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ssessment of Children
Cognitive Foundations
Fifth Edition
Jerome Me Sattler
Jerome M. Sattler
Fifth Edition
Cognitive Foundations
Assessment of Children
Jerome M . Sattler, Publisher, Inc .
San Diego
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Summary
Multimethod Assessment
'!Ypes of Assessment
Tests not accompanied by detailed data on their construction, validation, uses, and limitations should be suspect.
Summary
Study Questions
CHALLENGES
' IN
.ASSESSING CHILDREN:
THE PROCESS
.
CHAPTER 1
( Continued)
Psychological reports do count. Psychological reports are
key documents used by mental health professionals, teachers,
administrators, physicians, courts, parents, and children.
Words can be misinterpreted. A pivotal factor in the case
was the meaning of the words reevaluate and retest. Participants in the case, including judges, assigned different meanings
his late teenage years. Mr. Hoffman had made poor progress
during his school years, and there had been no significant
change in his severe speech defect. At the age of 17, he entered a sheltered workshop for youths with mental retardation.
After a few months in the program, he was given the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale and obtained a Verbal Scale 10 of 85,
a Performance Scale 10 of 107, and a Full Scale 10 of 94. His
overall functioning was in the Normal range. On the basis of
these findings. Mr. Hoffman was not permitted to remain at the
Occupational Training Center. On learning of this decision, he
became depressed. often staying in his room at home with the
door closed.
Mr. Hoffman tlien received assistance from the DiVision of
Vocational Rehabilit'ation. At the age of 21. he was trained to
be a messenger, but he did not like this work. At the time of the
trial, he had obtained no further training or education, had not
advanced vocationally, and had not improved his social life.
his late teenage years. Mr. Hoffman had made poor progress
during his school years, and there had been no significant
change in his severe speech defect. At the age of 17, he entered a sheltered workshop for youths with mental retardation.
After a few months in the program, he was given the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale and obtained a Verbal Scale 10 of 85,
a Performance Scale 10 of 107, and a Full Scale 10 of 94. His
overall functioning was in the Normal range. On the basis of
these findings, Mr. Hoffman was not permitted to remain at the
Occupational Training Center. On learning of this decision, he
became depressed, often staying in his room at home with the
door closed.
Mr. Hoffman tlien received assistance from the Division of
Vocational Rehabilitation. At the age of 21, he was trained to
be messenger, but he did not like this work. At the time of the
trial, he had obtained no further training or education, had not
advanced vocationally, and had not improved his social life.
a:
Introduction
The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City
of New York is instructive because it illustrates the important role
that testing and psychological reports can play in people's lives.
In this case, a psychological report contained a recommendation that was ignored by the school administrators. Years later,
when the case was tried, the failure to follow the recommendations became a key issue.
Exhibit 1-1
Psychological Reports Do Count: The Case of Daniel Hoffman
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Basis of Litigation
Daniel Hoffman, a 26-year-old man, brought suit against the
New York City Board of Education in 1978 to recover damages
for injuries resulting from his placement in classes for the mentally retarded. The complaint alleged that (a) the Board was ..
negligent in its original testing procedures and placement of Mr.
Hoffman, causing or permitting him to be placed in an edlJcational environment for mentally retarded children and consequently depriving him of adequate speech therapy, which would
have addressed his diagnosed disability, a speech impediment,
and (b) the Board was negligent in failing or refusing to follow
adequate procedures for the recommended retesting of Mr.
Hoffman's intelligence. After entering special education classes,
he remained in them throughout his school years.
Basis of Litigation
Daniel Hoffman, a 26-year-old man, brought suit against the
New York City Board of Education in 1978 to recover damages
for injuries resulting from his placement in classes for the mentally retarded. The complaint alleged that (a) the Board was ..
negligent in its original testing procedures and placement of Mr..
Hoffman. causing or permitting him to be placed in an edllcational environment for mentally retarded children and consequently depriving him of adequate speech therapy, which would
have addressed his diagnosed disability, a speech impediment,
and (b) the Board was negligent in failing or refusing to follow
adequate procedures for the recommended retesting of Mr.
Hoffman's intelligence. After entering special education classes,
he remained in them throughout his school years.
Introduction
The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City
of New York is instructive because it illustrates the important role
that testing and psychological reports can play in people's lives.
In this case, a psychological report contained a recommendation that was ignored by the school administrators. Years later,
when the case was tried, the failure to follow the recommendations became a key issue.
Exhibit 1-1
Psychological Reports Do Count: The Case of Daniel Hoffman
( Continued)
CHAPTER 1
.'
'.
-.-.'.
- .
-.
Exhibit 1~~(Colitinued)
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:Note. The citations for this case are .41 0 N. y. S.2d 99 and 400 N. E.2d 317-49 N. Y.2d 121.
to.these words. Therefore, careful attention must be given to the
wording of reports.' Reports must be written clearly, with findingsand recommendations stated as precisely as possible,and
carefully proofread. ,
lOs ohange.Childre!1's IQs do not 'remain static. Although
thereissubs~ntial stability after children reach 6 years of age,
their IQsdo 9hange.
Differenttests.may provide different/Os. The three lOs obtained by Mr. Hoffman at 5,6,and 18years of age may reflect
differences in. the content and standardization of the three tests,
rather than genuine changes in cognitive performance.
interviewing parents' before' conduCting a formal evaluatio(l
is important. An.interview with the parents (or other key adults)
may provide valuable information aboutthe child's development,
prior assessments, and any prior'interventionsthat,the child nilceivedandtheir effectiveness.
.
Decisionsmusfbe based on more thai1'ime assessment
approach. A -battery of psychological tests and procedures, including aChievement tests, along with interViews with parents
and teachers and reports from teachers, should be used in the
assessmenLprocess. All available information, including the
an
<
A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation intended to identify children who are at risk for developing
certain disorders or disabilities, who are eligible for certain programs, who have a disorder or disability in need
of remediation, or who need a more comprehensive assessment. Screening may involve, for example, evaluating
the readiness of children to enter kindergarten programs or
programs for the gifted and talented. Decisions based on
a screening assessment should not be viewed as definitive
and should be revised, if necessary, as new information
becomes available.
