to 40
selectable intelligent I/O processors. In addition separate communication and I/O
interface processors assure high speed flow of information both internal and
external to the PM. The number and types of control functions to be implemented,
along with the processing rate, are configurable by the user. It is fully integrated with
smart transmitters and supports bidirectional digital communications. It is also
digitally interfaced to Honeywells UDC 6000 single loop high speed controller. A
process oriented programming language is available for implementation of batch
and hybrid applications as well as the computational capability needed for some
continuous control tasks.
The Advanced Process Manager (APM) adds new functions and capacity to those
available with the Process Manager. It offers increased integration of discreet control
with the device control point. It also supports flexible subsystem integration with the
new array point and serial I/O processor. There are additional 110 Processors, and
new types of control points. The programming language sequence statement capacity
and flexibility are increased with support of times and strings. Also there are increased
maximums for flag and numeric points.
The logical manager (LM) integrates the power of high-speed logic function into the
architecture of Universal Control Network. Its control processor is programmed
using ladder logic, which is continually and rapidly executed as long as the control
processor is in the RUN mode. A Logic Manager Module provides the interface for
the rest of the TDC 3000X system to access a variety of data point types, and also
provides data to be processed by the ladder logic Programme. Both serial and parallel
I/O systems are available, and each can accommodate a wide variety of I/O modules.
System Operation
The process operator manages the process through an Operators Console that
contains one or more Universal Station and/or Universal Station. This serves as a
single window to the process, which uses the same operating procedures regardless
of the size and complexity of the TDC3000X System or the levels of control used to
accomplish the control strategies.

Each Universal Station can independently control system functions, and each
performs process and can be station in a console used for different functions might
be arranged functions. The station as follows:
The Universal Station on the left displays a Graphic Display of large portion of
the process. Through such a display, the operation can review conditions with
one quick look.
The middle Universal Station is the primary working stat jon from which the
operator supervises the process .and the control system, and obtains processand system- related information.
The Universal Station on the right is used for a display of alarm conditions in
the operators area.

Honeywell DCS Loop Diagram

A typical loop diagram for a Honeywell DCS is shown. This is an Open Loop. The
various parts of the loop are:
Field Instrument: This may be a Thermocouple, DP Transmitter, Pressure
Switch etc. A signal (4-20 mA or 0-10 V) is generated by the instrument.
Junction Box: A junction box takes inputs from various field instruments in its
vicinity (eight instruments). The field wiring is terminated here.
Marshalling Cabinet: They are kept in the Control Room (CENTUM). Their
components:
o Terminal Box: It has a terminating point for the cables coming from the
junction box. It has a fuse for protection from over-current.
o Barrier: Due to the presence of numerous other field instruments and
their electric signals, the electric signal produced by the field instrument in
consideration might get distorted (due to the magnetic fields so produced).
The barrier removes spurious signals from the main signal. It uses optoisolators or electro magnetic methods to do so.
Field Terminal Assembly (FTA): This is the place where all the signals in their
original form are terminated. There are separate termination points for analog
and digital signals. Here the signals are terminated and sent to the processor
according to a set protocol. The FTA connects the input signals to the I/O
cards.
Processor: The processor takes the parameter values as input, does a set of
calculations and then sets the manipulated value. In this case the processor is a
Process Manager or Advanced Process Manager.

!
A Closed Loop Control System

Yokogawa India Limited (YIL)

There are two versions of YIL being used in the industry. They are:
1. CENTUM XL
2. CENTUM CS
CENTUM-XL

!
ENGS Engineering Station
EOPS Enhanced Operator
EOPC Operator Console
ECMP Computer Station
EPRT Serial Printer
ECHU Color Hard Copy Unit
EFCS Field Control Station
EFCD Duplexed Field Control
ETBC Terminal Board Cabinet
EFGW Field Gateway Unit
EFCE Duplexed Field Control Station for Power Plants
ETBE Terminal Board Cabinet for Power Plants
EFMS Field Monitoring Station

A CENTUM-XL system has two redundant buses, HF Bus-A and HF Bus-B. Each
bus has 32 ports. The speed of the bus is 1MBPS.

