Responding and Suffering Bodies in Human-Animal Worlds - Vinciane Despret

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Respondingandsufferingbodiesinhumananimalworlds|VincianeDespret
VincianeDespret
D'untextel'autreBienvenuedansmoncabinetdecuriositsenligne
Respondingandsufferingbodiesin
humananimalworlds
Publile28mars2010parVinciane
Respondingandsufferingbodiesinhumananimalworlds
ByVincianeDespret
Introduction
SOURISALACRME
Skinandgutthemice,butdonotremovetheheadswashthenplaceinapotwithenough
alcoholtocoverthecarcasses.Allowtomarinateforabouttwohours.Cutsowbellyinto
smallcubesandfryslowlyuntilmostofthefathasbeenrendered.Nowremovethe
carcassesfromthealcoholandrolltheminamixtureofsalt,pepperandflourthenplace
inafryingpaneandsautforaboutfiveminutes(beingcarefulnottoallowthepantoget
toohot,orthedelicatemeatwilldryoutandbecometoughandstringy).Nowaddacupof
alcoholandsixoreightcloves.Coverthepanandallowtosimmerslowlyforfifteen
minutes.Thecreamsaucecanbemadeaccordingtoanystandardrecipe.[1]
Thisratheroddmealwaspartofanexperimentascientificexperimentonahumanbody.
Thebodybelongedtoabiologist,FarleyMowat,who,inthe60s,wassenttoconduct
researchonwildwolves,intheArctic.Theexperimentwasaboutthewolves.Itsfirstpart
provedtobeinconclusiveafteroneweekonamousedietthescientistbegantodevelop
acravingforfat.Couldadietcomprisedonlyofmicebepossibleanyway?Thesolution
wastofollowthewaywolvesmanageit:thelittlerodentsstoremostoftheirfatinthe
abdominalcavity.Wolveseatthewholemouse.Doingthis,exceptfortheskinofcourse,
(wearehumanarentwe?)thefatcravingwouldeventuallybeconsiderablyeased.
Atfirstglance,onemightthinkthattheauthoristryingtoexperimentwhatistobeawolf,
orwhatistofeellikeawolfwhichisarecurrentthemeinpopularbooksinethological
literature(andsometimesanthropologicalreports[2]).Ononeside,MarkBekoff,among
others,illustratesinwritingthathecanfeelwhatanimalsarefeeling()Myfeelings
actuallyknowwhatsgoingoninsidetheanimal,andthisemotionalempathyseemstobe
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innate.Asacognitiveethologist,hesuggeststhatthispossibilityofsharingfeelings
involvesmirrorneurons[3].EvenifitwasthecasethatthisiswhatMowataimedtodo,
weshouldnoticethathegoesfurther:brieflyputit,mirrorneuronsaremostlyfedby
observations.
Ontheotherside,TempleGrandinsworkmightalsopresentsomesimilarities.Grandin
becameanotoriousexpertindesigningplantsinhumaneslaughtersystemsandsheis
frequentlyhiredtocheckmeatpackingplantswherethereareproblems.Sheputsforward
thatinmostcases,problemsareduetounnoticedtinydetailsthatfrightentheanimals,
whichinturnresistorbalk.Grandinseesthesedetailswedonotsee.Becauseshesees
likeanimals.
GrandinscaseisdifferentfromMarkBekoffskindofempathicposture(whatIwouldcall
theromanticempathy)shedoesnotpretendshefeelslikeanimals.Shesaysshethinks
thewayanimalsthink.Sheseeslikeanimals,thereforeshemaytellpeoplewhytheir
animalsaredoingthethingstheydo.Alittleplasticwaterbottlelyingharmlessly,ashiny
reflection,ayellowjackethangingonafence,allthoseturnouttobe,intheirworld,wrong
detailsafansbladesslowlyrotatingcreatesflicker,ashadowonthegroundbecomesa
deepcliff,adarkspotturnsouttobeabottomlesspit.Theworldisfortheanimals,as
wellasforGrandin,aswirlingmassoftinydetails.
Ofcourse,onecouldthinkthatthedifferenceItrytodrawhererestsontheoldcontrast
betweenfeelingandthinking,allthemoresosincevisualperceptionisusuallyconsidered
asakindofdisembodiedthinking,or,asDonnaHarawayputsit,a(ratherperverse)way
todistancetheknowingsubjectfromeverybodyandeverything()[4]Thisis,however,
notwhatIintend.Actually,thebody,herbodyiscompletelyinvolved,itactivelycreates
theperspectivethatallowshertosee:Grandinexplainsthatonecouldnthopeto
understandanimalsunlessyouputyourselfintheirplaceliterallyintheirplace.You
havetogowheretheanimalgoes,anddowhattheanimaldoesinordertoseewhatit
seesandunderstandwhatscaresit[5].Grandinembodiesanotherbeingsexperience:
puttingoneselfinanothersshoesisnotametaphor,ithastobetakenliterally,she
insists.Still,thisisnotenough.Youalsohavetoseetheworlddifferently.Youhaveto
seeindetails,likeanimalsdo.Because,accordingtoGrandin,animalsarevisual
thinkers.Andsoisshe.