Afocused assessment is a detailed evaluati6n of-a specific
area of functioning. The assessment may address a diagnostic question (e.g., Does the child have attention deficit!
hyperactivity disorder?), a skill question (e.g., Does the
child exhibit a verbal memory deficit?), or an etiological
question (e.g., Why is the child failing mathematics?). The
examiner may also examine, at his or her discretion and
on the basis of clinical judgment, additional areas such
as reading ability. Settings in which time and financial
pressures are severe (such as private medical facilities,
schools, and health maintenance organizations) often use a
focused or problem-solving assessment instead of a longer
and more expensive diagnostic assessment.
A diagnostic assessment is a detailed evaluation of a child's
strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cognitive, academic, language, behavioral, emotional, and social
functioning. It may be conducted for a variety of reasons,
including establishing a diagnosis (determining the classification that best reflects the child's level and type of
functioning and/or assisting in the determination of mental
disorder or educational disabilities) and suggesting educational or clinical placements, programs, and interventions.
A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a
child's abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
Assessment is a way of understanding a child in order to make
informed decisions about the child. There are several types of
assessment, including screening assessments, focused assessments, diagnostif: assessments, counseling and rehabilitation
assessments, progress evaluation assessments, and problemsolving assessments.
u-
t
I
typical and gifted children, in order to develop skills with different populations. Thir~, although this text covers the major
psychological instruments used to assess children, it does not
cover all of them, nor does it cover more than a small fraction of the thousands of informal assessment procedures used
by clinicians and researchers. New editions of assessment instruments and new procedures will be published throughout
your career. You will need to study these materials carefully
in order to use them effectively. The principles you willieam
in this text will help you evaluate many kinds of assessment
tools with a more discerning eye.
The text summarizes the reliability and validity information presented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a
comprehensive review of all the published research on each
measure. You will need to keep abreast of current research
on assessment and intervention throughout your training and
career. You will want to pay close attention to research on
the reliability and Validity of the tests, interview procedures,
observational techniques, behavioral checklists, and oilie~/
relevant assessment techniques. You may also want to conduct your own informal (and formal) research on intelligence
tests, tests of special abilities, interviewing, observation, and
other assessment procedures.
You will want to pay close attention to new findings about
children with special needs. In order to work with children
with special needs, you will have to become familiar with state
and federal regulations concerning the practice of clinical and
school psychology. It is especially important that those conducting assessments understand state and federal regulations
that address nonbiased assessment, classification of disabling
A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation intended to identify children who are at risk for developing
certain disorders or disabilities, who are eligible for certain programs, who have a disorder or disability in need
of remediation, or who need a more comprehensive assessment. Screening may involve, for example, evaluating
the readiness of children to enter kindergarten programs or
programs for the gifted and talented. Decisions based on
a screening assessment should not be viewed as definitive
and should be revised, if necessary, as new information
becomes available.
Afocused assessment is a detailed evaluati6n of-a specific
area of functioning. The assessment may address a diagnostic question (e.g., Does the child have attention deficit!
hyperactivity disorder?), a skill question (e.g., Does the
child exhibit a verbal memory deficit?), or an etiological
question (e.g., Why is the child failing mathematics?). The
examiner may also examine, at his or her discretion and
on the basis of clinical judgment, additional areas such
as reading ability. Settings in which time and financial
pressures are severe (such as private medical facilities,
schools, and health maintenance organizations) often use a
focused or problem-solving assessment instead of a longer
and more expensive diagnostic assessment.
A diagnostic assessment is a detailed evaluation of a child's
strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cognitive, academic, language, behavioral, emotional, and social
functioning. It may be conducted for a variety of reasons,
including establishing a diagnosis (determining the classification that best reflects the child's level and type of
functioning and/or assisting in the determination of mental
disorder or educational disabilities) and suggesting educational or clinical placements, programs, and interventions.
A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a
child's abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily
typical and gifted children, in order to develop skills with difconditions, eligibility criteria for special education programs,
ferent populations. Thir~, although this text covers the major
designing individualized educational programs, and confidentiality and safekeeping of records. Those who work in
psychological instruments used to assess children, it does not
cover all of them, nor does it cover more than a small fracschool settings will need to know about and follow precisely
tion of the thousands of informal assessment procedures used
such federal regulations as the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act of 2004 (public Law 108-446,
by clinicians and researchers. New editions of assessment instruments and new procedures will be published throughout
or IDEIA; also referred to as IDEA 2004), Section 504 of the
your career. You will need to study these materials carefully
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Americans with Disabilities
in order to use them effectively. The principles you willieam
Act (ADA), and the Fa,mily Educational Rights to Privacy Act
(FERPA). These laws are discussed in Chapter 3.
in this text will help you evaluate many kinds of assessment
tools with a more discerning eye.
The text summarizes the reliability and validity information presented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
comprehensive review of all the published research on each
measure. You will need to keep abreast of current research
Assessment
is
a
way
of
understanding
a child in order to make
on assessment and intervention throughout your training and
informed
decisions
about
the child. There are several types of
career. You will want to pay close attention to research on
.
assessment,
including
screening assessments, focused assessthe reliability and Validity of the tests, interview procedures,
ments,
diagnostif:
assessments, counseling and rehabilitation
observational techniques, behavioral checklists, and oilie~/
assessments,
progress evaluation assessments, and problemrelevant assessment techniques. You may also want to consolving assessments.
duct your own informal (and formal) research on intelligence
tests, tests of special abilities, interviewing, observation, and
other assessment procedures.
You will want to pay close attention to new findings about
children with special needs. In order to work with children
with special needs, you will have to become familiar with state
and federal regulations concerning the practice of clinical and
school psychology. It is especially important that those conducting assessments understand state and federal regulations
that address nonbiased assessment, classification of disabling
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resent the domain of interest addressed by the test. The test
instructions, wording of items, probing questions, recording
of responses, time limits, and scoring criteria (with objective
guidelines and examples) are specified in detail in the test
manuals so that they can be used by:hll examiners in the same
way. Test authors design standard procedures to reduce the
effect of personal biases of examiners and to reduce extraneous sources of influence on the child's performance (see
Chapter 2). The intent of a norm-referenced test is to provide
a fair and equitable comparison of children by providing objective, quantitative scores.