A CENTUM-XL system is composed of multiple stations such as operator stations,

various control stations, an engineering station, and the communication buses that
interconnect the stations. The system definition panel is used to define system
components (individual station names and types, etc.) and system comments.
Operating Station:
The Enhanced Operating Station (EOPS) provides operation and monitoring
functions required to control the total CENTUM-XL system. As the man-machine
interface, through which plant personnel will monitor and operate the plant, it
presents information in an easy-to handle/ understand format to assist the operator in
making correct decisions. In addition to the CENTUM-XL system, the EOPS can
also support as an operator interface to supervisory computer system and to lowerlevel sequence controllers and other subsystems, making it a true "total man-machine
interface".
The EOPS offers three main groups of functions:
Operator functions: Functions for normal operation.
Operator utility functions: Functions for display configuration modifications,
such as operator station trend recording point assignments.
System maintenance functions: Functions which enable to monitor the
operating status of the control stations connected to the system, up to the card
level as well as that of the operator station, mainly for diagnostic purposes.
Engineering Station:
The ENGS Engineering Station is a multifunctional station which handles the full
range of engineering tasks from system development to system maintenance. In the
CENTUM-XL system, engineering functions are centralized in the ENGS, providing
optimum hardware and software for the engineering activities. This separation of the
engineering station from the operator station is designed to make easier operations,
and also to provide important security measures. Additionally, with the separation of
the engineering functions it is now possible to install the engineering station
independently and carry out system configuration before the arrival of operator and
control stations.
From small scale to large scale systems, one ENGS is used per system.
Control Station:

The control station and the duplexed control station each provide feedback and
sequence control functions. The control station functions also include computational
functions, redundancy functions, start-up processing functions and communication
functions. Each control station can allocate 80 control loops, 80 totalizers and 95
open loops.
Marshalling Board:
The marshalling boards are used to edit signals, and input/output marshalling boards
(M3S and M5S) and manual loader/set station marshalling boards (M4S) are available.
High Withstand Voltage Relay Boards:
16 (HLB) and 32 points (HLD) output boards and 16 (HYB) and 32 points (HYD)
input boards are available as high withstand voltage relay boards. All of these boards
receive contact signals which are repeated by relays. For the HLB and HLD, input
contact signals can be input in parallel from 2 pairs of connectors, while for the HYB
and HYD, output contact signals (signals to the I /O cards) can be output in parallel
from 2 pairs of connectors. Therefore, these boards can be connected to the dualredundant contact I /O cards (ST2 to ST7). 24V DC drives each relay, and has a relay
coil provided with a spark killer consisting of a capacitor, a resistor and a diode. This
board consists of relays, terminals, contact signal receiving / sending connectors, a
power connector, fuses and printed boards for mounting and connecting the relays
and terminals etc.
Power supply system:
Cabinet Front: At the cabinet front, dual-redundant power supply cards in the
station control nest (SCN) and each I /O card nest receive power from two
independent AC power supply systems; which is different from the AC power
supply system employed in the conventional duplexed field control station
(EFCD).
Cabinet Rear: At the cabinet rear, dual-redundant 24V DC power units (AC /
DC) receive power from the two independent AC power supply systems; which
is also different from the AC power supply system employed in EFCD.
I/O Cards:
The types of I/O cards used in this system are:
MAC2: Multipoint analog I/O card (inputs and outputs 8 points each)

 MAC3: Multipoint analog output card (8 output points)

PAC: Multipoint pulse train input / analog output cards (inputs and outputs 8
points each)
VM1: Multipoint analog output card (inputs: 16 inputs 1 to 5V dc )
VM2: Multipoint pulse train input / analog output cards (inputs and outputs 8
points each)
VM4: Multipoint analog output card (inputs: 16 inputs 1 to 5V dc )
PM1: Multipoint pulse train input card (inputs : 16 points)
ST2: Multipoint status I/O card(inputs and outputs : 16 points)
ST3: Multipoint status input card (inputs : 32 points)
ST4: Multipoint status output card (outputs : 32 points)
ST5: Multipoint status I/O card(inputs and outputs : 32 points)
ST6: Multipoint status input card (inputs : 64 points)
ST7: Multipoint status output card (outputs: 64 points)
PB5: Multipoint pushbutton input card (inputs: 16 points)
CENTUM CS3000
Human Interface Station (HIS):
The HIS is mainly used for operation and monitoring it displays process variables,
control parameters, and alarms necessary for users to quickly grasp the operating
status of the plant. It also incorporates open interfaces so that supervisory computers
can access trend data, messages, and process data.
Console Type HIS:
This is a new console type human interface station, at which a general purpose PC is
installed. There are two types of console type HISs: one is enclosed display style, the
appearance of which is usual style, and another is open display style, the configuration
of which is selectable.
System Configuration:

Maximum number of stations

:256/system
Maximum number of domains
:16/system
Numbering of domains
:1 to 64
Domain number for CS3000 domain (V net domain) :1 to 16
Domain number for Virtual domain (non V net domain)
:17 to 64
Maximum number of stations per domain
:64
Maximum number of HIS per domain
:16
Station number for HIS
:1 to 64 in descending order

Desktop Type HIS:

This HIS uses a general purpose PC. An IBM/ AT compatible machine is generally
used. Apart from the general PC, the Yokogawa PC is also supported.
Specifications of the PC HIS Desktop:
CPU
:Pentium IV Processor
Main Memory
:256 MB (minimum)
Hard Disk
:20 GB or more
Video Display
:1024 X 768 or more, 256 colors
CRT Monitor
:Multi Scan 17 monitor or larger
Serial Port
:RS232C one port or more
Parallel Port
:one port or more
Extension Slot
:PCI slot for V/V: net card, ISA slot for Ethernet card
Power Supply
:200 240 AC
Basic Software
:Windows 2000 or XP