TempleGrandinisautistic:accordingtoher,thatiswhysheseestheworldindetailslike
animalsdoandwhyshethusmaytranslateanimaltalkintoEnglish[6].Animalsarelike
autisticsavants,shewrites.Infact,sheresumes,Idgosofarastosaythatanimals
mightactuallybeautisticsavants.Animalshavespecialtalentsthatnormalpeopledont,
someofthemhavespecialformsofgeniusthatnormalpeopledont,thesamewaythat
someautisticsavantshavespecialformsofgenius.Theirbodiesgivethematotally
differentworldinwhichthingsaffecttheminradicallydifferentways.Wereseeing,
hearing,andfeelingallthethingsnooneelsecan.[7]
SincesheisautisticmostofthefeelingsweknowarestrangetoGrandinshefeels,as
sheoncesaidtoOliverSacks,consideringnormalpeoplesexperienceslikean
anthropologistonMars.Sheexplainsthechoiceofherjobbysayingthatanimal
behaviorwastherightfieldforme,becausewhatIwasmissinginsocialunderstandingI
couldmakeupforunderstandinganimals.Allthatmeansthatherempathyactuallyisa
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strangeempathy,anapparentoxymoron:itisempathywithoutpathos.Withoutpathos,
indeed:readingGrandinisastrangeexperience,itcouldbelikereadingareportbyDr.
SpocksfromtheStarTrekseries(orlikemeetingtheunemotionalinhabitantsofan
alienworldintheS.F.novelForeigners[8]).Justanexample:Grandintellsthatwhenshe
startedherworkwithchickens,shevisitedachickenfarm.Insidethebarn,shefounda
deadhen.Thefarmertoldherthattheroosterkilledthehen.Hewasnothappyaboutthat,
hesaid,hejustthoughtthatsthewayitwas:halfofhisroosterswereactuallyrapist
murderers.Grandinwrites,Iknewthatcouldntberight.Ifroosterskilledhensinnature,
therewouldntbeanychickens.Butpeopleraisinganimalsincaptivitytendtoforgetthis
basicfactoflife.Aladywhoraisesllamastoldmerecentlythatoneofhermaleshadtried
tobitethetesticlesoffanothermale.Itoldherthatsdefinitivelynotnormal.Ifllamasbit
offeachotherstesticlesinthewildtherewouldntbeanyllamas[9]Andshekeepsgoing
throughoutthenextpage,repeatingsimilarcaseswiththesamecomment:itisnot
normalshewantstostronglyaffirmthatitisbad(andsheeventuallyendsupbysaying
it),butshecannotmobilizetherhetoricalemotionalstrategiesweusuallyrelyuponto
arouseasharedindignation.
TempleGrandinillustrateswhatIwouldconstruehere,incontrastwiththepreviousfigure
(thatofromanticempathy),asaprocessoftheconstructionofempathicaffinitiesin
whichbodiesareliterallyinvolved.Ofcourse,thetermconstructiondoesnotsound
totallyaccurateforher,sinceshelinkshercapacitiestoaninnatehandicap/gift.
HoweverIwouldsuggestthatthislinkisashortcuttosomethingmorecomplicated[10].
Similaritiesbetweenherownexperienceandanimalsexperiencearenotgiven,theyare
activelyconstructed.Grandinreliesuponapartofherownbeingtowhichanimalsgive
newpowersandmeanings(apartofherandnotherparticularityasshewouldclaim)
andshelinksittoapartofotherbeings,towhomshealsogivesnewpowersand
significations[11],thereforecreatingaspacewherethesetwopartsmaybeentangledand
exchange/createreciprocalmeanings.Yes,shetransformsherhandicapintoagift,
whichempowersher,asmuchassheactivelytransformsmindlessanimalsinto
meaningfulgeniuses,whichalsogivesthemnewpowersbutthisisnotthewholestory.
Sheendsupnotbeingthesame.Likewise,animalsareinvitedtoothermodesofbeing,
otherrelationships,otherwaystoinhabitthehumanworldandtoforcehumanbeingsto
addressthemdifferently.Shecreates,forherselfandfortheanimals,newidentitiesand
shedoesthisbydisclosingunexpectedaffinities.Thisisdefinitivelynotempathyby
identificationthetourismofthesoul,asWendyRoseputsit[12].Theidentitiesupon
whichidentificationcouldgrounditselfdonotpreexisttheidentityiscreatedbythe
previousconstructionofaffinities.Identityistheoutcome,theachievement.
Grandin[13]transformswhatsheconsidersasamarginalessenceintoapartial
perspectivethatcreatesandiscreatedbythepossibilityofwhatHarawaycallsjust
barelyaffinitiesorjustbarelyconnections[14].Theknowingselfispartialinallits
guises,neverfinished,whole,simplythereandoriginalitisalwaysconstructedand
stitchedimperfectly,andthereforeabletojoinwithanother,toseetogetherwithout
claimingtobeanother.Hereisthepromiseofobjectivity:ascientificknowerseeksthe
subjectpositionnotofidentity,butofobjectivity:thatis,partialconnection[15]
Grandincreatespartialconnectionsatthemarginsoftwoembodiedexperiencesshere
constructsthesemargins,shequeerstheexperienceofbeingautisticandofbeing
animalsinanormalhumanworldinawaythatbothreliesuponandrenderspossible
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theseconnections.Thiswouldgiveusalessproblematicversionofembodiedempathy:
feeling/seeing/thinkingbodiesundoandredoeachother,reciprocallythoughnot
symmetrically,aspartialperspectivesthatattunethemselvestoeachother.