Norm-referenced measures are scaled so that each score
reflects a rank within the norm group (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of psychometric issues). Norm-referenced measures
have been designed to assess, for example, individual differences in intelligence, reading, mathematics, problem solving,
organizational skills, writing, attention, visual-motor skills,
gross- and fine-motor skills, and behavior. Although we are
fortunate to have a choice of well-standardized and psychometrically sound tests with which to evaluate children, some
tests do not meet psychometric standards. When you have
completed your study of this text, you will be able to evaluate
which tests have adequate psychometric standards.
Norm-referenced measures are an economical and efficient
means of sampling behavior within a few hours and quantifying a child's functioning. Quantification (Le., assigning
numbers to responses) serves several purposes. First, it gives
a picture of the child's cognitive, motor, and behavioral defi-
responsibilities. Possible responses to treatment and potential for J:ecovery (e.g., in cases of traumatic brain injury)
also are considered.
A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's
progress over time, such as day to day, week to week,
month to month, or year to year. It is used to evaluate
changes in the child's development, skills, or abilities and
in the effectiveness of intervention procedures.
A problem-solving assessment focuses on specific types of
problems (e.g., dyslexia) in a series of steps from problem
identification to problem analysis, intervention, and outcome evaluation.
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responsibilities. Possible responses to treatment and potential for J:ecovery (e.g., in cases of traumatic brain injury)
also are considered.
A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's
progress over time, such as day to day, week to week,
month to month, or year to year. It is used to evaluate
changes in the child's development, skills, or abilities and
in the effectiveness of intervention procedures.
A problem-solving assessment focuses on specific types of
problems (e.g., dyslexia) in a series of steps from problem
identification to problem analysis, intervention, and outcome evaluation.
5
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Hi
CHAPTER 1
4
CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS
:if"
Interviews
CHILD
PARENT
Table 1"1
You will gain valuable assessment information by interviewing a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other individuals familiar with the child. (Note that the term parents
refers to the child's parents or to other caregivers, such as
foster parents, grandparents, or other relatives who are raising
the child.) Results of an assessment may be meaningless or
inconclusive if you examine the child without interviewing
those who play an important role in his or her life.
Unstructured or semistructured interviews are less rigid
than formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey information in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in
their own words--opportunities that neither may have while
taking or admifiistering standardized tests. Unstructured interviews are usually open-ended, without a set agenda. Semistructured interviews provide a list of questions, but the focus
of the interview can change as needed. Structured interviews
provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of questions usually
designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis. In addition, all
three inter:view formats allow direct observation of a child's
social interaction skills, language skills, and communication
skills. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 in Sattler and Roge (2006) discuss
interviewing techniques, and Appendix B in that text includes
15 semistructured interviews for obtaining information from
parents and teachers about normal development and several
childhood developmental disorders. Clinical and Forensic
Interviewing of Children and Families (Sattler, 1998) also
discusses interviewing techniques, including those needed
for child maltreatment investigations. Another valuable resource for interviewing children is the text by McConaughy
(2005a).
Following are some examples of the types of information
that you can obtain from unstructured and semistructured interviews with a child, a parent, and a teacher.
You will gain valuable assessment information by interviewing a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other individuals familiar with the child. (Note that the term parents
refers to the child's parents or to other caregivers, such as
foster parents, grandparents, or other relatives who are raising
the child.) Results of an assessment may be meaningless or
inconclusive if you examine the child without interviewing
those who play an important role in his or her life.
Unstructured or semistructured interviews are less rigid
than formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey information in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in
their own words--opportunities that neither may have while
taking or administering standardized tests. Unstructured interviews are usually open-ended, without a set agenda. Semistructured intervitnvs provide a list of questions, but the focus
of the interview can change as needed. Structured interviews
provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of questions usually
designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis. In addition, all
three inter:view formats allow direct observation of a child's
social interaction skills, language skills, and communication
skills. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 in Sattler and Hoge (2006) discuss
interviewing techniques, and Appendix B in that text includes
15 semistructured interviews for obtaining information from
parents and teachers about normal development and several
childhood developmental disorders. Clinical and Forensic
Interviewing of Children and Families (SattIer, 1998) also
discusses interviewing techniques, including those needed
for child maltreatment investigations. Another valuable resource for interviewing children is the text by McConaughy
(2005a).
Following are some examples of the types of information
that you can obtain from unstructured and semistructured interviews with a child, a parent, and a teacher.
Interviews
Table 1-1
Examples of Information Obtained from
Behavioral Observations
PARENT
CHILD
I:
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7
Background Questionnaire,
Personal Data Questionnaire, and
School Referral Questionnaire
you in choosing an assessTo define the prob,lems as seen by the referral source and assist
also need to be assessed to
ment battery. AreC),s not mentioned in the referral document may
iate interventions.
determine the cause of the problems and/or to develop appropr
r from a parent, the child,
To gather useful information about the child and the problem behavio
(2006).
and a teacher, respectively. See Appendix A in Sattler and Hoge
Behavioral Observations
Role playing
Self-monitoring records
--
"
Personal documents
Table 1-2
Examples of Informal Assessment Procedures
Purpose
Procedure
To determine whether a child has reached a performance standard, usually in some academic
subject area or skill area. Districtwide and teacher-made criterion-referenced tests give information about the child's competencies in mastering the classroom curriculum.
--.-~--~~~---------------,
--------~---------------+------
Criterion-referenced tests
Criterion-referenced tests
'.
Referral docume nt
TEACHER
To evaluate the breadth of the child's writing skills. Examples are essays, term papers, and written answers to test questions.
Informal assessments of
reading ability
Purpose
To provide information about the child's achievement record, behavior"and attendance in school
over time, which allows comparison of the child's current school performance and prior school
performance.
Procedure
To evaluate factors that may contribute to the child's reading difficulties. Examples are phonics
tests and reading fluency tests.
--------------------------------~---------------
Table 1-2
To provide information about the child's past and current health history, developmental hIstory,
and medication history.
Medical records
--~----------------.~-~--
Personal documents
~
To provide information about the child's thoughts and perceptions at the time the documents
were written. If documents were written at different times, they also reveal changes in the child's
thoughts and perceptions over time. Examples are diaries, poems, stories, drawings, and musical compositions.
. .
'j
--------.------~--~~-~------
Self-monitoring records
To monitor the child's behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Chapter 9 in Sattler and Hoge (2006)
provides several self-monitoring forms.
