History of Rhetoric

Nikhil Mahajan (2011EE10465)

The theory of rhetoric is an attempt to understand the subtext of human

communication. The thinkers try to go beyond the dialectic, rational argumentation
that we as a civilization aspire for as a standard of communication. The body of
thought attempts to investigate the factors auxiliary to the inductive and deductive
argumentation that impact the acceptability and efficacy of speech. The term rhetoric
thus inspires a negative reaction in popular imagination. It is further contrasted with
action, meant to imply hollow words devoid of substance. This popular perception of
rhetoric stands in stark contrast to its understanding in those ancient great civilizations
of Greece and Rome.
The theories of rhetoric are always centered on the 'rhetorical situation'. Lloyd Blitzer
first defined and described this object of analysis in 1968. Some exigence, some
imperative, some situation contrary to what should have been occasions rhetoric. The
audience possess the capability to affect the exigence. This ability is impacted by
external factors, positively or negatively. The birth of rhetoric is thus observation or
creation of exigence by the rhetor, and the discourse he designs to harness the
interests of the audience into a favorable result. The rhetorical theorist must then
analyze all components of the rhetorical situation:
a) the rhetor and the degree of his agency
b) the audience and the associated constraints
c) the creation, construction and addressing of the exigence
d) the wider contexts (historical, economic, cultural and symbolic)
Rhetorical Theory: Origins and Evolution
Aristotle thus defined rhetoric: 'the art of discovering all the available means of
persuasion.' The Greeks regarded rhetoric as construction of a persuasive argument
via a composition of all of the following:
a) logos; logical argument
b) ethos; speaker credibility
c) pathos; emotional argument
Rhetoric was then seen as the art of discourse, of a systematic working through the
five rhetorical tenets:
a) invention
b) organization
c) style
d) delivery
e) memory
The contemporary understanding of rhetoric is a broader analysis of human symbol
use, which shall be explored later.
The origins of rhetorical theory are traced back to Sracuse, Siciliy. The legend goes
that when a dictator was disposed, a dispute arose as to the ownership of land between
the original owners or present owners, who had been granted land by the tyrant. The
legal justice system then required plaintiffs to present their case themselves, without
any provision for hiring professionals. This made it necessary for the people to master

the art of rhetoric. Corax made the first formal contribution to the theory of rhetoric;
his 'The Art of Rhetoric' was written for the people engaged in land disputes. He
placed immense stress on the importance of probabilities; in situations where there
were no binaries, it was imperative to harness probabilities to establish probable
connections.
Tisias, a student of Corax, hasc been credited with introducing mainland Greece to
rhetoric. A belief gathered ground that the art of persuasion was not innate, it could be
taught and learned. Sophists, deriving their name from the Greek word for knowledge
(sophos), was the group involved in teaching of the art. The sophists are today held in
high regard for building the foundations of the discipline of rhetoric and their
understanding of the power of language. However, they were highly distrusted back
in their time. There were several reasons:
a) Athenian Pride: Many of the sophists were foreigners, and Athenians were
judgmental and critical of anyone who came from outside of Athens, even
from other Greek territories.
b) Expensive education: Charging of fees by the sophists for their services went
against the Greek tradition. Plus it was too expensive for many of the
Athenians, engendering dislike among the disadvantaged.
c) Claim to wisdom: Virtue and wisdom were then seen in Greece as innate and
not acquired. The sophists' philosophy stood in stark contrast, engendering
further ill-will.
But it has been argued that our perception of the time has probably been colored by an
accident of history: the survival of Plato's dialogues. Plato was extremely critical of
the sophists' notion of there being no absolute truth. In his dialogues he employs his
own rhetoric to debunk the sophists and establish the primacy of absolute forms:
justice, virtue, good. It has been speculated that the survival of Plato's writings is the
primary reason for negative perception of rhetoric in contemporary popular
imagination.
The writings of Aristotle and Plato dominated the classical theories of rhetoric. In his
dialogue Georiga, Plato compares rhetoric to cookery and thus emphasizes the
limitations of the sophists's rhetoric. He contrasts this image with his conception of an
ideal rhetoric, imbued with a moral perspective, which he puts forth in Pbaedrus.
Aristotle takes a more analytical approach towards the subject, attempting to codify
rhetorical instruction. His pragmatic approach has been articulated in his Rhetoric,
which is the first systematic and comprehensive work on the subject.
The Romans transported the major Greek texts on rhetoric across the Mediterranean.
The Greek rhetorical theories were subsequently modified and adapted to suit their
contingent scenario. Cicero is probably the most accomplished exponent of the
Roman tradition of rhetoric. He was not only a great orator himself, but also
contributed three major works to rhetorical theory: De Inventione (On Invention), De
Oratore (On Oratory), and Orator (Orator). His major original contribution was a
comprehensive development of the rhetorical tenet of style, and the types of style. The
Romans immensely valued rhetoric as a practical art with a great role in public affairs.
Later as Rome was ruled successively by dictators, rhetoric became separated from
public affairs (150-400 AD). The fear of punishment made people refrain from public