BacknowtoMowatandhiswolves,aboutwhomIwasdrawingthecontrast:Mowat,asI
proposed,useshisbody(eatingawolfsdiet)asanexperimentaltool.Theaimhoweveris
neithertofeellikeawolf(astheromanticfigureseeks),nortocreate/constructpartially
connectedaffinities,asIreconstructedGrandinswork.AlthoughitsoundslikeGrandins
embodiedexperience,inthesensethatitisanexperimentinwhichoneusesonesown
bodytomeettheneedsofanother,Mowatsdevicepertainstoamoremodest
embodiment.
Atthispoint,Ifirsthavetoexplainthestakesforwhichhesubmittedhisownbodytothis
micediet.Whywasitsoimportanttoexperimentwithwhatwolveseat?
Inthe60s,wolveswerehardlyknownbyscientistsandactuallydidnotarousemuchof
theirinterest.However,theywerethesubjectsofhotpoliticalcontroversies.Mostofthe
complaintswerecomingfromfishingandGameClubswiththeirallies,the
manufacturersofbrandsofammunitionwhoaffirmedthatwolveswerekillingallthe
deer.Moreandmorehunterswerecomingbackfrommoreandmorehuntswithlessand
lessdeer.Somepeoplehoweversuspectedthattherewerefewerdeerbecausethe
huntershadincreasedtothepointwheretheyoutnumberedthedeer.TheCanadian
departmentofMinesandResourcesdecidedtolaunchascientificinvestigationandsent
Mowattothewolves.
Aftersomemonthsobservingtheanimals[16],Mowatdiscoversthatwhenthecaribous
migrateforthehotseasonthewolveseatmice.Nobody,Mowat(rightly)thinks,willever
believethatthismythicalcharacter,thesewild,powerfulcarnivoresandsavagekillersas
theywerebelievedtobe,couldsurviveonadietofmiceonlyand,heconfesses,the
idea,atfirst,evenforhim,seemedridiculous.Evenifhecollectedsomeempiricalproofs
inthefeces,theseempiricalproofswouldsupportonlytheideathat,sometimes,some
wolveseatsomemice,notthehypothesisthattheysurviveonthem,foragoodpartof
theyear.Mowat,therefore,useshisownbodyasameanofscientificproof,andturnsit
intoanapparatusforvalidity.
Itisnotempathy,neitheramereromanticdreamofbeingawolfbacktotherecipe
wolvesdonotaddcreamandalcoholintheirdiet,becausetheydonot,likeurban
Canadianscientists,loseappetitewithboredomforblandmeat.Itisatechnicaldevice.
Thebodyisthewitness.Itwillbetheexperimentalgroupandthecontrolgroup:fora
lengthoftime,itwillbegivenonlymice,andforanequallengthoftime,cannedmeatand
freshfish.Attheendofeachperiod,Mowatwouldrunaseriesofphysiologicaltestsand
comparethetwosetsofresults.Whilenotabsolutelyconclusiveasfaraswolvesare
concerned,asMowatconcedes,ifhefindsevidencethathismetabolicfunctions
remainedunimpairedunderamouseregimen,itmightindicatethatwolvestoocould
surviveonthesamediet.
Hereagain,Iwouldsuggestthatthisembodiedexperimentbuildsaffinities,partial
affinities.Buttheseaffinitiesarenotcreatedwiththeaimoffeeling,knowingorseeing
likeawolf.Itisanexperimentthatleadstosomethingratherunusual:feelingorbeinglike
awolfistobetakeninaradicallynonpsychologicalsense.Experiencing(orsharing)the
innerlifeofawolfreceiveshereanunusualmeaning(andratherodd,forus,contemporary
westernpsychologicalsubjects):itmeansexperiencinginthegut.Thisisthebeginningof
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acompanionstory,cumpanis,theoneswithwhomwesharethefood[17].Thesame
food,evenifnotatthesametableinthiscase.
Toembodythewayotherbeingssolvetheirsurvivalproblemsdoesnotonlyanswerthe
questionwhat(orhow)woulditbelikeifIwhereinyourplace?,itmayalsosetup
solutionsforanotherone:whatwouldyoudoifyouwereinmyplace?Thisquestionis
raised,forexample,whenscientistsdealwiththecontradictionbetweenafields
necessityandthelimitsoftheirownendurance.Mostethologistsandprimatologistsare
facedwiththisproblem,thoughtheyhardlymentionitintheirreports:whatcanwedoor
areweallowedtodowithourbodywhenwearewithouranimals?Iencountered,inmy
readings,twomotivesfortheseworries.Thefirstonetakestheformofthewhatcanwe
do?questionsandtheymostlyraisethesameproblem:somethingalwayshappensinthe
field(atleastwithparticularlysociallyactiveanimals),scientistsarethereforeanxious
aboutmissingsomethingwhenconstrainedbybiologicalnecessities.Theothermotive,
muchrarer,takestheformofcautiouspoliteness:thescientistsbodyshouldntdisturb
theanimalsunderobservation.Wewillcometothatpointlater.