Role playing
To allow observation of the child's behavior in a simulated situation. For example, you could
evaluate how the child feels about speaking in front of the classroom by assuming the role of
the teacher and asking the child to play himself or herself.
.~ _____ .~.
Referral document
To define the problems as seen by the referral source and assist you in choosing an assessment battery. Are~s not mentioned in the referral document may also need to be assessed to
determine the cause of the problems and/or to develop appropriate interventions.
Behavioral Observations
Background Questionnaire,
Personal Data Questionnaire, and
School Referral Questionnaire
---~-~
To gather useful information about the child and the problem behavior from a parent, the child,
and a teacher, respectively. See Appendix A in Sattler and Hoge (2006).
~_
--------.~.-.
TEACHER
_.
-~~-------
To provide information about the child's family, foster family, or adopted family; involvement in
~~ __ --.!.he juvenile justice systemi or child maltreatment.
____ _ _ _~ .~.. _
Ii
CHAPTER 1
MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT
.Or~llaflguage
Teachers . ..
OWer !amily~embers
. Other informants
Child's records and
previous evaluation:3
-Motor skills .
.. Assessment Methods
. Areas Assessed
.-Intelligence
Sources of Data
.Referral source
. Assessment Methods
.Child
Norm-referenced measures
Interviews
-Parellts
Obtain information about the child's medical, developmental, academic, familial, and social history
Obtain information about the child's current cognitive, acadefnic, behavioral, social, and interpersonal functioning
Determine the child's cognitive, academic, and social
strengths and weaknesses
Understand the nature, presence, and degree of any disabling conditions that the child might have
Behavioral observations
-Informal assessment
.procedures
.Achievement
.. Auditoryskills
Motor skills
-Oral. language
MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT
-Adaptive behavior
Socialcemotionalpersonality functioning
CHAPTER 1
i
Guide students in selecting educational and vocational
programs
Monitor cognitive, academic, or social cbanges in the child
(and in the family, scbool, and community as needed)
Measure the effectiveness of interventions
Table 1-3
Factors to Consider in a Multimethod Assessment
Referral Information
Referral source
Reason for referral
Behaviors of concern to referral source
MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT
Assessment Findings
Interventions
Assessment Findings
Description of problem behavior, such as (a) its origin,
(b) age of child when it began, (c) its frequency, duration,
intensity, and severity, and (d) its antecedents and
consequences
Overall level of inteiligence, level of verbal ability, level of
nonverbal abilitY, and cognitive strengths and weaknesses
Reading ability, such as decoding, phonemic awareness,
reading comprehension, and reading fluency
Written language ability, such as spelling, writing mechanics,
and written expression
Interventions
Child's, family's, and school's expectations for changes in the
child's behavior
Most feasible interventions, including educational programs
and settings, given family, school, and community resources
Realistic goals
PrognOSis
(For reevaluations) Changes in functioning
Referral source
Reason for referral
Behaviors of concern to referral source
k.
Cross-validate impressions provided by multiple infonnants
Determine the conditions that inhibit or support the acquisition of appropriate skills
Obtain baseline infonnation prior to the implementation
of an intervention program
Develop useful instructional programs
Table 1-3
Factors to Consider in a Multimethod Assessment
MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT
Table 1-4
Guidelines That Form a Foundation for the Assessment Process
how assessment results directly affect children'and their parents. You must be careful about the words you choose when
writing reports and when communicating with ciiildren, their
families, and other professionals. Your work is a major professional contribution to children and their families, to their
schools, and to society.
Background
Assessment should be used for the benefit of the child.
Assessment should be a systematic process of arriving at an
understanding of a child.
Table 1-4
Guidelines That Form a Foundation for the Assessment Process
10
CHAPTER 1
~.::
how assessment results directly affect children'and their parents. You must be careful about the words you choose when
writing reports and when communicating with children, their
families, and other professionals. Your work is a major professional contribution to children and tbeir families, to their
schools, and to society.
GUIDELINES FOR
CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS
well-defined rules.
recommendations.
Background
Assessment should be used for the benefit of the child.
Assessment should be a systematic process of arriving at an
understanding of a child.
GUIDELINES FOR
CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS
CHAPTER 1
10
............................................................
dIiiI'~
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,
You are not obligated to accept all referrals, nor do you need
to give all children who are referred to you a complete assess-
Step 2
Step 1
When you receive a referral, read it carefully and, if necessary, consult with the referral source to clarify any ambiguous
or vague information. For example, if a teacher asks you to
find out why a child is having difficulty in class, you will want
to know the teacher's specific concerns (e.g., reading deficit,
inattention, social skills deficit). You may find it necessary to
redefine the referral question to focus on a particular concern.
You: will want to know what the referral source expects you
to accomplish and to identify the areas of most concern to the
refe~al source. If you can't identify these areas, it will be difficult to formulate an appropriate assessment strategy. If you
can identify these areas and identify the referral source's expectations, you will begin the assessment on a firm footing.
Remember that you and the referral source are working
together to help the child. You want to establish rapport and a
good working relationship with the referral source. Communication and decision making will be easier if you and the referral source share a common vocabulary and agree about the
referral question. Rapport with the referral source also may
help you with the assessment process, as that person may be
able to provide timely access to school records, conduct classroom observations, and contact other individuals with insights
about the child. Finally, a referral s()lfce who has confidence
in the process and results of an assessment will be more likely
to implement appropriate interventions.
Describe the assessment procedures to the referral source,
and discuss potential benefits and limitations (e.g., placement
in a special education program, effect of the testing process
on the child). In some cases, based only on the information
provided by the referral source, you may be able to suggest
interventions that can be implemented in the classroom prior
to a formal assessment. If the child's problem behavior is alleviated, a formal assessment may not be needed. Some school
districts have prereferral committees or teacher support tearns
to work with teachers who have concerns about students'
academic performance or behavior. Prereferral committees
may recommend interventions. Their advice may reduce the
number of children unnecessarily referred for assessment,
making it easier to provide prompt and intensive services to
those most in need of individual assessment.
Step 3
Step 5
Step 4
11
Write a report
Step 10
Step 11
Step 9
Step 7
Step 8
Step 8
Write a report
Step 7
Step 9
Step 6
Step 10
When you receive a referral, read it carefully and, if necessary, consult with the referral source to clarify any ambiguous
or vague information. For example, if a teacher asks you to
find out why a child is having difficulty in class, you will want
to know the teacher's specific concerns (e.g., reading deficit,
inattention, social skills deficit). You may find it necessary to
redefine the referral question to focus on a particular concern.