Field Control Station (FCS)

The FCS controls the plant. By the difference of used I/O modules, there are two
models of the FCS; namely the FCS for FIO and the FCS for RIO. In addition to the
above models, there is the Compact type FCS.
FCS for FIO:
This FCS uses the Field network I/O (FIO) modules, which are compact and consist
of various lineup such as the connector types and so forth. According to the
application capacity, there are the standard model and the enhanced model.
Compact FCS for FIO:
This is a compact FCS with I/O modules integrated into the Field Control Unit.
FCS for RIO:
This FCS uses the Remote I/O (RIO) modules, which have many installation bases
and M4 screw terminals to connect signal cables. According to the application
capacity, there are the standard model and the enhanced model.
Compact FCS for RIO:
This controller is usually installed near the equipment or process it controls, and is
ideal for communicating with subsystems.

Engineering PC (ENG)
This is the PC with engineering functions used to perform CENTUM CS 3000
system generation and maintenance management. It can be the same type of generalpurpose PC as the HIS, and can even be the same PC as the HIS. By having HIS

operation and monitoring functions on the same PC, you can use the test (control
station emulation) functions to provide an efficient and easy-to-use engineering
environment.
Bus Converter (BCV)
This links the V net system bus to another CENTUM CS 3000 domain or to an
existing CENTUM or XL system.
Communications Gateway Unit (CGW)
This links the V net control system bus to an Ethernet bus (to a supervisory
computer system or general purpose personal computer). By CGW wide area
communication function, you can also link two CENTUM CS 3000 V nets in
different places using a dedicated telephone line.
Migrated Field Control Station (RFCS2)
You can leave the I/O cards and field wiring of a CENTUM-XL or CENTUM V
system as is, and replace the CPU nest with an KFCS, which can be connected to
the V net just like a CENTUM CS 3000 system FCS. SI bus is used as a (dualredundant) bus connecting existing FCS I/O units to new FCS CPU.
Advanced Process Control Station (APCS)
The Advanced Process Control Station (APCS) is a personal computer (PC)
connected to the V net and applied to advanced process control and efficiency
improvement.
Generic Subsystem Gateway Package (GSGW)
GSGW is a PC connected to V net. It uses OPC servers for subsystems, facilitating
subsystem data acquisition and setting without creating specific communications
programs.
Exaopc
This provides OPC Server functions to enable applications in a supervisory PC to
access CENTUM CS 3000 data. It provides a link between control layer and business
data processing layer.

Business Information PCs and Supervisory Computers

These can run MES and ERP integrated business management software. They can
access the DCS via Exaopc or CGW.
Safety Instrumented System (ProSafe-RS)
ProSafe-RS is a dedicated system to prevent probability and spread of accidents when
it is used as an interlock device, emergency shutdown system and fire and gas
protection.
Safety Engineering PC (SENG)
This is a component equipped with engineering, test and maintenance functions to
generate system and manage maintenance for safety control station (SCS).
Safety Control Station (SCS)
This is a safety controller that executes logics for systems including interlock,
emergency shutdown and fire and gas protection.
CS300 Networks
V Net:
The V net real-time control system bus links stations such as FCS, HIS, BCV and
CGW. Dual-redundant V net support is standard.
Ethernet:
Ethernet is used to link HIS, ENG and supervisory systems. It is also used for
transferring data files to supervisory computers, and for HIS data equalization.
Field bus:
The FOUNDATION Field bus is a multidrop digital communications bus for field
instruments, and is expected to replace the conventional 4 to 20 mA analog interface.
Domain Concept

Domains are groups of stations connected on the V net. Bus converters (BCV) are
used to link domains. Domains are classified into:
Real or CS3000 domains are those which consist of stations that are directly
connected to the V net. E.g FCS, HIS etc
Virtual Domains are those which consist of stations not directly connected on
the V net. E.g Centum-XL stations, Micro-XL stations etc.
Comparison of the YIL CENTUM XL and CENTUM CS System
The main differences between the CENTUM XL and the CENTUM CS system are:
XL system has HF Bus where as the CS system has V Net Bus.
Speed of the HF Bus is said to be 1MBPS and that of V Net Bus is 100 MBPS.
The HF Bus has 32 nodes. The V Net Bus has domains on it each domain has
64 stations and we can have 256 nodes. Out of 64 stations, we can have 16 HIS
or Human Interface Stations per each domain.
The HF Bus is more compatible with the lower versions.