Inlaboratories,theproblemofwhatcanwedowithourbodiesneedsis,unfortunately
fortheanimals,quicklysolved.Intheworstcases,animalsaresimplysubmittedto
humanbiologicalconstraints.AspharmacologistMichaelChancepointedout,research
withratsiscarriedduringdaytime,whichisthemostconvenientforresearchers,but,asit
happens,isthemiddleofthenightfortherats:submittingarattoanexperimentislike
kickingitoutofbedandaskingittogothroughsomefairlyactiveprocedure[18].Inbetter
cases,thelaboratoryiscautioustoapplyreverselightingprocedures.However,inboth
cases,theanimalistheonewhoadapts(ortriesto).
Inthefield,thingsaremuchmorecomplicated,notablywiththesleepingissue.Wolves
are,accordingthisaspect,particularlyproblematicforhumanscientists.Duringtheday,
Mowatremarks,heobservesthatthefemaleandthepupsinthegroupareactive,while
thehunters(twomales)restinshortnapsof10minutes.Duringthenight,themalesgo
ontheirownactivities.Forfearofmissingsomethingvital,Mowatpreventshimselffrom
sleeping.Afterafewdays,hereachesthelimitsofhisendurance.Thesolutioncomes
fromtheanimals:thehumanobserverhastolearntonaplikeawolf.Thefirsttrialisnota
success:Mowatfailstowakeupuntilseveralhourshadpassed.Thefaultwasmine,for
Ihadfailedtoimitatealltheactionsofadozingwolf,and,asIeventuallydiscovered,the
businessofcurlinguptostartwith,andspinningaboutaftereachnap,wasvitalto
success.[19]
Whenbodiesinterfere
InthechaptercalledThewatcherwatched,Mowattellsananecdotethatcouldsound
familiartoDerridasreaders.Heisatthebeginningofhisfieldresearch,inthemiddleof
nowhere.Sincehisarrival,severalweeksago,hehasmetthewolvesonlytwice,both
timesbypurechance.Thesecondtimehesawthemhowever,theywereenteringacave,
probablytheirdenMowatguesses.However,thenextdaywhenhereturnstothesite,no
wolvesseemedtoactuallyinhabitthiscave.Thescientististotallydiscouragedthe
prospectofgettingwithinvisualrangeofawolfexceptbytheluckiestofaccidents,ashe
says,turnsouttobeinthesamerangeofpossibilitiesasfindingadiamondmine.The
eskerremaineddeserted()By2:00PMIhadgivenuphope.Thereseemednofurther
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pointinconcealment,soIgotstifflytomyfeetandpreparedtorelievemyself.Now,itisa
remarkablefactthataman,thoughhemaybealoneinasmallboatinmidocean,or
isolatedinthemidstofthetracklessforest,findsthattheveryprocessofunbuttoning
causeshimtobecomepeculiarlysensitivetothepossibilitythathemaybeunder
observation.Atthiscriticaljunctionnonebutthemostselfassuredofmen[]canrefrain
fromcastingasurreptitiousglancearoundtoreassurehimselfthathereallyisalone.To
saythatIwaschagrinedtodiscoverIwasnotalonewouldbeanunderstatementfor
sittingdirectlybehindme,andnottwentyyardsaway,werethemissingwolves.[20]
Thehumanpsycheistrulyanamazingthing,Mowatremarksunderalmostanyother
circumstances,hewouldhavebeenpanicstricken.Insteadofwhich,outraged,heturned
hisbackonthewatchingwolvesandhurriedlydiduphisbuttons.Andwhendecency,if
notmydignity,hadbeenrestored,Iroundedonthesewolveswithavirulencewhich
surprisedevenme:Shoo!,Iscreamedatthem.Whatthehelldothinkyoureatyou
youpeepingToms!Goawayforheavenssake!Onthesameevening,Mowattriesto
analyzewhatreallyhappenedtohim.Theproblem,heconfesses,wasthathewasfacing
thequestionofwhoiswatchingwhom.IfeltthatI,becauseofmyspecificsuperiorityas
amemberofHomoSapiens,togetherwithmyintensivetechnicaltraining,wasentitledto
prideofplace.Helaconicallyconcludes,Iwastheonewhowasunderobservation.
Whoiswatchingwhom:weareremindedhere,allthemoresoasthewatcherseemsto
takethewatchedasbeingatfault,ofDerridasnarrativeinTheAnimalThereforeIam[21].
Derrida,inthatstory,saysthatherealizedthathiscat,hissmallfemalecat,wasactually
lookingbackathim,onemorning,inhisbathroom,whilehewasnaked.Derridaallthe
morefeltthathewasinthepresenceofsomeone,ashiscatentersthisplacewhereit
canencounterme,seeme,seemenaked.However,ifDerrida,asHarawaywrites,
comestotheedgeofrespect,inpayingattentiontothefactthattheanimallooksback
andresponds,hisworriesabouthisshameofbeingnakedinfrontofhiscatseemtolack
somethingIfoundinMowat:humor.Derridadoesntlaughathisownworries,neitherdoes
hescreampeepingTom!EventhatIwouldhavepreferred.Becausethislackofhumor
meanssomethingthatHarawaydidntmiss,theshameofbeingnakedisnotaboutthe
cat,itisonlyabouthimself:heknewthereisnonudityamonganimals,thattheworry
washis.Andhegoesonandon,thinkingabouthisshame:yes,thecatresponded,but
sofar,sheisnotreallyconcerned.Thenakedbodyisapretext,apretextformore
philosophyakindofblankscreen,allthemoresosincereciprocalgazesdonotlead
Derridatosharesensualitiesortowriteaboutthemnortodiscussthechoreography
ofthemorninggreetingceremony.SeeingDerridanakeddoesnotchangeanythingforthe
catthequestion,forthephilosopher,isnotwhatitmeansforher,butwhatitinvolvesfor
philosophy.Derrida,writesHaraway,failedasimpleobligationofcompanionspecieshe
didnotbecomecuriousaboutwhatthecatmightactuallybedoing,feeling,thinking,or
perhapsmakingavailabletohiminlookingbacktohimthatmorning[22].
