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Mughal Empire
????????? (Persian)
Gurkaniyan
????? ????? (Urdu)
Mug_liyah Sal?anat
?
?
?
?
1526 1857

Flag
Coat of arms
Map of the Mughal Empire.
Map of the Mughal Empire at one of its greatest extents.
Capital Agra
(1526 1571)
Fatehpur Sikri
(1571 1585)
Lahore
(1585 1598)
Agra
(1598 1648)
Shahjahanabad, Delhi
(1648 1857)
Languages
Persian (official and court language)[1]
Chagatai Turkic (only initially)
Urdu (later period)
Religion
Islam (1526 1857)
Din-e Ilahi (1582 1605)
Government
Absolute monarchy, unitary state
with federal structure
Emperor[2]
1526 1530
Babur (first)
1837 1857
Bahadur Shah II (last)
Historical era Early modern
Battle of Panipat
21 April 1526
Siege of Delhi 21 September 1857
Area
1700[a] 3,200,000 km (1,235,527 sq mi)
Population
1700[a] est.
150,000,000
Density
46.9 /km (121.4 /sq mi)
Currency
Rupee
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Delhi Sultanate
Rajputs
Deccan sultanates
Vijayanagara Empire
Maratha Empire
Durrani Empire
Company rule in India
Hyderabad State
Nawab of Carnatic

Nawab of Bengal
Nawab of Awadh
Kingdom of Mysore
Bharatpur State
Sikh Confederacy
Today part of
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Jump up ^ Area source:[3] Population source:[4]
Outline of South Asian history
History of Indian subcontinent
Soanian people (500,000 BP)[show]
Stone Age (50,000 3000 BC)[show]
Bronze Age (3000 1300 BC)[show]
Iron Age (1200 26 BC)[show]
Classical period (21 1279 AD)[show]
Late medieval period (1206 1596)[show]
Early modern period (1526 1858)[show]
Colonial period (1510 1961)[show]
Other states (1102 1947)[show]
Kingdoms of Sri Lanka[show]
Nation histories[show]
Regional histories[show]
Specialised histories[show]
v t e
The Mughal Empire (Urdu: ????? ??????, Mug_?liyah Sal?anat),[5] self-designated
as Gurkani (Persian: ??????????, Gurkaniyan),[6] was a Persianate[7][8] empire e
xtending over large parts of the Indian subcontinent and ruled by a dynasty of M
ongol and Chagatai-Turkic origin.[9][10][11]
The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the founder Babur's victo
ry over Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat. The Mughal emperors were Ce
ntral Asian Turko-Mongols, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan (th
rough his son Chagatai Khan) and Timur. The "classic period" of the empire start
ed in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule o
f Akbar and his son Jahangir, India enjoyed economic progress as well as religio
us harmony, and the monarchs were interested in local religious and cultural tra
ditions. Akbar was a successful warrior. He also forged alliances with several H
indu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threa
t to Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but they were subdued by Akbar. Mos
t Mughal emperors were Muslims. However Akbar in the latter part of his life, an
d Jahangir, were followers of a new religion called Deen-i-Ilahi, as recorded in
historical books like Ain-e-Akbari and Dabestan-e Mazaheb.[12]
The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in the local societies, but rather ba
lanced and pacified them through new administrative practices[13][14] and divers
e and inclusive ruling elites,[15] leading to more systematic, centralised, and
uniform rule.[16] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, su
ch as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing am
bitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them
both recognition and military experience.[17]
The reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, was the golden age of Mughal archite
cture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj M
ahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, D
elhi, and the Lahore Fort. The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territori
al expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb and also started its terminal decline i
n his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shivaji Bhosale. During his
lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more than 3.2 mi

