Reducing Sodium Levels in Frankfurters Using A Natural Flavor Enhancer

Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194
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Meat Science
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Reducing sodium levels in frankfurters using a natural avor enhancer

Megan M. McGough a, Takuya Sato b, Scott A. Rankin c, Jeffrey J. Sindelar a,
a
b
c
University of Wisconsin, Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science & Muscle Biology Laboratory, 1805 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
Kikkoman USA R&D Laboratory, Inc., 505 South Rosa Road, Suite 107, Madison, WI 53719, USA
University of Wisconsin, Department of Food Science, Babcock Hall, 1605 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 19 November 2011
Received in revised form 3 January 2012
Accepted 23 January 2012
Keywords:
Frankfurters
Natural avor enhancer
Potassium chloride
Sodium reduction
Umami
a b s t r a c t
Sodium chloride (NaCl; salt) contributes to important quality and food safety properties of processed meats.
However, renewed interest exists in reducing sodium in the human diet. This study investigated quality and
sensory impacts associated with partial replacement and/or reduction of normally added NaCl using a natural
avor enhancer (NFE) in frankfurters. Varying levels of NFE were used with NaCl and/or potassium chloride
(KCl) to comprise treatments (TRT) which investigated ake salt replacement (Phase I) and sodium reduction (Phases II and III). Phase I sensory and quality results identied a 50% replacement of NaCl with NFE
as the baseline for subsequent phases. Phase II indicated that the inclusion of NFE could allow for a 20%
NaCl reduction without adverse effects on quality or sensory attributes. Phase III results demonstrated that
it was feasible to reduce NaCl by 35% via the inclusion of KCl in NFE containing frankfurters without major
quality or sensory changes.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction
Although sodium is a critical component of the human diet and is
necessary to regulate many of the body's physiological functions,
there is increased interest in decreasing the amount of sodium consumed daily by Americans (Doyle & Glass, 2010). Several sodium reduction efforts have developed from reports that over-consumption
of sodium has the propensity to lead to hypertension and cardiovascular disease, among other ailments. The current recommendation
for human sodium intake from the World Health Organization
(WHO) is 2000 milligrams (mg) per day (WHO, 2007). Salt reduction
initiatives, such as the National Salt Reduction Initiative (NSRI), aim
to reduce salt in the American diet by 20% over a ve year period,
starting in 2010 (Wenther, 2010). Sodium chloride (NaCl; salt) is
the major dietary source of sodium and is one of the oldest and
most familiar food ingredients known to man. Salt is especially important in processed meats, contributing to desirable food quality
and food safety characteristics. The role salt has in processed meat
products can be placed in three broad categories: processing characteristics, preservation, and sensory attributes (Hutton, 2002; Man,
2007; Rust, 1987).
Although sodium reduction and replacement in processed meats
have been heavily studied (Barbut, 1988; Hand, Hollingsworth,
Calkins, & Mandigo, 1987; Sofos, 1983a,b; Whiting, 1984), there is
still a need to develop novel approaches to reduce sodium without
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 1 608 262 0555; fax: + 1 608 265 3110.
E-mail address: jsindelar@wisc.edu (J.J. Sindelar).
0309-1740/$ see front matter. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.01.018
sacricing product quality and safety (Doyle & Glass, 2010; Hazen,
2010). It is especially important to identify approaches to maintain
the salty taste that is traditionally associated with processed meats
while also avoiding the introduction of non-traditional avors that
are often related to a decline in consumer acceptance (Sofos,
1983a). Umami-containing substances are ingredients that often provide avor enhancing effects and may offer a unique approach to replace and reduce the sodium content in food products. One such
umami-possessing substance of interest is natural avor enhancer
(NFE).
NFE is a form of modied soy sauce, having a relatively high NaCl
content, which possesses less soy sauce-type avor and a lighter color
than typical naturally brewed soy sauce (T. Sato, personal communication, November 1, 2010). These attributes may allow for a broad application as a result of minimal avor or aroma contributions to
products in which it is added. NFE is produced in a manner similar
to soy sauce; however, a higher percentage of wheat, the addition of
10 fold more yeast, different temperatures during processing, a
shorter fermentation, and lower nished salt content compared to
traditional soy sauce are several distinct differences (T. Sato, personal
communication, November 1, 2010). To date, no research has been
conducted investigating the efcacy of umami-containing NFE as a
functional ingredient in processed meats. However, other umamicontaining substances, such as soy sauce, have been previously examined, but generally in non-meat foods. One such example was research conducted by Kremer, Mojet, and Shimojo (2009) who
explored the use of naturally brewed soy sauce in salad dressings, tomato soup, and uncured stir-fried pork concluding it was feasible to
reduce the salt content in the products up to 50%, 17%, and 29%,
186
M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194
respectively. Further, Yamaguchi and Takahashi (1984) found that