ShirleyStrum,ontheotherside,wouldescapethesecriticisms.Thequestionsheraises
haspracticalconsequences,forherandforthebaboonssheworkswith:thisisnota
questionraisedinabathroomandallowingspeculationonphilosophyitisaquestionthat
mighthavevitalconsequencesinthefield.Sherecalls,inherbookAlmostHuman,thatin
thebeginningofherfieldstudieswithbaboonsinKenya,sheusedtogoalongwayto
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hidebehindherbuswhenshecouldnthelpbutrelieveherself.Buttheriskofmissing
somethingwasworryinghermoreandmoreshedecidedafterawhilethatshecouldtry
tourinatewhilestayingamongthebaboons.Shecautiouslyundressed,lookingaround.
Theywere,shesays,astonishedbythenoise.Theyneversawhereat,drinkorsleep.
Nothingmadethembelievethatshecouldbeababoon.Theyknewhumanbeings,but
theyhadneverbeensoclosetooneandprobablytheybelievedthathumansdidnthave
thiskindofphysicalneed.Nexttime,sheconcluded,theywouldnotevenreact.
ThestoryStrumtellsusislinkedtothesecondquestionInoticed(thoughrarely)in
ethologicalandprimatologicalliterature,thepolitequestion:whatamIallowedtodowith
mybodywhenIamwiththeanimals?WhatStrumshowsisthatthequestionaboutnot
disturbingthebaboonswithherbodyendsinanotherstory:herbodymadeherenterinto
relationshipswiththeanimalsinanewmode,theirsurprisetestifiestothatasaliving
personlikethem.Shecreateswiththemanembodiedproximity,someembodied
affinities.Tolookandtolookback,thisveryday,isnotonlyinthegazeoftheoneswho
meetandlearntoknoweachother:itflowsinurine,innoise,insurprise.Maybethistime,
wemightsaythattheempathywasonthesideofthebaboons.
Usingonesbodytomaketheanimalrespond(evenifinStrumscaseitwasinakindof
unexpectedway)rendersvisibleachangeinsomepractices,ifIcomparethesetothe
waythatbehavioristsconstruetheirpractices.Theanimaldoesnotreacthe/she
responds[23].
Ihavetomentioninpassing(butIdonthaveroomtoexploreitfurther)thatifthefieldis
thesitewheretheseeventshavemorechancetohappen,thisissueofanimals
respondingtotheirscientistsseemshowevertobebeginningtofinditswaysintosome
laboratories,especiallywithprimates(wecouldhaveexpectedthat),butalsowithdogs,
andrats.Jenkins,Barrera,IrelandandWoodside,forexample,havereproducedPavlovian
conditioningexperimentswithdogs(andbellsandsaliva)[24].Butthistimetheycaredto
observethedogs,thedogswholebody(andnotonlyinsideoftheirmouths).They
noticedthatthedogsshowedallthebehaviorstheyhavewhentheyinteractwithhuman
beings(playbowandotherplaysolicitations,waggingtheirtail,meetingthegaze):the
foodwasnottherealstake,forthedogs,theywerewelcomingandrespondingto
propositionsofinteraction.Iwonder,didPavlovknowanythingaboutdogs?Another,
thoughratherdifferentexampleIenjoymentioningistheexperimentsconductedbythe
famousneuroscientistJaakPanksepp[25].Pankseppticklesratsinordertohearthem
laugh(a50kHzultrasonicvocalization),andheteachesotherscientiststoperformit
correctlyinordertoinducethislaugh(notonlydoesitsoundslikelaughterbutratsalsodo
itwhentheyplayandwhentheymate).Pankseppsaimistostudysocialjoyin
mammals.Itisworthmentioning,aboutthisexperiment,thatitislinkedtonewissuesin
animalwelfare,andtothemethodologicalproblemstheyraise:studiesarebeginningto
focusonpositiveemotionsinsteadofstressandsuffering.However,positiveemotions
showweakbodilyevidence(contrarytonegativeones,evidenceofwhichiseasyto
obtain,easytomeasure,andrelativelyeasytointerpret).Soscientistsareseekingfor
conclusiveevidence,robustdata,andifpossible,reliablelocalizationsinthebrain.
Backtothefield,IwouldliketoresumethelinethatIwasfollowing:howscientists
involvetheirbodies,sometimesinresponsetotheonestheyobserve,sometimesinorder
tomakethemrespond.Thesecondcaseismuchrarer,atleastinfieldreports,forsome
reasonsthatareeasytoguess(wewilltalkaboutthatlater,anyway).Themost
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astonishingcasecomesfromFairleyMowat.