llion square kilometres (1.2 million square miles), ruling over more than 150 mi
llion subjects, nearly 1/4th of the world's population, with a combined GDP of o
ver $90 billion.[4][18]
By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, and won over sev
eral Mughal provinces from the Deccan to Bengal, and internal dissatisfaction ar
ose due to the weakness of the Mughal Empire's administrative and economic syste
ms, leading to the break-up of the empire and declaration of independence of its
former provinces by the Nawabs of Bengal, Oudh, the Nizam of Hyderabad, Shah of
Afghanistan and other small states. In 1739, the Mughals were crushingly defeat
ed in the Battle of Karnal by the forces of Nader Shah, the founder of the Afsha
rid dynasty in Persia, and Delhi was sacked and looted, drastically accelerating
their decline. During the following century Mughal power had become severely li
mited and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of
Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and f
ollowing the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for tr
eason, imprisoned, exiled to Rangoon and the last remnants of the empire were ta
ken over by the British.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Explanations for the decline
3 List of Mughal emperors
4 Influence on the Indian subcontinent
4.1 South Asian art and culture
4.2 Urdu language
4.3 Mughal society
5 Science and technology
5.1 Astronomy
5.2 Alchemy
5.3 Technology
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
8.1 Culture
8.2 Society and economy
8.3 Primary sources
8.4 Older histories
9 External links
Etymology
Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire,[19
] which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, and was the term preferred by the
Mughals themselves.[20] Another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the
Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name f
or the empire.[21] In the west, the term "Mughal" was used for the emperor, and
by extension, the empire as a whole.[22] The use of Mughal, deriving from the Ar
abic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and emphasising the Mongol origins of the
Timurid dynasty,[23] gained currency during the nineteenth century, but remains
disputed by Indologists.[24] Similar terms had been used to refer to the empire
, including "Mogul".[7] Nevertheless, Babur's ancestors were sharply distinguish
ed from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rath
er than Turko-Mongol culture.[25]
History
Mughal Army artillerymen during the reign of Akbar.
The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, a Central Asian ruler who was descended
from the Turko-Mongol conqueror Timur on his father's side and from Chagatai, th
e second son of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan, on his mother's side.[26] Ousted

from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his
ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward i
nto India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass.[26] Babur's forces occupied
much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526.[26] The preoccupati
on with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to c
onsolidate the gains he had made in India.[26] The instability of the empire bec
ame evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia
by rebels.[26] Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the
Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in
the Mughal Empire. The restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayun's triumpha
nt return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwa
rds.[26] Humayun's son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Kh
an, who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India.[26]
Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all direct
ions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari
river. He created a new class of nobility loyal to him from the military aristoc
racy of India's social groups, implemented a modern government, and supported cu
ltural developments.[26] At the same time, Akbar intensified trade with European
trading companies. India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to comm
ercial expansion and economic development. Akbar allowed free expression of reli
gion, and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his e
mpire by establishing a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi, with strong characteristics o
f a ruler cult.[26] He left his successors an internally stable state, which was
in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness wou
ld emerge.[26] Akbar's son, Jahangir, ruled the empire at its peak, but he was a
ddicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influen
ce of rival court cliques.[26] During the reign of Jahangir's son, Shah Jahan, t
he culture and splendour of the luxurious Mughal court reached its zenith as exe
mplified by the Taj Mahal.[26] The maintenance of the court, at this time, began
to cost more than the revenue.[26]
Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh, became regent in 1658, as a re
sult of his father's illness. However, a younger son, Aurangzeb, allied with the
Islamic orthodoxy against his brother, who championed a syncretistic Hindu-Musl
im culture, and ascended to the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had
him executed.[26] Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangze
b declared him incompetent to rule and had him imprisoned. During Aurangzeb's re
ign, the empire gained political strength once more, but his religious conservat
ism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society.[26] Aurangzeb ex
panded the empire to include almost the whole of South Asia, but at his death in
1707, many parts of the empire were in open revolt.[26] Aurangzeb's son, Shah A
lam, repealed the religious policies of his father, and attempted to reform the
administration. However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into c
haos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the t
hrone.[26]
Mughal matchlock rifle.
During the reign of Muhammad Shah, the empire began to break up, and vast tracts
of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. The campaigns of Nadir Sh
ah, who had reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia and Central
Asia, culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal pow
er and prestige.[26] Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own
affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms.[26] But, according to Sug
ata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Mughal Emperor, however, continued to be the high
est manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, H
indu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor a
s the sovereign of India.[27]