other umami-containing substances, monosodium glutamate (MSG)
and monoinosinate (IMP), could enhance the saltiness in broth samples. Interestingly, these research results suggest that umamicontaining substances may have the ability to serve as a functional ingredient in addition to offering avor and potential salt-enhancing
effects in foods to which they are added.
However, little is known about what effect umami containing NFE
may have on the quality and sensory properties of processed meats.
Therefore, the objectives of this study were as follows: 1) to investigate the feasibility of using NFE to replace ake salt in frankfurters;
2) to determine what salt enhancing ability and effects may occur
from the inclusion of NFE in frankfurters and; 3) to determine the
ability of NFE to offer synergistic effects to maximize potassium chloride (KCl) usage capabilities and/or provide KCl bitterness-masking
effects.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Experimental design and data analysis
This study utilized varying levels of NFE, NaCl, and KCl in the manufacture of emulsied frankfurters in three separate phases of research to investigate the efcacy of replacing and/or reducing NaCl
in frankfurters (Table 1). Four treatments (TRTs) and a control (C)
were investigated in each phase. The experimental design was a randomized complete block using a mixed effects model. Statistical analysis was performed for all measurements using the Statistical
Analysis System (version 9.2, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) mixed
model procedure (SAS Institute Inc., 2009). The model included the
xed main effects of treatment (TRTs 14, C) and replication (n = 3)
resulting in 15 observations. The random effect was the interaction
of treatment replication. All least signicant differences were
found using the TukeyKramer pairwise comparison method. Signicance levels were determined at P b 0.05.
2.2. Product manufacture
Ready-to-eat emulsied frankfurters were manufactured with 90%
lean (10% fat) beef trimmings and 42% lean (58% fat) pork trimmings
Table 1
NaCl, natural avor enhancer (NFE), and KCl treatment combinations for frankfurter
treatments (TRT) and control (C) used in research Phases I, II, and III.
Phase I NaCl replacement using NFE
obtained from a local supplier. Raw materials were ordered separately for each research phase. The pork trimmings were coarse ground
(Hobart Model 4732, Hobart Corporation, Troy, OH) using a
19.05 mm plate and the beef trimmings were coarse ground using a
9.53 mm plate. Coarse ground beef and pork were briey mixed individually for uniformity and randomly separated into 15 batches of
4.54 kg each, and vacuum-packaged (Ultravac 2100-C, Ultravac Solutions LLC, Kansas City, MO; Flavorseal Vacuum Pouch, 3 mil, Carroll
Manufacturing & Sales, Avon, OH). Packages were randomly assigned
to treatments (TRTs 14) and control (C). Vacuum-packaged raw materials were stored under refrigeration for 1 to 3 days. All formulations for each phase contained 4.54 kg of both pork trimmings and
beef trimmings. Treatment combinations are listed in Table 1 and formulations are listed in Table 2. Sodium phosphates were not included
in the formulation to better understand the functional limitations of
NFE and the TRT combinations.
Emulsions were produced using techniques described by Rust
(1987). Frankfurters were manufactured using a bowl chopper
(Krmer & Grebe 67225, Krmer & Grebe GmbH & Co. KG.,
BiedenkopfWallau, Germany). The coarse ground beef (4.54 kg)
was chopped with sodium nitrite, ake salt (Phase I) (Alberger,
Fine Flake Improved Salt, Cargill Inc., Minneapolis, MN), ake salt
and/or NFE (Phase II), ake salt and/or NFE and/or KCl (Phase III)
(Premier, Potassium Chloride, Cargill Inc., Minneapolis, MN), and
half of the ice until a temperature of 2.2 C was achieved. Coarse
ground pork (4.54 kg), sugar, spices, sodium erythorbate, and the
remainder of the ice were then added to the bowl chopper, and the
mixture was chopped until a temperature of 14.4 C was achieved.
The emulsion was then transferred to a rotary-vane vacuum ller
with a linking attachment (Handtmann VF 608 Plus vacuum ller,
Handtmann CNC Technologies Inc., Buffalo Grove, IL) and stuffed
into 27 mm cellulose casings (Viscofan USA Inc., Montgomery, AL)
with 80 g per link.
Links from each treatment were hung on smokehouse sticks,
placed on a smokehouse truck, and showered with cold water prior
to the onset of cooking to attain uniform smoke absorption and minimize nished product external color differences. Thermal processing
was accomplished using a single truck thermal processing oven
(Alkar Model 450 MiniSmoker, Alkar Engineering Corp., Lodi, WI)
and a common frankfurter smokehouse schedule reaching an internal
Table 2
Frankfurter formulationsa used for frankfurter treatments (TRT) and control (C) in research Phases I, II, and III.
Control formulation for Phases I, II, and III
TRT
Water
NFE
Flake salt
KCl
TRT
NaCl from
ake salt
NaCl
from NFE
KCl
NaCl
reduction
Formulated
NaCla
20.00%
2.50%
0%
C
1
2
3
4
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
2.50%
2.50%
2.50%
2.50%
2.50%
Phase I TRT formulations