You will want to know what the referral source expects you
to accomplish and to identify the areas of most concern to the
refe~al source. If you can't identify these areas, it will be difficult to formulate an appropriate assessment strategy. If you
can identify these areas and identify the referral source's expectations, you will begin the assessment on a firm footing.
Remember that you and the referral source are working
together to help the child. You want to establish rapport and a
good working relationship with the referral source. Communication and decision making will be easier if you and the referral source share a common vocabulary and agree about the
referral question. Rapport with the referral source also may
help you with the assessment process, as that person may be
able to provide timely access to school records, conduct classroom observations, and contact other individuals with insights
about the child. Finally, a referral s()Jlfce who has confidence
in the process and results of an assessment will be more likely
to implement appropriate interventions.
Describe the assessment procedures to the referral source,
and discuss potential benefits and limitations (e.g., placement
in a special education program, effect of the testing process
on the child). In some cases, based only on the information
provided by the referral source, you may be able to suggest
interventions that can be implemented in the classroom prior
to a formal assessment. If the child's problem behavioris alleviated, a formal assessment may not be needed. Some school
districts have prereferral committees or teacher support teams
to work with teachers who have concerns about students'
academic performance or behavior. Prereferral committees
may recommend interventions. Their advice may reduce the
number of children unnecessarily referred for assessment,
making it easier to provide prompt and intensive services to
those most in need of individual assessment.
StepS
Decide whether
Step 11
<
Step 6
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
You are not obligated to accept all referrals, nor do you need
to give all children who are referred to you a complete assess-
<
11
I
Generally, if problems are likely neurological or physiological, you should refer the child to a specialist in the appropriate area. If you decide to conduct the evaluation, obtain
from the parents.
j
""i
12
Generally, if problems are likely neurological or physiological~ you should refer the child to a specialist in the appropriate area. If you decide to conduct the evaluation, obtain
pe~ssion from the parents.
12
PS'YCHOLOGISl"
SCflOOL.
13
--
-'
-'-'~-'
8CflOOl..
PSYCHOLOGISi
example, a reading fluency test with brief items will not address a referral question about the child's inability to comprehend textbook chapters; likewise, a short-tenn memory test
will not answer questions about long-tenn recall difficulties.The questions in Table 1-5 will help Y9U evaluate assessment
instruments and determine whether a test is appropriate for a
particular child. You should consider these questions for each
assessment instrument you use, to ensure that it is appropriate
for the child and for the specific purpose for which it will be
used. Carefully study the infonnation contained in each test
manual, such as the reliability and validity of the test and the
norm group. Use tests only for the purposes recommended
by the test publisher, unless there is evidence to support other
uses for a test.
For infonnation on a vast number of tests, consult the latest
edition of the Mental Measurements Yearbook. Consult Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American
Educational Research Association, American Psychological
Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999) for infonnation about technical and professional
standards for test construction and use. Journals that review
tests and present research on assessment include Psychological Assessment, Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment,
Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology Review, Journal of Clinical Psychology, Journal of School Psychology,
Educational and Psychological Measurement, Intelligence,
Applied Psychological Measurement, Journal of Educational
Psychology, Journal of Educational Measurement, School
Psychology QlIaJ1erly, and Journal of Personality Assess-
ITIJ
Information obtained from observations will help you individualize the clinical evaluation and will supplement the
more objective test information. You will want to observe the
child in several school settings and at home, if possible. For
example, after visiting the classroom, you should be able to
answer questions such as these: What is the classroom environment like? Is the curriculum appropriate for the child?
What instructional strategies and rewards are being used and
how effective are they? Row does the child's behavior compare to that of other children? Careful observation will help
you to develop hypotheses about the child's coping behaviors. Ask the teacher to tell the students that you are there to
observe the class so that they do not wonder about why you
are there. If you (or a social worker) visit the child's home,
ask a parent to tell the family that you are there. to observe
the family.
Classroom and home visits provide added benefits, including the opportunity to establish rapport with the child, teachers, and parents and to observe such aspects of the child's
environment as the layout and structure of the classroom and
the home (see Chapters 8 and 9 on behavioral observations in
Sattler and Roge, 2006). Developing a collaborative relationship with the child's teachers and parents will be important
both during assessment and during any subsequent interventions. When you observe in these settings, avoid interfering
with classroom or home routines, and remind the adults that
you don't want the child to. know that you are there to observe
him or her. Ask the teachers or parents to follow their usual
routines when you are present.
Also, ask the teacher, parent, or other adult whether the
behavior the child exhibited is typical and, if atypical, how it
differed from his or her usual behavior. Although you should
make every effort to reduce the parents' or teachers' anxiety about your visit, they must understand that their behavior
may be part of the problem and that changes in their behavior may be part of the solution. You should therefore observe
how the behaviors of the ,parents and teachers affect the child.
The behaviors of a child and his or her parents or teachers
are usually so .interdependent that it is almost impossible to
exariiine the child's behavior without evaluating that of the
parents or teachers.
NOW
SERVING
Infonnation obtained from observations will help you individualize the clinical evaluation and will supplement the
more objective test infonnation. You will want to observe the
child in several school settings and at home, if possible. For
example, after visiting the classroom, you should be able to
answer questions such as these: What is the classroom environment like? Is the curriculum appropriate for the child?
What instructional strategies and rewards are being used and
how effective are they? Row does the child's behavior compare to that of other children? Careful observation will help
you to develop hypotheses about the child's coping behaviors. Ask the teacher to tell the students that you are there to
observe the class so that they do not wonder about why you
are there. If you (or a social worker) visit the child's home,
ask a parent to tell the family that you are there. to observe
the family.
Classroom and home visits provide added benefits, including the opportunity to establish rapport with the child, teachers, and parents and to observe such aspects of the child's
environment as the layout and structure of the classroom and
the home (see Chapters 8 and 9 on behavioral observations in
Sattler and Roge, 2006). Developing a collaborative relationship with the child's teachers and parents will be important
both during assessment and during any subsequent interventions. When you observe in these settings, avoid interfering
with classroom or home routines, and remind the adults that
you don't want the clilld to. know that you are there to observe
him or her. Ask the teachers or parents to follow their usual
routines when you are present.