"
YOKOGAWA SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

"

Yokogawa DCS Loop Diagram

A typical loop diagram for an Yokogawa DCS is shown. This is a Closed Loop. The
various parts of the loop are:
Field Instrument: This may be a Thermocouple, DP Transmitter, Pressure
Switch etc. A signal (4-20 mA or 0-10 V) is generated by the instrument.
Junction Box: A junction box takes inputs from various field instruments in its
vicinity (eight instruments). The field wiring is terminated here.
Barrier: Due to the presence of numerous other field instruments and their
electric signals, the electric signal produced by the field instrument in
consideration might get distorted (due to the magnetic fields so produced). The
barrier removes spurious signals from the main signal.
SDBT (Signal Distribution Board Terminal): The SDBT takes a 110 V AC
input. It provides power to the passive field instruments (through which they
generate a 4 to 20 mA) signal.
ELCO Board: This is the place where all the signals in their original form are
terminated. It is analogous in function to the FTA in the Honeywell DCS. Here
the signals are terminated and sent to the processor according to a set protocol.
Apart from this, the connection unit also performs signal conditioning. ADC
(Analog to Digital Conversions) if required can also be done.
MAC Cards: These are the input cards used for analog inputs. VM1 cards are
used for digital inputs..

ASEA Brown Boveri (ABB)

Two DCS from ABB are in use at HPCL - VR
1. MASTER
2. MOD
The ABB MOD system is used for the CDU III (Crude Distillation Unit III).
The ABB MASTER system is used for OM&S (Oil Movement and Storage).
The hardware configuration of both the systems is the pretty much the same. They
differ in their software configuration that is for Master the software used is ADVANT
MASTER and for Mod it is ADVANT MOD.
The network used for Master is MB 300 (Master BUS 300) Network. A Star
Topology is used. On the other hand, the MOD system uses DCN (Distributed
Communications Network). This network has a Ring topology.
Controller for Master is AC 450 and for MOD is AC 460.
The I/O cards used in both are the same: S100 I/O cards.
ABB MOD
The ABB MOD DCS is used for control of operations at the CDU III. The figure on
the next page shows the basic architecture of the MOD system. The main
components of the system are:
GPS:
A Global Positioning Satellite System (GPS) is used for synchronizing the system
time.
OS:
The Operating stations are Windows based PCs that can be used for monitoring and
controlling the parameter values and the manipulated values.
ES:
The Engineering Station (ES) is a PC from where the software for the controller, the
program logic and the display graphics can be edited.

Aspect cum Domain Servers:

Aspect cum Domain Server contains all the data for graphics etc. They are also the
domain servers, i.e. they control the privileges offered. So alarm settings etc cant be
controlled.
They are real time systems. No previous data can be accessed.
IM Server:
IM Server stands for Information Manager Server. They maintain a log of all trips,
alarm settings, interlocks etc. They provide access to a record of the past actions.
OPC Server:
OPC Server is an acronym for OLE for Process Control Server. It acts as an interface
for ERPs etc. The parameters being controlled have optimum values from the
economic view point. These Optimum values are calculated from software and
imposed on the parameter values. In fact these values are not directly imposed; the
DCS first checks these values and then they are utilized. The server plays an
important role in output optimization.
IMS VAX Gateway Station:
This is an older version of the OPC Server. It is now being replaced by the new
MOD OPC Server
Connectivity Server:
The Connectivity Server provides connectivity between the DCN and Ethernet. They
use RTAB (Real Time Accelerator Board)
AC460:
The process controller used in the MOD system is the Advant Controller 460 (AC
460). TheAdvant Controller 460provides high processing capability and wide-ranging
communication capabilities. The Processor Module is based on the Motorola
68040/25MHz. The Controller Processor Modules are available with 8MB of RAM
(Approx 4MB for applications) or 16MB of RAM (Approx 11MB for applications). It
supports 1:1 redundancy.

Each Advant Controller 460 card file holds up to three controllers. The controller
Processor Modules can be configured as three pairs of redundant controllers, three
single non-redundant controllers, or any combination of redundant and nonredundant (up to three). Each pair of redundant Controller Processor Modules sit
side-by-side in the rack.
DCN (Distributed Communications Network):
The DCN is used for all the data transfer from the field instruments to the Control
Room (to the controller to be precise). A Ring topology is used. For any connection
on the DCN T-Boxes are used.

A typical Connection on the DCN

Ethernet:
Ethernet is used for data transfer between Operating and Engineering Stations (and
other peripherals such as network printers). It is connected to the DCN via
Connectivity servers.
Connectivity Servers:
They provide an interface between Ethernet and the DCN.
S100:
The MOD sytem uses the S100 input/output cards. S100 I/O is a board-based I/O
system where the boards are placed in subracks. It is used together with the Advant
Controller 400 Series process controllers.
The range of process I/O modules is complete, consisting of general purpose digital
and analog inputs and outputs and special interfaces for special tasks.