1
15.50%
2
11.05%
3
6.55%
4
2.05%
5.11%
10.22%
15.33%
20.44%
1.86%
1.25%
0.62%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
10%
20%
30%
2.50%
2.50%
2.25%
2.00%
1.75%
Phase II TRT formulations

1
11.05%
2
11.05%
3
11.05%
4
11.05%
10.22%
10.22%
10.22%
10.22%
1.25%
1.00%
0.75%
0.50%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Phase III TRT formulations

1
11.05%
2
11.05%
3
11.05%
4
11.05%
10.22%
10.22%
10.22%
10.22%
1.25%
0.75%
0.37%
0%
0%
0.50%
0.87%
1.25%
Phase II NaCl reduction using NFE

C
100%
0%
1
50%
50%
2
40%
50%
3
30%
50%
4
20%
50%
Phase III NaCl reduction using NFE and KCl

C
100%
0%
1
50%
50%
2
30%
50%
20%
3
15%
50%
35%
4
0%
50%
50%
20%
35%
50%
2.50%
2.50%
2.00%
1.63%
1.25%
a
Formulated NaCl reported as ingoing levels based upon meat portion of total
formulation.
a
Water, natural avor enhance (NFE), ake salt, and KCl are presented as calculated on meat portion of total formulation basis. All formulations contained 0.81% sugar
and 0.54% spices (based on total batch weight) and 156 mg/kg sodium nitrite and
547 mg/kg sodium erythorbate (based on meat block).
temperature of 71.1 C. The smokehouse schedule included a smoke

application step where hardwood smoke was generated from a sawdust smoke generator. After the completion of thermal processing,
the frankfurters were immediately showered with cold water and
chilled until the internal temperature was below 4.4 C. After cooling,
the cellulose casings were removed and frankfurters were placed in
3 mil nylon/polyethylene vacuum pouches (Flavorseal Vacuum
Pouch, Carroll Manufacturing and Sales, Avon, OH) and vacuumpackaged (Ultravac 2100-C Vacuum Packager, Koch Equipment,
Kansas City, MO). Samples were then stored in the dark at 2 C until
further analysis at pre-determined sampling dates.
187
pH electrode with Ag/AgCl reference Model 13-620-285, Fisher Scientic, Fair Lawn, NJ) calibrated with 4.0 and 7.0 phosphate buffers.
Measurements were made in duplicate for each treatment.
2.7. Purge level measurements
Packaged frankfurters were weighed, and then opened, drained,
and the bags and frankfurters were blotted dry with a paper towel.
Bag weight and frankfurter weight were recorded and percentage of
purge was determined.
2.8. Emulsion stability measurements
2.3. Natural avor enhancer preparation

Natural avor enhancer (Kikkoman Foods, Inc., Walworth, WI)
contained the following ingredients: water, soybeans, wheat, salt,
and alcohol. The typical composition of NFE is as follows: 1214%
NaCl (weight basis), 8.9% protein (weight basis), 1.43% total nitrogen
(weight basis), and an alcohol target (volume basis) of at least 3.0%.
Salt levels of NFE samples were provided by the manufacturer and
were 12.2% for the entire experiment. NFE was weighed according
to formulation needs and was then covered and frozen overnight at
20 C for maintaining emulsion-related manufacturing temperatures. NFE was then removed from the freezer as needed during
processing.
2.4. Proximate composition
Proximate analysis was conducted on the cooked frankfurter samples for crude fat (AOAC, 2000a), moisture (AOAC, 2000b), and crude
protein (AOAC, 2000c). Moisture and crude protein samples were
conducted in duplicate. Crude fat samples were conducted in
triplicate.
2.5. Instrumental color measurements
Instrumental color was measured using a colorimeter (Model CR300, Minolta Camera Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan; 1 cm aperture, illuminant
C, 2 observer angle). The colorimeter was standardized by placing
the same packaging material as used on the samples over the white
standardization tile. Values for the white standard tile were
L* = 97.06, a* = 0.14, b* = 1.93.
Color was measured using the Commission Internationale de
l'Eclairage (CIE) L* (lightness), a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) system. External and internal color measurements were taken at two
weeks post-manufacture, after frankfurters (n = 3) were sliced
lengthwise and placed into vacuum bags. Measurements for exterior
and interior color were taken at two randomly selected locations on
each sample. In an effort to address smokehouse related impacts on
external color and to minimize the effects of any color variation
from any source other than the NFE content, the physical placement
(i.e. top, bottom, left, right) of C and TRTs on the smokehouse truck
during thermal processing was randomized for each replication.
2.6. pH measurements
pH levels were measured using methods described by Sebranek,
Lonergan, King-Brink, and Larson (2001). The pH samples were
blended in a 1:9 ratio of sample to distilled, de-ionized water
(DDW) and were homogenized with a Polytron Mixer (P10-35,
Kinematica, AG, Lucerne, Switerzland) at setting 7 for 45 s. Whatman
#1 lter paper was folded and pushed into the 150 ml beaker slurry
to allow the fat free solution to come through the paper. The tip of
the electrode was placed into the solution and pH was measured
with a pH meter (Accumet Basic AB15 Plus pH Meter, Fisher Scientic,
Fair Lawn, NJ.) equipped with an electrode (Accument combination
The stability of raw emulsion was also determined on the day of