The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decli
ne, and ultimately had to seek the protection of outside powers i.e. from the Em
ir of Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah Abdali, which led to the Third Battle of Panipat b
etween the Maratha Empire and the Afghans led by Abdali in 1761. In 1771, the Ma
rathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became t
he protectors of the emperor in Delhi,[28] a state of affairs that continued fur
ther until after the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Thereafter, the British East India
Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.[27] After a crush
ing defeat in the war of 1857 1858 which he nominally led, the last Mughal, Bahadu
r Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858.
The British Queen Victoria then formally assumed the title as the Empress of Ind
ia.[26]
Explanations for the decline
Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mugh
al Empire between 1690 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. In fi
scal terms the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the em
irs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely sca
ttered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made th
eir own deals with local men of influence. The imperial army, bogged down in lon
g, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas, lost its fighting spirit. F
inally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. Afte
r the execution of emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states t
ook power in region after region.[29]
Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by
the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-le
d rejuvenation.[30]
Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with l
ittle consensus on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations
emphasize depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow vi
ews that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge. A Marxist school
(led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University) emphasizes excessive
exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the
means to support the regime.[31] Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of th
e regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly ne
eded; the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British.[32] In a religious in
terpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu Rajputs revolted against Muslim
rule.[33] Finally other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire i
nspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening t
he imperial court.[34]
List of Mughal emperors
Main article: Mughal emperors
Emperor Birth Reign Period
Death Notes
Babur 23 February 1483
1526 1530
26 December 1530
Was a direct des
cendant of Genghis Khan through his mother and was descendant of Timur through h
is father. Founded the Mughal Empire after his victories at the Battle of Panipa
t (1526) and the Battle of Khanwa.
Humayun 6 March 1508
1530 1540
Jan 1556
Reign interrupted by Suri Dynast
y. Youth and inexperience at ascension led to his being regarded as a less effec
tive ruler than usurper, Sher Shah Suri.
Sher Shah Suri 1472
1540 1545
May 1545
Deposed Humayun and led the Suri
Dynasty.
Islam Shah Suri c.1500 1545 1554
1554
2nd and last ruler of the Suri Dynasty,
claims of sons Sikandar and Adil Shah were eliminated by Humayun's restoration.
Humayun 6 March 1508
1555 1556
Jan 1556
Restored rule was more unified a
nd effective than initial reign of 1530 1540; left unified empire for his son, Akb
ar.

Akbar 14 November 1542


1556 1605
27 October 1605 He and Bairam Khan defea
ted Hemu during the Second Battle of Panipat and later won famous victories duri
ng the Siege of Chittorgarh and the Siege of Ranthambore; He greatly expanded th
e Empire and is regarded as the most illustrious ruler of the Mughal Empire as h
e set up the empire's various institutions; he married Mariam-uz-Zamani, a Rajpu
t princess. One of his most famous construction marvels was the Lahore Fort.
Jahangir
Oct 1569
1605 1627
1627
Jahangir set the precedent for s
ons rebelling against their emperor fathers. Opened first relations with the Bri
tish East India Company. Reportedly was an alcoholic, and his wife Empress Noor
Jahan became the real power behind the throne and competently ruled in his place
.
Shah Jahan
5 January 1592 1627 1658
1666
Under him, Mughal art and archit
ecture reached their zenith; constructed the Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid, Red Fort, J
ahangir mausoleum, and Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. Deposed by his son Aurangzeb.
Aurangzeb
21 October 1618 1658 1707
3 March 1707
He reinterpreted Islamic
law and presented the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri; he captured the diamond mines of the S
ultanate of Golconda; he spent the major part of his last 27 years in the war wi
th the Maratha rebels; at its zenith, his conquests expanded the empire to its g
reatest extent; the over-stretched empire was controlled by Mansabdars, and face
d challenges after his death. He is known to have transcribed copies of the Qur'
an using his own styles of calligraphy. He died during a campaign against the ra
vaging Marathas in the Deccan.
Bahadur Shah I 14 October 1643 1707 1712
Feb 1712
First of the Mughal empe
rors to preside over an empire ravaged by uncontrollable revolts. After his reig
n, the empire went into steady decline due to the lack of leadership qualities a
mong his immediate successors.
Jahandar Shah 1664
1712 1713
Feb 1713
Was an unpopular incompetent tit
ular figurehead;
Furrukhsiyar
1683
1713 1719
1719
His reign marked the ascendancy of the m
anipulative Syed Brothers, execution of the rebellious Banda. In 1717 he granted
a Firman to the English East India Company granting them duty-free trading righ
ts in Bengal. The Firman was repudiated by the notable Murshid Quli Khan the Mug
hal appointed ruler of Bengal.
Rafi Ul-Darjat Unknown 1719
1719
Rafi Ud-Daulat Unknown 1719
1719
Nikusiyar
Unknown 1719
1743
Muhammad Ibrahim
Unknown 1720
1744
Muhammad Shah 1702
1719 1720, 1720 1748
1748
Got rid of the Syed Brot
hers. Tried to counter the emergence of the Marathas but his empire disintegrate
d. Suffered the invasion of Nadir-Shah of Persia in 1739.[35]
Ahmad Shah Bahadur
1725
1748 54 1775
Alamgir II
1699
1754 1759
1759
He was murdered according by the Vizier
Imad-ul-Mulk and Maratha associate Sadashivrao Bhau.
Shah Jahan III Unknown In 1759 1772
Was ordained to the imperial throne as a
result of the intricacies in Delhi with the help of Imad-ul-Mulk. He was later
deposed by Maratha Sardars.[36][37]
Shah Alam II
1728
1759 1806
1806
He was proclaimed as Mughal Emperor by t
he Marathas.[38] Later, he was again recognised as the Mughal Emperor by Ahmad S
hah Durrani after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.[39] 1764 saw the defeat o
f the combined forces of Mughal Emperor, Nawab of Oudh & Nawab of Bengal and Bih
ar at the hand of East India Company at the Battle of Buxar. Following this defe
at, Shah Alam II left Delhi for Allahabad, ending hostilities with the Treaty of
Allahabad (1765). Shah Alam II was reinstated to the throne of Delhi in 1772 by
Mahadaji Shinde under the protection of the Marathas.[40] He was a de jure empe
ror. During his reign in 1793 British East India company abolished Nizamat (Mugh
al suzerainty) and took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal marking
the beginning of British reign in parts of Eastern India officially.
Akbar Shah II 1760
1806 1837
1837
He became a British pensioner after the
defeat of the Maratha's in the third Anglo-Maratha war who were till then the pr
otector of the Mughal throne. Under East India company's protection, his imperia