HavingfoundthewolvesdenMowatdecidestopitchhistentneartoitinordertoobserve
thewolves,dayandnight.Thewolvescompletelyignorehim.Thiswas,hewrites,at
first,disconcerting,further,itbecameproblematic.Asheexplains,itwastruethatI
wantedtobeinconspicuous,butIfeltuncomfortableatbeingsototallyignored[26].
Actuallywolveswereregularlypassingbythetentandneverevincedtheslightestinterest
inhim.
Beingignoredtosuchanextent,astimepassed,becomesmoreandmoreintolerablefor
Mowat.
Bythistime,hehasdiscoveredthatwolveswerenot,asuniversallybelievedatthattime,
nomadicroamerstheyhaveterritories,theyhave,ashequalifiesthem,strongfeelingsof
propertyrightsandtheyrituallyandregularlymarktheirboundaries.Therefore,Mowat
planstousethisknowledgetomakethematleastrecognizehisexistence.Onenight,
afterthewolveshadgoneofftohunt,hestakesoutapropertyclaimofhisown,
surroundinghistentandincludingoneofthewolvesregularpaths.Thistakesmostofthe
nightandrequires,ashemeticulouslyexplains,frequentreturnstothetenttoconsume
quantitiesoftea.Heretirestothetentjustbeforethefirstwolfappears.Asusual,the
animalignoresthetentanditshumanowner,untilhepassesbyamarkedbush:his
attitudeoffatiguevanishedandwasreplacedbyalookofbewilderment.()Aftera
minuteofcompleteindecisionhebackedawayafewyardsandsatdown.Andthen,
finally,helookeddirectlyatthetentandatme.Itwasalong,thoughtful,consideringsort
oflook.[27]
Atthismoment,Mowatbecomesveryworried:hasnthetransgressedawolflawofmajor
importanceandshouldnthepayforit?Thewolfkeepslookingathim.Inanefforttobreak
theimpasse,thehumanturnshisbackonthewolf,toindicate,asclearlyaspossible,
thatIfoundhiscontinuedscrutinyimpolite,ifnotactuallyoffensive.Thenthewolfslowly
beganasystematictouroftheareaandcarefullyplacedhisownmarkoneachofthe
onesthehumanhadmarked.Fromthen,Mowatconcludes,thehumansenclave
existencehasbeenratifiedbythewolf,andeachofthem,wolvesandhuman,regularly
passoneaftereachother,tofreshenupsomeboundarymarks,eachoneonhisownside
oftheborder.
Ofcourse,thereasonswhyyoudontfindthiskindofextravagantdescriptioninreal
scientificliteratureareobviousbutIwouldntbesurprisedtofindatleastsomein
informalconversations,orstillmoreprobably,intheworkofthelabcaretakers.Actually,it
isnotonlytheconventionsofwritingthatrenderthisunlikelyitistheverycodesof
practice.
WhenshebeganherfirstfieldworkwithbaboonsinKenya,theprimatologistBarbara
Smutsdidexactlywhatshehadbeentaughttodoinordertohabituateheranimalstoher
presence:trainedtotheconventionsofobjectiveknowledge,shewasadvisedtobeas
neutralaspossible,tobe,asHarawayphrasesitlikearock,tobeunavailable,sothat
eventuallythebaboonswouldgoonabouttheirbusinessinnatureasifdatacollecting
humankindwerenotpresent[28].Shecontinuesbysayingthatgoodscientistsarethose
who,learningtobeinvisiblethemselves,couldseethesceneofnaturecloseup,asif
throughapeephole.
Progressinhabituationwaspainfullyslow:notonlydidthebaboonsnotseemtobe
impressedbyhereffortstorenderherbodyinvisibleorlookinglikearock,butthey
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frequentlylookedatSmuts.Andthemoresheignoredtheirlooks,thelesssatisfiedthey
seemed.Ignoringsocialcuesisfarfromneutralsocialbehavior:Iimaginethebaboonsas
seeingsomebodyoffcategory,notsomething,Harawaywrites,andaskingifthatbeing
wereorwerenoteducabletothestandardofapoliteguest.
Sothequestionthatweighedmostheavilyinthefieldwasprobablynotthescientists
question,Arethebaboonssocialsubjects?butratherthebaboonsinquiryIsthatbeing
asocialsubject?AndtheanswerwasprobablyNo.Dopeoplehaveaface?The
baboonswouldhavehadsomedoubtsaboutit.Dopeoplehaveabody?Itwasapparently
adiscoveryfortheonesShirleyStrummetinherownfield.AsHarawaysays,the
monkeys,inshort,inquiredwhetherthewomanwasagoodsocialsubjectasanordinary
baboon,withwhomonecouldfigureouthowtocarryonrelationships,whetherhostile,
neutral,orfriendly.
Smutsthereforehadtolearntobepolite,intheethical,political,andepistemological
sensesoftheword.Shelearnedtorespond,toacknowledge,tolookback,perhapsto
greet,asshesays.Shelearnedtorespectandtomakethisrespectthecoreofher
practice,theconditionoflearning.And,asshetellsus,herownbeingwastransformed:
Iintheprocessofgainingtheirtrust,changedalmosteverythingaboutme,including
thewayIwalkedandsat,thewayIheldmybodyandthewayIusedmyeyesandvoice.