production by the Rongey Method (Sebranek et al., 2001) using a
Wierbicki tube divided by a 40 mesh stainless steel disc (22 mm diameter). Tubes were lled with approximately 25 g of emulsion
using an open-ended 30 cm 3 syringe, weighed, and covered with aluminum foil. Filled sample tubes were left at room temperature for
30 min before being placed in a 71.1 C water bath for 30 min. Samples were removed from the water bath and allowed to cool for approximately 5 min before centrifuging (Sorvall RC 50 Plus with a
SLA-3000 Rotor, Thermo Scientic, Fair Lawn, NJ). Upon the completion
of the centrifugation cycle, the amounts of separated fat (top layer) and
separated water (bottom layer) that drained from the emulsion
through the mesh disc were recorded. Emulsion stability tests were
conducted in duplicate for each treatment. The total amount of liquid
separation was determined by the following equations:
Percent water separation ml of water=sample weight 100
Percent fat separation ml of fat=sample weight 100
Percent total liquid separation % water separation
% fat separation:
2.9. Processing yield measurements

Processing yields were determined by taking a raw weight of the
entire batch prior to thermal processing and reweighing after thermal
processing and cooling.
2.10. Salt level measurements
Salt levels were measured using methods described by Sebranek
et al. (2001). Samples were nely ground with a food processer
(Fresh Chop Model 72600, Hamilton Beach Brands Inc., Southern
Pines, NC) and blended in a 1:9 ratio of sample to DDW. Samples
were then heated on a hot plate set to 300 C until they reached a rolling boil, and were then cooled to ambient temperature. After cooling,
a piece of folded Whatman #1 lter paper was pushed into the 150 ml
beaker and a Quantab strip (Quantab Titrators for Chloride, High
Range Titrators 3006000 ppm Cl, Hach Company, Loveland, CO)
was inserted into the solution and was allowed proper measurement
time. Percent NaCl was determined by using the conversion chart
provided by the manufacturer. All values were multiplied by 10 to account for the dilution factor to determine the actual percentage of
salt. Measurements were made in duplicate for each treatment.
2.11. Instrumental texture analysis
2.11.1. Texture prole analysis
A texture prole analysis (TPA) was conducted using methods described by Bourne (1978) and Wenther (2003). A TA-HDi Texture Analyzer (Texture Technologies Corp., Scarsdale, NY) equipped with a
188
25 mm diameter cylinder (TA-25) was used to determine the texture

prole analysis of samples using a two-compression test. The TA-HDi
Texture Analyzer was calibrated with a 10 kg weight and Texture Expert software (Version 1.22) was used. TPA was conducted on chilled
frankfurter samples two weeks post manufacture using a section from
the core of the frankfurter (1.6 cm diameter, 1.9 cm high). The test
was performed at 3.3 mm/s for both a two-cycle 50% compression
and a two-cycle 72% compression. One measurement was taken per
core and two cores were taken from each of four links from each
treatment, resulting in eight measurements for both compression
sets. The following equations were used for textural measurements:
into labeled sample cups, covered, and held in a warming cabinet

(Flav-R-Fresh Impulse Display Cabinet, Hatco Corp., Milwaukee, WI)
operating at 60 C for no longer than 1 h while serving was conducted. Panelists were presented three pieces in a covered container
and were asked to rate internal color, texture, overall liking, overall
taste intensity, salty taste, and meat taste of the samples. For Phase
III, bitterness was also included in the ballot.
Hardness the peak force during the first compression
3.1.1. Proximate composition

Beef and pork raw materials were mixed individually for uniformity before batching and assignment as C or TRT for the entire research phase. Because of this, nished product proximate analysis
for moisture, fat, and protein was only determined for the emulsied
frankfurter C samples. The average moisture, fat, and protein content
were 57.1%, 22.7%, and 13.2%, respectively (data not shown). These
results indicate that the TRTs and C were slightly higher in protein
and lower in fat than a typical industry frankfurter.
72% compression
Springiness the height the sample recovered during the time that
elapses between the end of the first bite and the start
of the second bite 50% compression
Cohesiveness the ratio of the p ositive force area during the second
compression50% to that during the first compression

50% ; calculated as : Area2=Area1 100
Chewiness the product of hardness cohesiveness=100
springiness:
2.11.2. Puncture analysis