l name was removed from the official coinage after a brief dispute with the Brit
ish East India Company;
Bahadur Shah II 1775
1837 1857
1862
The last Mughal emperor was deposed in 1
858 by the British East India company and exiled to Burma following the War of 1
857 after the fall of Delhi to the company troops. His death marks the end of th
e Mughal dynasty.
Influence on the Indian subcontinent
South Asian art and culture
Main article: Indo-Persian culture
A depiction of the Taj Mahal
A major Mughal contribution to the Indian subcontinent was their unique architec
ture. Many monuments were built by the Muslim emperors, especially Shah Jahan, d
uring the Mughal era including the UNESCO World Heritage Site Taj Mahal, which i
s known to be one of the finer examples of Mughal architecture. Other World Heri
tage Sites include Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, the Red Fort, the Agra Fort,
and the Lahore Fort The palaces, tombs, and forts built by the dynasty stands to
day in Agra, Aurangabad, Delhi, Dhaka, Fatehpur Sikri, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sh
eikhupura, and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh
.[41] With few memories of Central Asia, Babur's descendents absorbed traits and
customs of the South Asia,[42] and became more or less naturalised.
Mughal influence can be seen in cultural contributions such as:[citation needed]
Centralised, imperialistic government which brought together many smaller kingdo
ms.[43]
Persian art and culture amalgamated with Indian art and culture.[44]
New trade routes to Arab and Turkic lands.
The development of Mughlai cuisine.[45]
Mughal Architecture found its way into local Indian architecture, most conspicuo
usly in the palaces built by Rajputs and Sikh rulers.
Landscape gardening
Although the land the Mughals once ruled has separated into what is now India, P
akistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan, their influence can still be seen widely t
oday. Tombs of the emperors are spread throughout India, Afghanistan,[46] and Pa
kistan.
The Mughal artistic tradition was eclectic, borrowing from the European Renaissa
nce as well as from Persian and Indian sources. Kumar concludes, "The Mughal pai
nters borrowed individual motifs and certain naturalistic effects from Renaissan
ce and Mannerist painting, but their structuring principle was derived from Indi
an and Persian traditions."[47]
Urdu language
Main articles: Persian language in South Asia and Persian and Urdu
The phrase Zuban-i Urdu-yi Mu?all ("Language of the exalted Urdu") written in Nas
ta?liq script.
Although Persian was the dominant and "official" language of the empire, the lan
guage of the elite later evolved into a form known as Urdu. Highly Persianized a
nd also influenced by Arabic and Turkic, the language was written in a type of P
erso-Arabic script known as Nastaliq, and with literary conventions and speciali
sed vocabulary being retained from Persian, Arabic and Turkic; the new dialect w
as eventually given its own name of Urdu. Compared with Hindi, the Urdu language
draws more vocabulary from Persian and Arabic (via Persian) and (to a much less
er degree) from Turkic languages where Hindi draws vocabulary from Sanskrit more
heavily.[48] Modern Hindi, which uses Sanskrit-based vocabulary along with Urdu
loan words from Persian and Arabic, is mutually intelligible with Urdu.[49] Tod
ay, Urdu is the national language of Pakistan and also an important co-official
language in India.