Also, ask the teacher, parent, or other adult whether the
behavior the child exhibited is typical and, if atypical, how it
differed from'tJis or her usual behavior. Although you should
make every effort to reduce the parents' or teachers' anxiety about your visit, they must understand that their behavior
may be part of the problem and that changes in their behavior may be part of the solution. You should therefore observe
how the behaviors of the ,parents and teachers affect the child.
The behaviors of a cIilld and his or her parents or teachers
are usually so .interdependent that it is almost impossible to
examine the child's behavior without evaluating that of the
parents or teachers.
13
example, a reading fluency test with brief items will not address a referral question about the child's inability to comprehend textbook chapters; likewise, a short-term memory test
will not answer questions about long-term recall difficulties.The questions in Table 1-5 will help Y9u evaluate assessment
instruments and determine whether a test is appropriate for a
particular child. You should consider these questions for each
assessment instrument you use, to ensure that it is appropriate
for the child and for the specific purpose for which it will be
used. Carefully study the information contained in each test
manual, such as the reliability and validity of the test and the
norm group. Use tests only for the purposes recommended
by the test publisher, unless there is evidence to support other
uses for a test.
For information on a vast number of tests, consult the latest
edition of the Mental Measurements Yearbook. Consult Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American
Educational Research Association, American Psychological
Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999) for information about technical and professional
standards for test construction and use. Journals that review
tests and present research on assessment include Psychological Assessment, loumal of Psychoeducational Assessment,
Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology Review, lournal of Clinical Psychology, loumal of School Psychology,
Educational and Psychological Measurement, Intelligence,
Applied Psychological Measurement, loumal of Educational
Psychology, loumal of Educational Measurement, School
Psychology Quarterly, and loumal of Personality Assess-
14
Table 1-5
Questions to Conside~ When Reviewing an Assess ment Measur
e
Information About the Assessment Measur e
1. What is the name of the assessment measure?
2. Who are the authors?
3. Who published it?
4. When was it published?
5. What is the purpose of the assessment measure?
6. What do the reviewers say about the assessment measure?
7. When were the norms collected?
8. Are the populations to which the norms refer clearly defined
and described?
9. Are norms reported in an appropriate form (usually as standard scores or percentile ranks)?
10. What was the standardization group?
11. How representative was the standardization group?
12. Are data presented about the performance of diverse
groups on the test?
13. What reliability measures are provided and how reliable is
the assessment measure?
14. What validity measures are provided and how valid is the
assessment measure for its stated purposes?
15. If a factor analysis has been performed, what were the
results?
16. How recently was the assessment measure revised?
Child Considerations
Child Considerations
CHAPTER 1
Table 15
Questions to Conside~ When Reviewing an Assessment Measure
14
15
Should I use a group test or an individually administered test? In order to decide whether to use group or
individually administered tests, you will again need to consider the referral question. How important is it that tests be
administered individually? Would group tests be as effective
as individual tests in answering the referral question? Are
there any motivational, personality, linguistic, or physical
disability factors that may impair the child's performance on
group tests?
Individually administered tests are more expensive and time
consuming than group tests, but they are essential as supplements to--or sometimes replacements for-group tests. Individually administered tests can also provide a second opinion
when results of group tests are questionable or when you need
to observe the child's performance. Finally, individually administered tests are usually reqnired when children are evaluated for special education services or when testing is court
ordered.
Group tests are valuable when a large number of nonreferred children need to be evaluated in a short period of time.
Group tests, however, are not frequently used in the assessment
of children with special needs for four reasons (Newcomer &
Bryant, 1993). First, group tests usually require some degree
of reading proficiency (e.g., to read the directions), and many
children with special needs have reading difficulties. Individually administered tests, in contrast, usually rely on examiners
to read the test directions and interact verbally with children.
(Obviously, individually administered tests designed to measure reading ability require children to read.)
Second, because children taking group tests typically complete them by filling in bubbles, circling letters, or underlining
answers instead of giving their answers orally, it is difficult
to determine whether they know the answers or are merely
guessing. (This is tru~ ef any multiple-choice test, whether
a group test or an individually administered one.) Students
with visual perceptual problems or attention problems may
have difficulty using answer sheets correctly. They may, for
example, follow instructions to skip difficult items but forget
to skip corresponding items on the answer sheet. Also, group
tests do not allow you to observe the child's behavior as he or
she solves problems.
Third, group tests tend to use recognition rather than recall,
requiring children to select one out of several answers. Although some individually administered tests require the child
to select an answer from four or five choices (e.g., WISC-N
Matrix Reasoning subtest, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-3,
Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised Normative
Update, and Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence),
most have children answer questions directly rather than
choosing the correct answer from among several.
Should I use a group test or an individually administered test? In order to decide whether to use group or
individually administered tests, you will again need to consider the referral question. How important is it that tests be
administered individually? Would group tests be as effective
as individual tests in answering the referral question? Are
there any motivational, personality, linguistic, or physical
disability factors that may impair the child's performance on
group tests?
Individually administered tests are more expensive and time
consuming than group tests, but they are essential as supplements to--or sometimes replacements for-group tests. Individually administered tests can also provide a second opinion
when results of group tests are questionable or when you need
to observe the child's performance. Finally, individually administered tests are usually required when children are evaluated for special education services or when testing is court
ordered.
Group tests are valuable when a large number of nonreferred children need to be evaluated in a short period of time.
Group tests, however, are not frequently used in the assessment
of children with special needs for four reasons (Newcomer &
Bryant, 1993). First, group tests usually require some degree
of reading proficiency (e.g., to read the directions), and many
children with special needs have reading difficulties. Individually administered tests, in contrast, usually rely on examiners
to read the test directions and interact verbally with children.
(Obviously, individually administered tests designed to measure reading ability require children to read.)
Second, because children taking group tests typically complete them by filling in bubbles, circling letters, or underlining
answers instead of giving their answers orally, it is difficult
to determine whether they know the answers or are merely
guessing. (This is tru y ef any multiple-choice test, whether
a group test or an individually administered one.) Students
with visual perceptual problems or attention problems may
have difficulty using answer sheets correctly. They may, for
example, follow instructions to skip difficult items but forget
to skip corresponding items on the answer sheet. Also, group
tests do not allow you to observe the child's behavior as he or
she solves problems.