ABB MASTER
The ABB MASTER DCS is used for control of operations for OM&S. The figure on
the next page shows the basic architecture of the MASTER system. The MASTER is
very similar in configuration to the MOD system. The only differences are:
MASTER uses MB300 network instead of DCN used in MOD.
The processor in MASTER is AC 450 and in MOD it is AC 460.
The software used in Advant Master in the MASTER system. MOD uses
Advant Mod.
MB 300:
MB 300 (Master Bus 300) is the network protocol used for transmission of all data
from the field to the controller and back. (In the MOD system DCN is used). A Star
topology is used for the connections. It uses the IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) medium access control protocol.
AC 450:
Advant Controller 450 (AC 450) is the
controller uses in the MASTER configuration.
Advant Controller 450 is a high-end, high
performance process controller for binary,
regulatory and supervisory control. Its high
processing capacity and wide-ranging process
and system communication capabilities make it
the ideal choice for demanding applications in
industrial environments, either standing alone
or as an integrated part of an Advant OCS
system as well as in any other distributed
control system.
Features
Advant Controller 450 covers a wide range of
functions such as:
Logic and sequence control.
Data and text handling.
Arithmetic, reporting and positioning.
Regulatory control including Fuzzy control, advanced PID and self-tuning
adaptive control.

 Highly extended flexibility and scalability - hardware as well as software.

Fully modular with a controller subrack based on FB+ (IEEE 896) as the system
bus.
Self-configuration capabilities which make it possible to add units while the
controller is in full operation
Support of a wide range of central and distributed I/O modules for maximum
configuration possibilities, with a maximum I/O capacity of 5700 I/O points.
Support of local and central HMI for manual control operations, event and
alarm handling, trend curve presentation etc.
Interoperability concerning all communication levels from plant floor fieldbuses
to highspeed plant network.
Support of redundant Fieldbus Communication with Advant Fieldbus 100.
Support of Advant Fieldbus 100 with cable length up to 12900 m (11800 yard).
Support of PROFIBUS-DP and LONWORKS.
Light Interface Unit (LIU)
Signal attenuation occurs while the data is transferred through a cable. So the cable
length that can be used is limited to a maximum value. This length is quite short for
the MB300 network. So fiber optic cables are used between the Control Room (MOI)
and the CENTUM. This is done using LIU (Light Interface Units). They convert the
electric signal into light signal which is transmitted through FO cables.

ABB DCS Loop Diagram

A typical loop diagram for an ABB DCS is shown. This is a Closed Loop. The various
parts of the loop are:
Field Instrument: This may be a Thermocouple, DP Transmitter, Pressure
Switch etc. A signal (4-20 mA or 0-10 V) is generated by the instrument.
Junction Box: A junction box takes inputs from various field instruments in its
vicinity (eight instruments). The field wiring is terminated here.
Marshalling Cabinet: They are kept in the Control Room (CENTUM). Their
components:
o Terminal Box: It has a terminating point for the cables coming from the
junction box. It has a fuse for protection from over-current.
o Barrier: Due to the presence of numerous other field instruments and
their electric signals, the electric signal produced by the field instrument in
consideration might get distorted (due to the magnetic fields so produced).
The barrier removes spurious signals from the main signal. It uses optoisolators or electro magnetic methods to do so. AIB is the input signal
barrier and AOB is the output signal barrier.
Connection Unit: This is the place where all the signals in their original form
are terminated. Here the signals are terminated and sent to the processor
according to a set protocol. Apart from this, the connection unit also performs
signal conditioning. ADC (Analog to Digital Conversions) if required can also
be done.
Input/Output Cards: The input output cards used are the S100 I/O cards.
Controller: The processor takes the parameter values as input, does a set of
calculations and then sets the manipulated value. In this case the processor is a
AC 460 (for MOD) or AC 450 (for MASTER).

Data Communication
Serial Communication
In telecommunication and computer science, serial communication is the process of
sending data one bit at one time, sequentially, over a communication channel or
computer bus. This is in contrast to parallel communication, where several bits are
sent together, on a link with several parallel channels. Serial communication is used for
all long-haul communication and most computer networks, where the cost of cable
and synchronization difficulties make parallel communication impractical. At shorter
distances, serial computer buses are becoming more common because of a tipping
point where the disadvantages of parallel buses (clock skew, interconnect density)
outweigh their advantage of simplicity (no need for serializer and deserializer
(SERDES)). Improved technology to ensure signal integrity and to transmit and
receive at a sufficiently high speed per lane have made serial links competitive. The
migration from PCI to PCI Express is an example.
Different Serial Communication Architectures:
RS 232
RS 423
RS 485
I2C
Universal Serial Bus
Ethernet
Serial ATA
ModBus
RS 232
Definitely the most popular interface, also being one of the first. However, things
may soon change for obvious reasons. Any PC that is purchased will have one (and
sometimes more) RS-232 port. Sometimes, they are simply referred to as SERIAL
PORTS, however this may cause confusion since there are other Serial interfaces
available. RS-232 is widely used because it is so readily available. You don't usually
need to purchase an RS-232 port since it is available on any PC. However, it does have
some disadvantages. Here are a few:

 Limited Distance - Cable lengths are limited to 50 ft or less. Many will claim to
go further, but this is not recommended, and is not part of the RS-232
specification.
Susceptible to Noise - RS-232 is single-ended, which means that the transmit
and receive lines are referenced to a common ground
Not Multi-drop - You can only connect one RS-232 device per port. There are
some devices designed to echo a command to a second unit of the same family
of products, but this is very rare. This means that if you have 3 meters to
connect to a PC, you will need 3 ports, or at least, an RS-232 multiplexor.
RS-485
RS-485 is very similar to RS-422. So much so that it often causes confusion. Both are
multi-drop, and both can communicate via very long distances, so then why choose
one over the other? First of all, RS-485 is generally a 2-wire system, although some
manufacturers may specify 4-wire RS-485, which is far less common and very similar
to RS-422. It is important that you identify which one is being employed when
considering an instrument. Here are some main differences between 2-wire RS-485
and RS-422:
RS-485 can have multiple Commanding Devices and multiple Listening
Devices. RS-422 can have only one Commander and multiple Listeners. For
example, you can connect one PC (the Commanding device) to 10 temperature
controllers (listeners). The PC can instruct any of the controllers to change
setpoint, or to send a temperature reading, but none of the controllers can
command any of the other controllers. With RS-485, you can have multiple
PC's and multiple controllers on one bus, so that one PC can send a command
to change a setpoint,and another PC can send a command to send back data,
etc. Remember that all devices on the bus must have a unique unit address, so
that only the addressed unit will respond. (similar to RS-422)
RS-485 wiring is easier since you are only dealing with 2 wires instead of 4.
Programming RS-485 is more difficult, since you are sending and receiving on
the same two wires, you need to enable and disable the transmitter at the
correct time so that you may perform proper communications. Imagine sending
a command $2SEND out of the transmitter. If the transmitter is not turned
off in time, then data being sent by another device will be missed. If the
transmitter is turned off too quickly, there is a chance that part of the
command $S2END will be truncated before it ever has a chance finishing the
transmission of the character bits. When programming an RS-485 plug-in card,
you would read the STATUS REGISTER to determine if it is time to switch or

not. Some cards, such as the OMG-ULTRA-485 has an AUTO mode where it
is intelligent enough to do this automatically, making it transparent to the
programmer. Since RS-422, and RS-232 for that matter, have separate transmit
and receive lines, they are easier to implement. Of course, there are other
matters to consider such as handshaking, but will not be covered in this brief
description.

Parallel Communication
In telecommunication and computer science, parallel communication is a method of
sending several data signals simultaneously over several parallel channels. It contrasts
with serial communication; this distinction is one way of characterizing a
communications link.
The basic difference between a parallel and a serial communication channel is the
number of distinct wires or strands at the physical layer used for simultaneous
transmission from a device. Parallel communication implies more than one such wire/
strand, in addition to a ground connection. An 8-bit parallel channel transmits eight
bits (or a byte) simultaneously. A serial channel would transmit those bits one at a
time. If both operated at the same clock speed, the parallel channel would be eight
times faster. A parallel channel will generally have additional control signals such as a
clock, to indicate that the data is valid, and possibly other signals for handshaking and
directional control of data transmission.
Examples of parallel communication systems
Computer peripheral buses: ISA, ATA, SCSI, PCI and Front side bus, and the
once-ubiquitous IEEE-1284 / Centronics "printer port"
Laboratory Instrumentation bus IEEE-488
Comparison of Serial and Parallel Communication
Before the development of high-speed serial technologies, the choice of parallel links
over serial links was driven by these factors:
Speed: Superficially, the speed of a parallel data link is equal to the number of
bits sent at one time times the bit rate of each individual path; doubling the
number of bits sent at once doubles the data rate (see Parallel transmission). In
practice, skew reduces the speed of every link to the slowest of all of the links.
Cable length: Crosstalk creates interference between the parallel lines, and the
effect worsens with the length of the communication link. This places an upper
limit on the length of a parallel data connection that is usually shorter than a
serial connection.