The puncture analysis was conducted using methods described by
Wenther (2003). The puncture test was performed on frankfurter
samples two weeks post-manufacture using the TA-HDi Texture Analyzer (Texture Technologies Corp., Scarsdale, NY) equipped with a
2 mm diameter puncture probe (TA-52). The probe was programmed
to penetrate 12 mm into each sample after the TA-HDi detected the
sample's surface at 12 g resistance. The penetration rate was
1.5 mm/s. The pre-test speed was 3.0 mm/s and the post test speed
was 10 mm/s. Samples were tested at room temperature (1 h after removal from refrigeration) to ensure consistency between treatments.
Samples were measured for penetration peak force (puncture). The
peak force was determined as the force required to break the outer
surface/skin of the sample. For each treatment, four readings were
taken per sample and two samples were measured, resulting in a
total of eight measurements per treatment.
2.12. Consumer sensory analysis
Consumer sensory analysis was conducted 14 days after product
manufacture in order to represent the approximate time period of
product availability in a commercial distribution chain. Frankfurter
samples were presented to panelists comprising of University faculty,
staff, students and the general public at the University of WisconsinMadison, Sensory Analysis Laboratory. Over three consecutive days
for each phase (n = 3) data was collected from a minimum of 50 panelists per replication (n = 3) during three hour tasting sessions. The
majority of panelists participating in sensory panels fell in the age
range of 1824 years old. Panelists were provided water to cleanse
the palate between samples. Panelists were asked to place a mark
on a 10 cm line that had anchors at 1 and 9 cm (anchor words were
dependent upon sensory trait). Samples were assigned random
three digit codes for identication and the presentation order was
randomized.
For sample preparation, water was heated to a boil and then removed from the heat source, at which point frankfurters were
added and held for 7 min. Frankfurters were then cut into 6.35 mm
pieces with the ends being discarded. Treatment samples were placed
3. Results and discussion

3.1. Phase I sodium chloride replacement
3.1.2. Instrumental color measurements

External and internal color measurements for all TRTs and C are
reported in Table 3. External L* values was lower (P b 0.05) for all
TRTs as compared to C, indicating that the usage of NFE at 25%, 50%,
75%, or 100% of NaCl levels darkened the external product color. External color a* values were lower (P b 0.05) for TRT 3 as compared to
C, indicating that the usage of NFE at a 75% NaCl level resulted in a
less red color. Further, external color b* values were higher
(P b 0.05) for TRTs 3 and 4 compared to C, indicating that the usage
of NFE at 75% and 100% NaCl levels led to a more yellow product. In
addition to NFE effects, smoke concentration variations during thermal processing may have also factored in the observed external
color differences.
Internal L* values were found lower (P b 0.05) for all TRTs compared to C. However, internal a* values were not different (P > 0.05)
between the C or any of the TRTs suggesting that NFE did not contribute to a decrease in internal redness. Internal b* values were higher
(P b 0.05) for all TRTs compared to C, and yellowness values increased
with increasing NFE addition. These values for internal b* indicate
that addition of NFE to replace ake salt at any level tested can lead
to an increased yellow appearance. Although minimal, the usage of
NFE was shown to have the ability to affect both the internal and external color of frankfurters which could in turn impact visual consumer appeal.
3.1.3. pH measurements
The pH levels (Table 3) of all TRTs were lower (P b 0.05) as compared to C while the pH was also shown to decrease as NFE levels increased. The pH of NFE that was used for this experiment had a pH
value of 5.2 while the mean pH of the lean beef and the fat pork trimmings were 5.6 and 6.1, respectively (data not shown). Since no phosphates or other ingredients capable of buffering or raising meat
system pH were included in TRT and C formulations, this was not unexpected and could thus be explained by the pH lowering effects from
NFE addition.
3.1.4. Purge, emulsion stability, and processing yield measurements
No differences (P > 0.05) were found for purge levels at two weeks
storage of refrigerated storage (Table 3) between any of the TRTs or C.
Emulsion stability results revealed that only TRT 4 had more (P b 0.05)
total liquid separation than C (Table 3). Since TRT 4 contained the
highest level of NFE, with all NaCl coming from NFE, results suggest
that complete replacement of ake salt with NaCl from NFE may decrease the stability of an emulsion. A lower (P b 0.05) emulsion
189
Table 3
Least squares means for Phase I objective external and internal color, pH, purge, emulsion stability, processing yield, and salt level for emulsied frankfurters containing natural
avor enhancer (NFE; TRTs 14) and a non-NFE control (C).
Externala
TRTb
C
1
2
3
4
SEMh
L*
Internala
a*
61.6
59.9jk
59.1kl
60.5j
58.2l
0.37
b*
i
17.1
17.5i
17.3i
15.9j
16.7ij
0.44
L*
j
12.7
12.9j
13.6ij
14.4i
14.4i
0.78
a*
i
65.8
63.4j
61.7l
62.4k
60.2m
0.31
pHc
b*
i
15.60
16.14i
16.13i
15.68i
15.85i
0.20
8.72
9.85k
10.50jk
11.92i
12.38i
0.17
Purged (%)
i
Emulsion stabilitye (%)
6.06
5.89j
5.85j
5.76k
5.70k
0.034
Processing yieldf (%)
0.92
0.93i
1.26i
1.14i
1.13i
0.14
7.2
8.7ij
7.9j
8.5j
10.7i
1.08
Saltg (%)
2.39i
2.39i
2.39i
2.41i
2.40i
0.045
91.6
91.7j
92.8ij
93.4i
92.6ij
0.37
im
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) L*, a*, b*, where L* = lightness, a* = redness, and b* = yellowness on a 0100 white scale.
Treatments (2.5% ingoing NaCl target): C = 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 25% NaCl from NFE, 75% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake
salt; TRT 3 = 75% NaCl from NFE, 25% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 100% NaCl from NFE, 0%NaCl from ake salt.
c
pH of fully cooked emulsied frankfurters.
d
Purge measured after two weeks storage at 4 C.
e
Stability of raw frankfurter emulsion (total liquid separation = water + fat separation).
f
Percentage processing yield = ((raw weight/cooked weight) 100).
g
Percentage of salt in fully cooked emulsied frankfurters.
h
SEM = Standard error of the means.
a
stability reported for TRT 4 compared to TRTs 2, 3 and C may have