IwaslearningawholenewwayofbeingintheworldthewayofbaboonsandIwas
graduallylearningtosendsuchsignalsbacktothem.Sheexplainsthat,havinglearned
thewaybaboonsexpresstheiremotions,motivationsorintentions,shecouldrespondto
theminwaysshepickedupfromthemandbeunderstood.Asaresult,thebaboons
startedtogiveherverydeliberatedirtylooks,whichmadehermoveaway.Thissignaleda
profoundchange:Smutswasnottreatedlikeanobject(toavoid),butwasrecognizedasa
subject,areliablesubjectwithwhombaboonscouldcommunicate,whowouldmove
awaywhentoldtodoso,andwithwhomthingscouldbeclearlyestablished.
WhatMowatpartiallyhasdone,inactinglikeawolfwhilemarkingaterritoryinordertobe
seen,maybelinkedtoSmutssprocessofundoingandredoingherownbody.They
becomeresponsible,inaslightlydifferentsenseofthewordtheonetowhomitis
possibletorespond,theonewhoconstructshim/herselfinordertobeavailabletoa
response.IthinkthatitisclosetowhatSmutshascalled,inalaterarticle,embodied
communicationcomparingittoadance:embodiedcommunication,likegreetingsin
baboonsorbetweenadogandhis/herhumanpartner,allatonceexpressestherelation,
andcreatesandchangesit[29].Embodiedempathy,therefore,onceagainshiftsslightly.
ContrarytoGrandin,Smutsdoesntassumethinking,orseeinglikeababoonsheis
actinglikeababoon,whichmeansshejustactsasif,whichinturntransformsher,as
WilliamJamesnicelyputsforwardinhistheoryofemotions.Empathyisnot,inthiscase,
experiencingwithonesownbodywhattheotherexperiences:itiscreatingthe
possibilitiesofanembodiedcommunication.Theasifconstructspartialaffinities
betweenbodies,itisacreativemodeofattunement.WhichalsomeansthatSmutsdoes
not(anddoesnotaimto)thinklikeababoon:shethinkswiththebaboons.Whenthey
gaveherdirtylooks,shehadtolearntoactwiththem,toleaveroomforthemtoresisther
propositionorherpresence.Actingwiththemisnottheresultbuttheveryconditionof
actinglikethem.Thebody,inthatcase,activelycreatespartialaffinities,learnsto
connectexperiencesasonegoesalong,andlearnstobecomewhatitbecomeswhenit
actsasif.AndthisseemstomewhatSmutshasachievedshefoundthatallatonce
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theconditionsandthestakesofreliableknowledgeistolearnhowtothinkwith.
Alastthought,toconclude:thisdefinitionIconstruefromSmutssworkhasthemeritof
relievingempathy,andthebody,ofthequestionofauthenticityandtruth,asusually
defined.Authenticityisdefinitivelynolongeratthesourceoftheeventwhenbodiesmeet.
Itcantbeallthemoresincethebeingswhomeetactasifinordertodiscloseand
createconnectionsandaffinitiesandIamcertainthatbaboonsdotheirpartofthejob
inthatstory,fromthebeginning:whatwouldbethemeaning,otherwise,ofthefactthat
greetingritualsexpressandcreatetherelation?butauthenticityisnotlost:ittestifiesto
theachievement.
[1]FarleyMowat,NevercryWolf,NewYork,BantamBook,1981,firsted.1963,p.77.
[2]SeeforexampleJeanBriggsbookNeverinAngeraboutherfieldstudiesofUtku
Eskimos.
[3]TheEmotionalLivesofAnimals,Novato,Ca.,NewWorldLibrary,2007,p.128.
[4]Haraway,Situatedknowledges:theSciencequestioninfeminismandtheprivilege
ofpartialperspectiveinSimians,CyborgsandWomen.ThereinventionofNature,
London,FreeassociationBooks,1991,p.189.
[5]Grandin,op.cit.,p.31.
[6]Ibid.,p.7.
[7]Grandin,op.cit.,p.67.
[8]WrittenbyCarolynJaniceCherryh.Thepeoplelivingonthatplanetdonotfeelany
emotions.Butitishardforthehumandiplomattonoticeit(andtopreventhimfrom
construingtheirbehaviorinemotionalterms).Theseotherbeingshavecreatedasocial
webmadeofallegiancesandloyaltieswhichorganizealliancesandconflictsinsucha
waythatitleadsthehumanobservertomistakethemwithourfeelingslikefriendship,
love,envy,hate,
[9]Grandin,op.cit.,p.69.Forthosewhoarecurious(asIwas)aboutthecausesofthis
strangebehavior(oftheroosters,ofcourse):therapistroosterswereasideeffectof
singletraitbreeding,whichcausesthelossofafixedactionpatternthatmakesroosters
performadanceritualbeforemating.Thisritualtriggersanotherfixedactionpatterninthe
hens,sothattheycrouchdownintoasexuallyreceptiveposition.Sincetheroostersdid
notperformthisdance,thehensstoppedcrouchingdownforthem,sotheroostershad
becomerapists.Besidesthat,Ihavethesamefeelingofoddity(thefactthatshe
disaffectivelycommentsonthestoryandatthesametimedisagreesheendsupsaying
thisisbad)whenshenarratesthedayshemetthefatherofbehaviorism,Skinner:asshe
askedhimifonecouldlearnhowthebrainworksheansweredwedontneedtolearn
aboutthebrain,wehaveoperantconditioning.ShewritesIrememberdrivingbackto
schoolgoingoverthisinmymind,andfinallysayingtomyself:IdontthinkIbelievethat
(Ibid.p.11)
[10]MoreoverGrandinprobablyhas,likemostpeoplediagnosedwithautism,excellent
reasonsforprivilegingtheinnatehypothesisforautism.Iamnotcontestingthis
hypothesishere.