Mughal society
A silver coin made during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II.
The Indian economy remained as prosperous under the Mughals as it was, because o
f the creation of a road system and a uniform currency, together with the unific
ation of the country.[50] Manufactured goods and peasant-grown cash crops were s
old throughout the world. Key industries included shipbuilding (the Indian shipb
uilding industry was as advanced as the European, and Indians sold ships to Euro
pean firms), textiles, and steel. The Mughals maintained a small fleet, which me
rely carried pilgrims to Mecca, imported a few Arab horses in Surat. Debal in Si
ndh was mostly autonomous. The Mughals also maintained various river fleets of D
hows, which transported soldiers over rivers and fought rebels. Among its admira
ls were Yahya Saleh, Munnawar Khan, and Muhammad Saleh Kamboh. The Mughals also
protected the Siddis of Janjira. Its sailors were renowned and often voyaged to
China and the East African Swahili Coast, together with some Mughal subjects car
rying out private-sector trade.
Cities and towns boomed under the Mughals; however, for the most part, they were
military and political centres, not manufacturing or commerce centres.[51] Only
those guilds which produced goods for the bureaucracy made goods in the towns;
most industry was based in rural areas. The Mughals also built Maktabs in every
province under their authority, where youth were taught the Quran and Islamic la
w such as the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri in their indigenous languages.
The Bengal region was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the
Mughals in 1590 to the seizure of control by the British East India Company in
1757.[52] In a system where most wealth was hoarded by the elites, wages were lo
w for manual labour. Slavery was limited largely to household servants. However
some religious cults proudly asserted a high status for manual labour.[53]
The nobility was a heterogeneous body; while it primarily consisted of Rajput ar
istocrats and foreigners from Muslim countries, people of all castes and nationa
lities could gain a title from the emperor. The middle class of openly affluent
traders consisted of a few wealthy merchants living in the coastal towns; the bu
lk of the merchants pretended to be poor to avoid taxation. The bulk of the peop
le were poor. The standard of living of the poor was as low as, or somewhat high
er than, the standard of living of the Indian poor under the British Raj; whatev
er benefits the British brought with canals and modern industry were neutralised
by rising population growth, high taxes, and the collapse of traditional indust
ry in the nineteenth century.[citation needed]
Science and technology
Muhammad Salih Thattvi headed the task of creating a seamless celestial globe us
ing a secret wax casting method, the famous celestial globe was also inscribed w
ith Arabic and Persian inscriptions.[54][55]
Astronomy
While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mugha
l astronomers continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced
nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi
. The instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories
were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition.[56][57] In particular, one of th
e most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the seaml
ess celestial globe.
Alchemy
Sake Dean Mahomed had learned much of Mughal Alchemy and understood the techniqu
es used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce shampoo. He was also a no
table writer who described the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the cities of All

ahabad and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal
Empire.
Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both Kings George IV an
d William IV.[58]
Technology
See also: History of gunpowder: India
A Mughal War elephant guarding the gateway to the Grand Mosque in Mathura
Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who work
ed for Akbar, developed a volley gun.[59]
Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans par
ticularly against War elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.[60]
In the year 1657, the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar.[61] Pr
ince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls.
Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot
, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting Bidar was captured by the victori
ous Mughals.[61]
Later, the Mysorean rockets were upgraded versions of Mughal rockets used during
the Siege of Jinji by the progeny of the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali's father Fat
ah Muhammad the constable at Budikote, commanded a corps consisting of 50 rocket
men (Cushoon) for the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali realised the importance of rocke
ts and introduced advanced versions of metal cylinder rockets. These rockets tur
ned fortunes in favour of the Sultanate of Mysore during the Second Anglo-Mysore
War, particularly during the Battle of Pollilur.[62]
See also
Mughal (tribe)
Mughal cuisine
Mughal gardens
Mughal painting
Mughal weapons
Mughal Harem
Mughal-e-Azam, an India film
History of India
Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
References
Jump up ^ Conan, Michel (2007). Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversi
ty : Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective, Volume 31.
Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. p. 235. ISBN
978-0-88402-329-6.
Jump up ^ The title (Mirza) descends to all the sons of the family, without exce
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Further reading
Alam, Muzaffar. Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707 4
8 (1988)