been attributed to a lower salt/myosin concentration condition affecting myosin solubility since all NaCl in TRT 4 was added as part of a
NFE liquid solution and not in a granular form.
Processing yield measurements demonstrated that all TRTs had
higher processing yields than the C while TRT 3 was found signicantly (P b 0.05) higher. Since the ingoing NaCl content remained constant
for all TRTs and C (2.5% ingoing NaCl based on meat block), it was believed that emulsion stability, processing yield, and purge would not
be affected when the source of NaCl was changed from ake salt to
NFE. Regardless of the source, NaCl's role for extraction of protein to
bind water, fat, and other proteins was further expected to be unaffected in the investigated TRTs. Research conducted by Sofos
(1983b) determined that frankfurters produced with 2.5% NaCl produced stable emulsions with high cook yields. Hand et al. (1987)
also demonstrated that frankfurters made with 2.5% NaCl produced
a stable emulsion. The results from these experiments are in agreement with the results of our study, also having 2.5% NaCl (based on
meat portion of total formulation), despite the slight differences
that were found for emulsion stability and cook yield. These results
indicate that NaCl coming from NFE is functional in a meat emulsion
system and results in little change in purge, emulsion stability, or processing yields.
3.1.5. NaCl level measurements
No differences (P > 0.05) were observed for NaCl level between C
and any of the TRTs (Table 3). Actual NaCl values were close to
expected, as C and all TRTs were formulated at 2.5% ingoing NaCl
(based on meat block) and results reported 2.4% in the nished product for all TRTs and C. Differences between ingoing and nished product NaCl are due to the dilution effects from the portion of added
formulation water present after thermal processing.
3.1.6. Instrumental texture measurements
Both TPA and puncture measurements were conducted for the
frankfurter TRTs and C (Table 4). TPA testing revealed that C was
harder (P b 0.05) than TRTs 2, 3, and 4. A trend of decreasing hardness
with increasing NFE content existed, suggesting that the presence of
NFE can impact textural integrity despite maintaining a constant
NaCl content. In addition, both TRTs 3 and 4 were lower (P b 0.05)
for springiness and cohesiveness as compared to C while no differences were observed between TRTs 1, 2, and C. In addition, TRTs 2,
3, and 4 revealed lower (P b 0.05) chewiness scores than C. Puncture
testing demonstrated that TRTs 2, 3, and 4 and required less
(P b 0.05) peak force to break the outer skin of the frankfurters as
compared to C, demonstrating a trend of decreased required peak