 Complexity: Parallel data links are easily implemented in hardware, making them
a logical choice. Creating a parallel port in a computer system is relatively
simple, requiring only a latch to copy data onto a data bus. In contrast, most
serial communication must first be converted back into parallel form by a
universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) before they may be
directly connected to a data bus.
The decreasing cost of integrated circuits, combined with greater consumer demand
for speed and cable length, has led to parallel communication links becoming
deprecated in favor of serial links; for example, IEEE 1284 printer ports vs. USB,
Advanced Technology Attachment vs. Serial ATA, and SCSI vs. FireWire.
On the other hand, there has been a resurgence of parallel data links in RF
communication. Rather than transmitting one bit at a time (as in Morse code and
BPSK), well-known techniques such as PSM, PAM, and Multiple-input multipleoutput communication send a few bits in parallel. (Each such group of bits is called a
"symbol"). Such techniques can be extended to send an entire byte at once (256QAM). More recently techniques such as OFDM have been used in Asymmetric
Digital Subscriber Line to transmit over 224 bits in parallel, and in DVB-T to transmit
over 6048 bits in parallel.

Fiber Optic Communication

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place
to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an
electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. First developed
in the 1970s, fiber-optic communication systems have revolutionized the
telecommunications industry and have played a major role in the advent of the
Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers
have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed
world.
The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic steps:
Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the signal along
the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak, receiving
the optical signal, and converting it into an electrical signal.
Applications:
Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone
signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals. Due to much lower
attenuation and interference, optical fiber has large advantages over existing copper

wire in long-distance and high-demand applications. However, infrastructure

development within cities was relatively difficult and time-consuming, and fiber-optic
systems were complex and expensive to install and operate. Due to these difficulties,
fiber-optic communication systems have primarily been installed in long-distance
applications, where they can be used to their full transmission capacity, offsetting the
increased cost.
Transmitters: The most commonly-used optical transmitters are semiconductor
devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes.
Receivers: The main component of an optical receiver is a photodetector, which
converts light into electricity using the photoelectric effect. The photodetector is
typically a semiconductor-based photodiode.
Fiber: An optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and a buffer (a protective outer
coating), in which the cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of
total internal reflection. The core and the cladding (which has a lower-refractiveindex) are usually made of high-quality silica glass, although they can both be made of
plastic as well. Connecting two optical fibers is done by fusion splicing or mechanical
splicing and requires special skills and interconnection technology due to the
microscopic precision required to align the fiber cores. Two main types of optical
fiber used in fiber optic communications include multi-mode optical fibers and singlemode optical fibers. A multi-mode optical fiber has a larger core ( 50 micrometres),
allowing less precise, cheaper transmitters and receivers to connect to it as well as
cheaper connectors. However, a multi-mode fiber introduces multimode distortion,
which often limits the bandwidth and length of the link. Furthermore, because of its
higher dopant content, multimode fibers are usually expensive and exhibit higher
attenuation. The core of a single-mode fiber is smaller (<10 micrometres) and
requires more expensive components and interconnection methods, but allows much
longer, higher-performance links.
Comparison with Electric Trnasmission:
The choice between optical fiber and electrical (or copper) transmission for a
particular system is made based on a number of trade-offs. Optical fiber is generally
chosen for systems requiring higher bandwidth or spanning longer distances than
electrical cabling can accommodate. The main benefits of fiber are its exceptionally
low loss, allowing long distances between amplifiers or repeaters; and its inherently
high data-carrying capacity, such that thousands of electrical links would be required
to replace a single high bandwidth fiber cable. Another benefit of fibers is that even
when run alongside each other for long distances, fiber cables experience effectively
no crosstalk, in contrast to some types of electrical transmission lines. Fiber can be
installed in areas with high electromagnetic interference (EMI),(along the sides of

utility lines, power-carrying lines, and railroad tracks). All-dielectric cables are also
ideal for areas of high lightning-strike incidence.
For comparison, while single-line, voice-grade copper systems longer than a couple of
kilometers require in-line signal repeaters for satisfactory performance; it is not
unusual for optical systems to go over 100 kilometers (60 miles), with no active or
passive processing. Single-mode fiber cables are commonly available in 12 km lengths,
minimizing the number of splices required over a long cable run. Multi-mode fiber is
available in lengths up to 4 km, although industrial standards only mandate 2 km
unbroken runs. In short distance and relatively low bandwidth applications, electrical
transmission is often preferred.

Ethernet
Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area
networks (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of the ether. It defines
a number of wiring and signaling standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI
networking model, through means of network access at the Media Access Control
(MAC) /Data Link Layer, and a common addressing format.
Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3. The combination of the twisted pair versions
of Ethernet for connecting end systems to the network, along with the fiber optic
versions for site backbones, is the most widespread wired LAN technology. It has
been in use from around 1980 to the present, largely replacing competing LAN
standards such as token ring, FDDI, and ARCNET.
Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers communicating over a shared
coaxial cable acting as a broadcast transmission medium. The methods used show
some similarities to radio systems, although there are fundamental differences, such as
the fact that it is much easier to detect collisions in a cable broadcast system than a
radio broadcast. The common cable providing the communication channel was
likened to the ether and it was from this reference that the name "Ethernet" was
derived.
From this early and comparatively simple concept, Ethernet evolved into the complex
networking technology that today underlies most LANs. The coaxial cable was
replaced with point-to-point links connected by Ethernet hubs and/or switches to
reduce installation costs, increase reliability, and enable point-to-point management
and troubleshooting. StarLAN was the first step in the evolution of Ethernet from a
coaxial cable bus to a hub-managed, twisted-pair network. The advent of twisted-pair
wiring dramatically lowered installation costs relative to competing technologies,
including the older Ethernet technologies.