[11]Thishasequallytobeunderstoodinthemostconcreteandpracticalsense.As
Grandinismostofthetimehiredtoimplementawelfareauditshechecksthe
meatpackingindustryforthewaypeopletreatanimals.Mostoftenwhenananimalresists
orbalksitisbecauseitsees,hearsorfeelssomethingthatscaresit.Usually,insuch
cases,peopleuseelectricprods.Grandindecidedthatplantscouldntpassherauditifthe
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employeesusedtheelectricprodonmorethan25percentoftheanimals.Thisledthe
farmindustrytoraisenewquestionsandtoaddressanimalsdifferently:whenananimalis
balking,theyhavetothink,topayattentiontotinydetails,totranslateinaworld
constructedandperceivedbyhumanbodies,thewayotherbodiesperceivewhiledoing
so,theychangethemeaningofthings,themeaningofattitudes,andrelationships.In
otherwords,Grandinempowerstheanimalsinthesensethatshegivesthemthepower
toforcehumanbeingstotransformtheirhabitsandtoaddressthemdifferently.
[12]InHaraway,ReadingBuchiEmeta,inSimians,CyborgsandWomen.The
reinventionofNature,op.cit.,p.113.
[13]Tobehonest,Ishouldconfessthatmyinterpretationraisessomeproblemsandis
deliberatelycandidlyoptimistic.InGrandinswork,thereisnoplacefordoubt,neither
aboutthewaysheconstructsherself(andthetermconstructismine,sheisherself),
norabouttheanalogysheiscreating,noraboutthewayanimalsperceiveitworks.The
asifwhichcouldremindherthatanalogiesareengagingproblematicconstructionsof
createdaffinities(IseetheworldasifIwasananimal)isabsent.ButIconsiderthat
partofmyworkasaphilosopherisaboutdisclosingpromisesandpossibilitiesin
reconstructingnarrativeswithslightshiftsthatenableustoinherit,aspolitelyandfruitfully
aspossible,fromtheseexperiences.
[14]ItakethisfromHaraway(ibid.,113)whowritesaboutthewaythatwomens
experienceisparticularlyliabletoderivefromandtocontributetoappropriation.
[15]Haraway,Situatedknowledgesop.cit,p.193.
[16]Therehavebeenmanycontroversiesaboutthisfield.Mowatwassuspectedof
havinginventedagoodpartofthestory.Forsome,hestayedonlyfourweeks(andnota
fewmonths,asheclaimed)inthefield,forothers,thewholestoryisafictionmoreover,
scientistsclaimtodaythatwolvesnevereatmice,etc.Iwillnottrytoseekforthetruth.
Myinterestisraisedbythefactthatabiologist(whichheis)couldimagine(orsay)thata
biologistinthefield(theIinthatstory)coulddointhe60sthingsthatwillbe(hardly)
allowedonlydecadeslater.Thesepracticesweredisallowedinprimatologyfirst,before
becomingstigmatizedinotherfields.
[17]SeeHaraway,WhenSpeciesMeet,Minneapolis,UniversityofMinnesotaPress,
2008,p.17.
[18]RobertKirk,AChanceObservation:EthologyandtheRecoveryofNatureofthe
LaboratoryAnimals,conferencegivenattheseminarAnimalSubjectsunder
Observation,MaxPlanckInstitute,Berlin,July,1012,2008.
[19]Mowat,op.cit.,p.60.LetusnoteinpassingthatMowatwassoenthusiasticabout
thiswayoflivingthathedecidedtokeepthewolfsnaphabitafterhisreturnto
civilization,whichrendersthisreturnrathermorecomplicated:ayoungladyofwhomI
wasenamoredatthetimepartedcompanywithme.Shehadrather,shetoldme
vehemently,spendherlifewithagrasshopperwhohadrickets,thanspendonemorenight
inbedwithme.(p.61)
[20]Mowat,op.cit.,p.48.
[21]LAnimalquedoncjesuis,Paris,Gallile,1997.
[22]Ibid.
[23]Despitemycriticisms,thankstoDerridaforintroducingthisintophilosophy.
[24]MentionedinDominiqueGuillo,Deschiensetdeshumains,Paris,LePommier,
2009,pp.178179.
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[25]Neuroevolutionnarysourcesoflaughterandsocialjoy:Modelingprimalhuman
laughterinlaboratoryratsBehavioralBrainResearch,2007,182,231244.
[26]Op.cit.,p.54.
[27]Ibid,p.56.
[28]ExcerptsfromStrum,andthecommentsgivenbyHarawayaretakenfromHaraway,
WhenSpeciesmeet,op.cit.,pp.2426.
[29]B.SmutsEmbodiedcommunicationinnonhumananimals,inAlanFogel,
BarabaraKingandStuartShanker(eds)HumandevelopmentintheTwentyFirstCentury,
Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2008,136146,p.142.
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