force with increased NFE content.
3.1.7. Consumer sensory analysis
Consumer sensory analysis responses for NFE containing frankfurters are found in Table 5. Overall liking was impacted by the addition of NFE, as all TRTs were liked more (P b 0.05) than C. Further, all
TRTs containing NFE were perceived as saltier (P b 0.05) than C, with
trends showing saltiness ratings increased as the amount of added
NFE also increased even though no differences in NaCl levels existed
(Table 3) The sensory saltiness results indicate that the inclusion of
NFE allows for an increase in the perceived salty taste. These results
are in agreement with those found by Kremer et al. (2009), as they
discovered that inclusion of soy sauce, another umami-possessing ingredient, in salad dressings, tomato soup, and stir-fried pork could
lead to an increase in salty taste. The increase in perceived saltiness
caused by the inclusion of NFE in this study further supports that
umami-substances, such as NFE, can offer an increase in perceived
saltiness (Fuke & Ueda, 1996; Keast & Breslin, 2002). Overall taste intensity was also increased by the addition of NFE, as all TRTs rated
higher (P b 0.05) for taste intensity than C. The taste intensity results
Table 4
Least squares means for Phase I hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and
puncture for emulsied frankfurters containing natural avor enhancer (NFE; TRTs
14) and a non-NFE control (C).
TRTa
Hardnessb
(N)
Springinessc
(mm)
C
1
2
3
4
SEMg
50.9h
46.5h
41.4i
37.8ij
35.2j
1.22
5.91h
5.94h
5.85h
5.63i
5.63i
0.073
hj
Cohesivenessd
(%)
Chewinesse
(N mm)
60h
58hi
56hi
55i
48j
3.71
181h
160h
136i
116i
95j
7.52
Puncturef
(N)
2.24h
2.31h
1.88i
1.73i
1.91i
0.059
Treatments (2.5% ingoing NaCl target): C = 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 25%
NaCl from NFE, 75% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from
ake salt; TRT 3 = 75% NaCl from NFE, 25% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 100% NaCl
from NFE, 0% NaCl from ake salt.
b
Hardness = The peak force during the rst compression (compressed 72%).
c
Springiness = The height the sample recovered during the time that elapses
between the end of the rst bite and the start of the second bite (both compressed
50%).
d
Cohesiveness = The ratio of the positive force area during the second compression
(50%) to that during the rst compression (50%), calculated as ((Area 2/Area 1) 100).
e
Chewiness = The product of (hardness cohesiveness springiness).
f
Puncture = The peak force required to break the outer surface/skin.
g
a
190
results were utilized to support and justify the chosen level. Based
upon the results of Phase I for quality and sensory analyses, the 50%
NaCl from NFE + 50% NaCl from ake salt TRT was selected as the
TRT to utilize as a baseline for further sodium reduction research
phases (II and III).
Table 5
Least squares means for Phase I consumer sensory analysisa of emulsied frankfurters
containing natural avor enhancer (NFE; TRTs 14) and a non-NFE control (C).
TRTb
Overall
liking
Salty taste
Overall taste
intensity
Texture
Internal
color
Meat taste
C
1
2
3
4
SEMc
4.82e
5.13d
5.36d
5.19d
5.19d
0.10
4.48g
4.83f
5.23e
5.29e
5.68d
0.10
4.73g
5.22f
5.58e
5.63e
6.20d
0.09
5.47d
5.32d
4.99e
4.85ef
4.63f
0.09
3.84g
4.55f
5.29e
5.32e
6.30d
0.08
4.96e
5.19de
5.33d
5.31d
5.27d
0.09
3.2. Phase II sodium chloride reduction

Since both beef and pork raw materials were individually and uniformly mixed prior to batching and assignment to either a TRT or C,
proximate composition of moisture, fat, and protein was only determined on the frankfurter C. The average moisture content was
55.0%, average fat content was 25.5%, and average protein content
was 12.8% (data not shown).
dg
Ranked on a 10 cm line scale with anchors at 1 cm and 9 cm, indicating very little/
weak or very much/strong, respectively for overall liking, salty taste, overall taste
intensity, and meat taste; indicating very light or very dark for internal color; and
indicating very soft or very hard for texture.
b
Treatments (2.5% ingoing NaCl target): C = 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 25%
NaCl from NFE, 75% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from
ake salt; TRT 3 = 75% NaCl from NFE, 25% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 100% NaCl
from NFE, 0% NaCl from ake salt.
c
a

Instrumental external and internal color measurements for NFEcontaining frankfurters can be found in Table 6. External L* values
were lower (P b 0.05) for all TRTs as compared to C, indicating that
the usage of NFE can darken the product color. These results are in
agreement with previous results from Phase I, as NFE used at the
50% NaCl level had a similar L* impact. No differences (P > 0.05)
existed, however, for a* values, which also supports similar ndings
from Phase I where the 50% NFE TRT was not different from C.
These results suggest that addition of NFE does not inuence external
a* color. External b* color values were higher (P b 0.05) for all TRTs as
compared to C, indicating that the usage of NFE at 50% levels did lead
to a more yellowish product.
Internal L* values were lower (P b 0.05) for all TRTs compared to C
and these results indicate that the addition of NFE, when used as a
source of NaCl, may darken (P b 0.05) the internal color of frankfurters. Further, internal a* redness values were not found different
(P > 0.05) between any of the TRTs or C. In addition, internal b* values
were higher (P b 0.05) for all TRTs compared to C, indicating that NFE
addition led to an increased yellowish appearance. These ndings are
also consistent with similar color trends observed in Phase I. The decrease in product lightness and the increase in product yellowness
can negatively impact product quality; however no differences in redness suggest that lightness and yellowness impacts could be minimal.
Research conducted by Sofos (1983a) reported that no major changes
for instrumental color measurements occurred in frankfurters when
altering NaCl levels, indicating that changes occurring in this experiment were likely due to the addition of NFE and not from NaCl
are also in agreement with the results found by Kremer et al. (2009),
as they determined that inclusion of soy sauce could lead to increased
taste intensities. The inclusion of NFE also led to an increase (P b 0.05)
in the perceived meat taste, as TRTs 2, 3, and 4 rated higher than C.
The inclusion of NFE, however, led to lower ratings for texture
(P b 0.05) for TRTs 2, 3, and 4 when compared to C (Table 5). Instrumental texture results support the consumer sensory ndings; however, small numeric ranges between some TRTs might question if
they are practical differences. Finally, internal color was also affected
by the addition of NFE, as all TRTs containing NFE were rated darker
(P b 0.05) compared to C; and as NFE content increased, darker color
ratings also increased. Consumer sensory results for internal color
are in agreement with results from objective color testing, as internal
L* values also indicated that the addition of NFE resulted in darker
product colors.
3.1.8. Selection of treatments for further investigation (Phases II and III)
Results from Phase I were utilized to determine which TRT would
have the greatest efcacy for reducing NaCl levels while maintaining
quality and sensory attributes in further research phases. When determining the best level of NFE usage to continue with in further studies, sensory results were taken heavily into consideration, with
emphasis on overall liking, taste intensity, and saltiness. Quality
Table 6
Least squares means for Phase II objective external and internal color, pH, purge, emulsion stability, processing yield, and salt level for emulsied frankfurters containing natural
Externalb
TRT
C
1
2
3
4
SEMh
il
L*
Internalb
a*
64.6
63.5j
62.8j
63.0j
62.8j
0.37
b*
i
15.28
15.32i
15.43i
15.37i
15.57i
0.20
L*
j
13.3
15.0i
15.8i
15.4i
15.7i
0.37
a*
i
68.04
66.10j
65.95j
65.76j
65.62j
0.25
pHc
b*
i
14.20
14.17i
14.10i
14.32i
14.14i
0.12
8.58
11.33i
11.26i
11.43i
11.11i
0.16
Purged (%)
i
6.17
6.05j
6.06j
6.05j
6.06j
0.015
0.75
0.83i
0.73i
0.87i
0.94i
0.10