Third, group tests tend to use recognition rather than recall,
requiring children to select one out of several answers. Although some individually administered tests require the child
to select an answer from four or five choices (e.g., WISC-IV
Matrix Reasoning subtest, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-3,
Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised Normative
Update, and Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence),
most have children answer questions directly rather than
choosing the correct answer from among several.
What do I need to know about administering an assessment test battery? You need to know how to present the test materials, how to interact with children, how to
score their responses, and how to complete the record booklets (or test protocols or test forms). To score responses accurately, you need to understand the scoring principles and
scoring criteria discussed in the test manuals and guard
against allowing halo effects that might bias scoring. (Halo
effects occur when a judgment about one characteristic of
a person is influenced by another characteristic or general
impression of that person. For example, if you think a child
is bright; you may give him or her credit for borderline or
ambiguous responses.) You may also want to know how the
child functions with additional cues, a process called testingof-limits (see Chapter 6). The material in this text is intended
to complement-the material contained in test manuals and to
help you administer an assessment battery.
nor,mi",,inn
15
Are there any discrepancies in the information you obtained from the child, parents, teachers, and other sources?
If so, '?{hat are the discrepancies and what might account
for th~m? Is it possible that what appear to be discrepancies are instead context-dependent differences? For example, self-report may be the best measure of internalized
states,whereas teacher and parent reports may be the best
measur~s,of externaJized behaviors.
Are
there patterns in the assessment results? If so, what
are they?
Do the current findings appear to be reliable and valid or
did any factors undermine the reliability and validity of
the assessment results? For example, did the child have
motivational difficulties or difficulties understanding English? Were there problems administering the tests?
Do the assessment results suggest a diagnosis or approaches
to remediation and intervention? If so, what are they?
CHAPTER 1
What
are
the
similari
ties
and
differen
ces
between
your
Recognize that test scores do not tell you about the child's
observations of the child's behavior and those of the
home and school environment, the quality of the instruction
child's parents and teachers? How might you account for
that the child has received in school, the quality of the child's
any differences?
textbooks, peer pressures, the family's culture, socioeco Are the test results congruent with the other information
nomic status, community customs, and other factors that may
about the child, such as academic grades or scores on
influence the child's test performance. You will need to obtain
group tests?' If they are not congruent, what might explain
information about these factors from caregivers, teachers, and
the differences?
other relevant individuals and to consider their effects on the
child's performance.
As a beginning examiner, you are not expected to have
the fully developed clinical skills and insights needed to
make sophisticated interpretations. Developing these skills
takes time. With experience, you will learn how to integrate
knowledge from various sources --class lectures, textbooks,
test manuals, practicums, and interns hips-an d you will feel
more comfortable about making interpretations.
16
16
L
STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS
17
will need to consider factors in the school that may interfere with the child's ability to learn. Consider, for example,
whether modifications are needed in the child's courses, the
teaching methods used in the classroom, course schedules, or
the physical layout of the building. Also consider whether the
child needs a specific type of assistance, can tolerate a full
day or only a half day, needs special equipment to help with
communication, or needs to be reassigned to another teacher
or to a new school. Note that some schools are reluctant to
reassign a student to another teacher within the same school.
In such cases, the multidisciplinary team will need to be tactful, persuasive, and persistent to arrange for a reassignment.
Evaluate how flexible, accepting, and patient the child's
teacher is and whether he or she is willing to take suggestions
and work with other professionals.
Third, you will need to be guided by the services available
in a particular school district. Some schools offer speech and
language training; remedial classes in basic academic subjects;
adaptive physical education; computer-assisted instruction;
tutoring for mainstream classes; social skills retraining; mobility and transportation assistance; academic, vocational, and
personal counseling; and career development and employment
assistance. Recommendations for these services should be
practical and should take into account the realities of classroom
and home life. However, do not let a school district's limitations prevent you from recommending a needed intervention.
If a school district cannot provide legally mandated services, it
is required to find some way to provide them, including contracting with outside agencies. Also consider family and community resources and determine the parents' preferences and
reactions to the proposed interventions.
Finally, you will need to apply the relevant information
you ha'le learned from the fields of school psychology, abnormal psychology, clinical psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, special education, and, of
course, your own experience.
Be cautious in naming a specific intervention program. If
you-know that a type of program would be significantly superior to all others for a child, you should; of course, give an
example of the program.,However, if you are merely citing a
program with which Yb\1 happen to be familiar as an example
ofa class of acceptable interventions, be clear that this is only
an example and that there are equally appropriate alternatives.
Unwarranted specificity in recommendations (e.g., "only the
XYZ Miracle Phonics Program" or "a class size of no more
than six children") can cause unnecessary difficulties, delays
in implementing programs, and needless conflict between the
parents and the school.
Traditional psychometric assessments usually do not provide information about the conditions that best facilitate the
child's learning-for example, how the type of material, rate
and modality of presentation, cues, and reinforcements differentially affect learning. Information about these and related factors can help us design more effective intervention
programs that might improve children's cognitive abilities
and skills. An integration of experimental, clinical, and psychoeducational approaches, which has been in the making
After writing the report, discuss the results with the child
(when appropriate), the child's parents, and the referral
will need to consider factors in the school that may interfor many years, has yet to occur. Until this union occurs, we
fere with the child's ability to learn. Consider, for example,
must use what we can learn from assessments to determine
whether modifications are needed in the child's courses, the
the conditions that will best facilitate a child's ability to learn
teaching methods used in the classroom, course schedules, or
and succeed in school.
the physical layout of the building. Also consider whether the
It is a complex and difficult task to design interventions to
child needs a specific type of assistance, can tolerate a full
ameliorate a child's problems and to foster behavioral change,
day or only a half day, needs special equipment to help with
learning, social adjustment, and successful participation in
communication, or needs to be reassigned to another teacher
the community. Still, we need to use our present knowledge
or to a new school. Note that some schools are reluctant to
to design interventions, apply them carefully and thoughtreassign a student to another teacher within the same school.
fully, and then evaluate their effectiveness. Some problems
may better be bypassed than remediated. For example, a child
In such cases, the multidisciplinary team will need to be tactful, persuasive, and persistent to arrange for a reassignment.
with intractable graphomotor weaknesses might be better
Evaluate how flexible, accepting, and patient the child's
served by being taught word-processing skills than by hours
teacher is and whether he or she is willing to take suggestions
of penmanship training. Currently, developing interventions
is as much an a/1 as it is a science.
and work with other professionals.