articulation on state matters. This limited rhetoric's application to concerns of style

and delivery rather than substance and content. Rhetoric continued to be applied as a
practical art through the medieval ages (400-1400 AD), with letter writing and
preaching particularly being the concerns of the theoreticians.
Arrival of Renaissance sounded the bells for revival of rhetoric as a subject of
philosophical inquiry. Generations of Italian humanists revived the sophists' interest
in the power and centrality of language to human life. But renaissance additionally
brought with itself the age of reason, with Descartes playing a central role in
divorcing reason from emotion. This dominance of reason in rhetorical treatises
continued through the 20th century. In the age of objectivity, rational argument
emerged as the preferred mode of persuasion. As the science of faculty psychology
developed, it was increasingly accepted that five faculties were relevant in governing
an individual:
a) Understanding
b) Memory
c) Imagination
d) Passion
e) Will
Reason would be directed at a single faculty: understanding. There arose increasing
interest among rhetoricians to understand ways to harness other five faculties. The
definition of rhetoric by George Campbell captures well this perspective:
'enlightening understanding, pleasing imagination, moving passions and influencing
will'.
Modern Period of Rhetoric
The modern period of rhetoric has thus attempted to understand the effects of the
rhetorical impulses across all human faculties and social contexts (letters, elocution,
belles lettres). The contemporary period has emerged in a specific historical context.
The propaganda efforts during and post WWII led to birth of several media institutes
directed at studying all kinds of communication processes. The contemporary
scholars: I.A. Richards (England) Cha'im Perelman (Netherlands), Jurgen Habermas
(Germany), Michael Foucault (France), while not calling themselves rhetoricians,
explored the questions of language and its function. There was immense interest in
how language could generate or remove misunderstandings, especially at the micro
level; how arguments were to be made suitable for particular audiences, and how the
structuring of societies has an implicit dependence on discourse systems.
I next highlight the major developments that characterize the modern period of
rhetoric.
1) The study of rhetoric has grown out of the strict verbal and written
communication in the public sphere as in the classical period; it now
encompasses much wider forms of communication - 'from intra-personal to
interpersonal to public discourse to social movements and mediated discourse.'
The theories of rhetoric have as their subjects everything from television, art,
architecture, Internet, dress to sports. It appears there is nothing in human
experience that cannot be looked at with a rhetorical lens.

2) The subject of interest in terms of intent has shifted away from pure
persuasion to a plethora of different reasons for which humans may create
rhetoric. Some rhetoricians find all use of symbols by humans to ultimately
persuasive, regardless of intent. Others cast aspersions on the act of persuasion
- inquiring into its appropriateness - and promote inquiry into alternative
rhetorical modes like invitational rhetoric. This focus on intent has built an
increasing interest in rhetoricians with regards rhetoric's relationship with
social change.
3) There is an increasing recognition of the diversity of rhetorical traditions,
beyond the Western rhetoric originating in ancient Greece. If all rhetoric is
essentially human use of symbols in communication, different gestures and
actions in different cultural contexts carry vastly different meanings. Avoiding
communication is interpreted as a deficiency and a sign of weakness in
Western cultures, while Eastern and Native American cultures regard silence
as golden.
4) The rhetorical theories of ancient Greece were written for a particular kind of
rhetor: elite, well educated Athenian men with access to public domain. This
has promoted recognition that the characteristics of the rhetor can necessitate
different rhetorics. Different rhetorical exigencies, arguments and styles were
introduced when historically marginalized social groups like women, LGBT,
African-American etc. were able to access public platforms.
It is indeed a long journey that the theory of rhetoric has traveled from theorizing
aimed at helping litigants in the ancient Greece.