Above the physical layer, Ethernet stations communicate by sending each other data
packets, blocks of data that are individually sent and delivered. As with other IEEE
802 LANs, each Ethernet station is given a single 48-bit MAC address, which is used
to specify both the destination and the source of each data packet. Network interface
cards (NICs) or chips normally do not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet
stations. Adapters generally come programmed with a globally unique address, but this
can be overridden, either to avoid an address change when an adapter is replaced, or
to use locally administered addresses.
Despite the significant changes in Ethernet from a thick coaxial cable bus running at
10 Mbit/s to point-to-point links running at 1 Gbit/s and beyond, all generations of
Ethernet (excluding early experimental versions) share the same frame formats (and
hence the same interface for higher layers), and can be readily interconnected.
Due to the ubiquity of Ethernet, the ever-decreasing cost of the hardware needed to
support it, and the reduced panel space needed by twisted pair Ethernet, most
manufacturers now build the functionality of an Ethernet card directly into PC
motherboards, eliminating the need for installation of a separate network card.

Modbus
Modbus is a serial communications protocol published by Modicon in 1979 for use
with its programmable logic controllers (PLCs). It has become a de facto standard
communications protocol in industry, and is now the most commonly available means
of connecting industrial electronic devices. At HPCL-VR one of the most crucial uses
of the Modbus is that it is used for interconnection between PLCs and DCS. The
main reasons for the extensive use of Modbus over other communications protocols
are:
It is openly published and royalty-free
Relatively easy industrial network to deploy
It moves raw bits or words without placing many restrictions on vendors
Modbus allows for communication between many devices connected to the same
network, for example a system that measures temperature and humidity and
communicates the results to a computer. Modbus is often used to connect a
supervisory computer with a remote terminal unit (RTU) in supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA) systems.
Protocol Versions:
Versions of the Modbus protocol exist for serial port and for Ethernet and other
networks that support the Internet protocol suite.

Most Modbus devices communicate over a serial EIA-485 physical layer.

For serial connections, two variants exist, with different representations of numerical
data and slightly different protocol details. Modbus RTU is a compact, binary
representation of the data. Modbus ASCII is human readable, and more verbose.
Both of these variants use serial communication. The RTU format follows the
commands/data with a cyclic redundancy check checksum, while the ASCII format
uses a longitudinal redundancy check checksum. Nodes configured for the RTU
variant will not communicate with nodes set for ASCII, and the reverse.
For connections over TCP/IP, the more recent variant Modbus/TCP exists. It does
not require a checksum calculation.
Data model and function calls are identical for all three communication protocols;
only the encapsulation is different.
An extended version, Modbus Plus (Modbus+ or MB+), also exists, but remains
proprietary to Modicon. It requires a dedicated co-processor to handle fast HDLClike token rotation. It uses twisted pair at 1 Mbit/s and includes transformer isolation
at each node, which makes it transition/edge triggered instead of voltage/level
triggered. Special interfaces are required to connect Modbus Plus to a computer,
typically a card made for the ISA (SA85), PCI or PCMCIA bus.
Implementations:
Almost all implementations have variations from the official standard. Different
varieties may not communicate correctly between different suppliers equipment. Some
of the most common variations are:
Data Types

Floating Point IEEE

32 bit integer
8 bit data
mixed data types
bit fields in integers
multipliers to change data to/from integer. 10, 100, 1000, 256 ...

Protocol extensions
16 bit slave addresses
32 bit data size (1 address = 32 bits of data returned.)
word swapped data
Limitations

 Modbus was designed in the late 1970s to communicate to programmable logic

controllers, the number of data types is limited to those understood by PLCs at
the time. Large binary objects are not supported.
No standard way exists for a node to find the description of a data object, for
example, to determine if a register value represents a temperature between 30
and 175 degrees.
Since Modbus is a master/slave protocol, there is no way for a field device to
"report by exception" (except over Ethernet TCP/IP, called open-mbus)- the
master node must routinely poll each field device, and look for changes in the
data. This consumes bandwidth and network time in applications where
bandwidth may be expensive, such as over a low-bit-rate radio link.
Modbus is restricted to addressing 247 devices on one data link, which limits
the number of field devices that may be connected to a master station (once
again Ethernet TCP/IP proving the exception).
Modbus transmissions must be contiguous which limits the types of remote
communications devices to those that can buffer data to avoid gaps in the
transmission.