Third, you will need to be guided by the services available
This text provides general information on how to formuin a particular school district. Some schools offer speech and " late recommendations. However, it is not designed to cover
language training; remedial classes in basic academic subjects;
remediation or intervention procedures. You will obtain this
knowledge from other texts and sources that cover behavadaptive physical education; computer-assisted instruction;
ioral interVentions, educational interventions, psychotherapy,
tutoring for mainstream classes; social skills retraining; mocounseling techniques, and rehabilitation counseling. Valubility and transportation assistance; academic, vocational, and
able knowledge can also be obtained from supervision and
personal counseling; and career development and employment
clinical experience and from skilled teachers and therapists
assistance. Recommendations for these services should be
with whom you work.
practical and should take into account the realities of classroom
and home life. However, do not let a school district's limitations prevent you from recommending a needed intervention.
If a school district cannot provide legally mandated services, it
Step 9: Write a Report
is required to find some way to provide them, including conShortly after completing the evaluation, write a report that
tracting with outside agencies. Also consider family and comclearly
communicates your findings, interpretations, and recmunity resources and determine the parents' preferences and
ommendations.
It is important that you communicate the asreactions to the proposed interventions.
sessment
results
and recommendations promptl~\, because the .
Finally, you will need to apply the relevant information
referral source is no doubt anxious t9, receive Yfur report.
you hav.e learned from the fields of school psychology, abThe value of your assessment results and recommendations
normal psychology, clinical psychology, developmental psy\
will depend, in part, on your communicative ability. Your
chology, educational psychology, special education, and, of
\
report may be read by parents, teachers, counselors,\speech
course, your own experience.
and language therapists, psychiatrists, probation officers, peBe cautious in naming a specific intervention program. If
diatricians, neurologists, social workers, attorneys, prd~ecu
you~know that a type of program would be significantly sutors, judges, other professionals, and the child. Therefore:'fhe
perior to all others for a child, you should; of course, give an
report
should be understandable to any relevant parties. Alexample of the program .However, if you are merely citing a
\
though
your report may be used for purposes other than thos~
program with which Y01,,1 happen to be familiar as an example
you originally intended, it is important to specify in the report \
Traditional psychometric assessments usually do not provide information about the conditions that best facilitate the
;/',.i\',!,!,
;
child's learning-Ior example, how the type of material, rate
and modality of presentation, cues, and reinforcements difStep 10: Meet with Parents, the Child
! IJlII
i
/1;'
ferentially affect learning. Information about these and re(If Appropriate), and Other Concerned
lated factors can help us design more effective intervention
Individuals
programs that might improve children's cognitive abilities
After writing the report, discuss the results with the child
and skills. An integration of experimental, clinical, and psy,I
(when appropriate), the child's parents, and the referral
choeducational approaches, which has been in the making
ill!'
I,
/tl:1I
~<'ilr
for many years, has yet to occur. Until this union occurs, we
must use what we can learn from assessments to determine
the conditions that will best facilitate a child's ability to learn
and succeed in school.
It is a complex and difficult task to design interventions to
ameliorate a child's problems and to foster behavioral change,
learning, social adjustment, and successful participation in
the community. Still, we need to use our present knowledge
to design interventions, apply them carefully and thoughtfully, and then evaluate their effectiveness. Some problems
may better be bypassed than remediated. For example, a child
with intractable graphomotor weaknesses might be better
served by being taught word-processing skills than by hours
of penmanship training. Currently, developing interventions
is as much an art as it is a science.
This text provides general information on how to formu. late recommendations. However, it is not designed to cover
remediation or intervention procedures. You will obtain this
knowledge from other texts and sources that cover behavioral interventions, educational interventions, psychotherapy,
counseling techniques, and rehabilitation counseling. Valuable knowledge can also be obtained from supervision and
clinical experience and from skilled teachers and therapists
with whom you work.
Ii
II
17
From Mainstreaming Series: Individualized Educational Programming (IEP), Copyright 1977 by Judy A. Schrag, Thomas N.
Fairchild, and Bart L. Miller, published by Teaching Resources
Corporation, Hingham, Massachusetts. Reprinted with permission.
YS.T?
l-lAVe.N',.
YOWR
."O~ C.OMPI.-E!-rep
A!>:!>e.~~Me.NT Ye.T?
From Mainstreaming Series: Individualized Educational Programming (IEP), Copyright 1977 by Judy A. Schrag, Thomas N.
Fairchild, and Bart L. Miller, published by Teaching Resources
Corporation, Hingham, Massachusetts. Reprinted with permission.
All rights reserved.
18
I::>
mterventIOns become ineffective. Effective consult
ation requires mOnitoring the child's progress with both short-term
and long-term follow-ups. It is helpful to recommend a time
interval for the follow-up assessment in your report.
18
19
and psychoe ducation al assessm ent.
Figure 1-4. Flowcha rt of a decision -making model for clinical
-I
Good response
Poor response
I~
Poor response
Findings clear
:;
L.....-...:---lIRndi~;~~~r-
I..
Good response
G.
Poor response
I 1---
~----
"
~~1I0WUP
y .GO~d
response
.1 Po~;r~
Figure 1-4. Flowchart of a decision-making model for clinical and psychoeducational assessment.
19
8.
7.
Types of Assessment
SUMMARY
Multimethod Assessment
20
9.
Types of Assessment
10.
Multimethod Assessment
11.
SUMMARY
12.
13.
20
"
1ji!
1:
STUDY QUESTIONS
21
1. What relevance does the case of Daniel Hoffman have to' the
practice of school and clinical psychology?
2. Discuss the technical and clinical skills needed to be a competent clinical assessor.
3. Discuss the purposes of assessment. Include in your discussion
five different purposes of assessment, questions to consider in
an assessment, and how psychological assessment differs from
psychological testing.
4. What are the four pillars of assessment, and how do they complement one another?
5. Describe some informal assessment procedures.
6. What are some important guidelines for assessment?
7. Describe the main steps in the assessment process.
STUDY QUESTIONS
STUDY QUESTIONS
STUDY QUESTIONS
21