Ali, M. Athar. "The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case," Modern Asian Studies (1
975) 9#3 pp. 385 396 in JSTOR, on the causes of its collapse
Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C (1 January 2008), India Before Europe (1st ed.), Cambrid
ge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51750-8
Black, Jeremy. "The Mughals Strike Twice," History Today (April 2012) 62#4 pp 22 2
6. full text online
Blake, Stephen P. "The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals," Journal
of Asian Studies (1979) 39#1 pp. 77 94 in JSTOR
Dale, Stephen F. The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals (Cambr
idge U.P. 2009)
Dalrymple, William (2007). The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty : Delhi, 1857.
Random House Digital, Inc.
Faruqui, Munis D. "The Forgotten Prince: Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mu
ghal Empire in India," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
(2005) 48#4 pp 487 523 in JSTOR, on Akbar and his brother
Gommans; Jos. Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500 1700
(Routledge, 2002) online edition
Gordon, S. The New Cambridge History of India, II, 4: The Marathas 1600 1818 (Camb
ridge, 1993).
Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
Markovits, Claude, ed. (2004). A History of Modern India, 1480 1950. Anthem Press.
pp. 79 184.
Metcalf, B.; Metcalf, T. R. (9 October 2006), A Concise History of Modern India
(2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-68225-1
Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press.
Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1974). The Mughul Empire. B.V. Bhavan.
Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
excerpt and online search
Richards, J. F. "Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy," Comparat
ive Studies in Society and History (1981) 23#2 pp. 285 308 in JSTOR
Robb, P. (2001), A History of India, London: Palgrave, ISBN 978-0-333-69129-8
Stein, B. (16 June 1998), A History of India (1st ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell,
ISBN 978-0-631-20546-3
Stein, B. (27 April 2010), Arnold, D., ed., A History of India (2nd ed.), Oxford
: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6
Culture
Berinstain, V. Mughal India: Splendour of the Peacock Throne (London, 1998).
Busch, Allison. Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India
(2011) excerpt and text search
Preston, Diana and Michael Preston. Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart o
f the Moghul Empire Walker & Company; ISBN 0-8027-1673-3.
Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture (
Reaktion 2006)
Welch, S.C. et al. (1987). The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India. New York
: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-499-9.
Society and economy
Chaudhuri, K. N. "Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India," Mod
ern Asian Studies (1978) 12#1 pp. 77 96 in JSTOR
Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (1963, revised edition 1999).
Heesterman, J. C. "The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introductio
n," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, (2004) 47#3 pp. 29
2 297 in JSTOR
Khan, Iqtidar Alam. "The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire," Social Scientist
(1976) 5#1 pp. 28 49 in JSTOR
Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 19
91 (1993)
Primary sources
Bernier, Francois (1891). Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656 1668. Archibald C
onstable, London.

Hiro, Dilip, ed, Journal of Emperor Babur (Penguin Classics 2007)


The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2
002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature
Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. History of India (1907) v.9. Historic accounts of Ind
ia by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson o
nline edition
Jouher (1832). The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor H
umayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His
Majesty. Translated by Major Charles Stewart. John Murray, London.
Older histories
Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its
Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867 18
77. (Online Copy at Packard Humanities Institute Other Persian Texts in Translat
ion; historical books: Author List and Title List)
Adams, W. H. Davenport (1893). Warriors of the Crescent. London: Hutchinson.
Holden, Edward Singleton (1895). The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398- A.D
. 1707. New York : C. Scribner's Sons.
Malleson, G. B (1896). Akbar and the rise of the Mughal empire. Oxford : Clarend
on Press.
Manucci, Niccolao; tr. from French by Franois Catrou (1826). History of the Mogul
dynasty in India, 1399 1657. London : J.M. Richardson.
Lane-Poole, Stanley (1906). History of India: From Reign of Akbar the Great to t
he Fall of Moghul Empire (Vol. 4). London, Grolier society.
Manucci, Niccolao; tr. by William Irvine (1907). Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul Indi
a 1653 1708, Vol. 1. London, J. Murray.
Manucci, Niccolao; tr. by William Irvine (1907). Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul Indi
a 1653 1708, Vol. 2. London, J. Murray.
Manucci, Niccolao; tr. by William Irvine (1907). Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul Indi
a 1653 1708, Vol. 3. London, J. Murray.
Owen, Sidney J (1912). The Fall of the Mogul Empire. London, J. Murray.
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