i
8.6
9.4i
9.2i
10.0i
9.8i
1.08

i
92.72
93.15i
92.98i
92.89i
93.06i
0.22
Saltg (%)
2.41i
2.38i
2.17j
1.97k
1.72l
0.022
Treatments: C = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 10% reduction in NaCl: 50%
NaCl from NFE, 40% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 3 = 20% reduction in NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 30% reduction in NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 20% NaCl
from ake salt.
b
c
d
e
f
g
Percentage of salt in fully-cooked, emulsied frankfurters.
h
a
reduction. Yet, the reported results in this phase suggest that the
color impact of NFE is minimal, especially when compared to another
umami-containing ingredient, naturally brewed soy sauce, as shown
by McGough, Sato, Rankin, and Sindelar (in press) in a similar NaCl
reduction, frankfurter study. Their results suggest soy sauce has a
greater undesirable impact on internal a* redness in frankfurters
than NFE.
pH levels of all TRTs were found to be different (P b 0.05) from C
(Table 6). The results demonstrate that pH values decreased with addition of NFE, which is similar to the trend found in Phase I; however,
the small differences (0.1) suggest little of practical signicance. The
NFE used in this research phase had a pH of 5.1 while the mean pH
of the lean beef and the fat pork trimmings were 5.7 and 6.1, respectively (data not shown).
After two weeks of storage, no differences (P > 0.05) were observed for purge levels, emulsion stability, or processing yields
(Table 6) between any of the TRTs or C. Although no other research
studies, to date, have examined NaCl-containing NFE for impact on
processing properties of processed meats, the impact of reducing
NaCl, in the form of ake salt, has been heavily studied. Sofos
(1983b), Whiting (1984), and Barbut (1988) all examined reduced
NaCl emulsions and found that stability decreased with decreasing
NaCl content, which is in agreement with the ndings of this study
where decreasing formulation NaCl showed general trends of lower
emulsion stability. No signicant (P b 0.05) differences were observed
for processing yield between any of the TRTs or C and is in disagreement with research conducted by Sofos (1983b), investigating reduced NaCl frankfurters, where it was shown that a decrease in
NaCl content also resulted in decreased cook (processing) yields.
Overall, NFE inclusion appeared to have little impact on processing
properties suggesting adequate ingredient functionality exists.
Measured nished product NaCl levels for TRTs 2, 3, and 4 were
lower (P b 0.05) than both TRT 1 and C (Table 6). TRT 1 and C were
both formulated to contain 2.5% NaCl (ingoing on a meat block
basis), with the only difference being the source (NFE or ake salt)
of NaCl. Decreases in the reported percentage of NaCl in TRTs 2, 3,
and 4 were expected due to the treatment reductions of ingoing
NaCl. However, differences between ingoing and nished product
NaCl due to the dilution effects from a portion of added formulation
water present after thermal processing must be considered when
interpreting the results.
TPA testing revealed that C was harder, springier, and chewier
(P b 0.05) than all TRTs (Table 7). Further, TRTs 3 and 4 were found
less cohesive (P b 0.05) than C (Table 7). TPA results indicate that
the addition of NFE and decrease in sodium did affect textural attributes. Puncture testing demonstrated that all TRTs required less
peak force (P b 0.05) to break the outer skin of the frankfurters as
compared to C (Table 7). Results from Hand et al. (1987) also agree
with these texture results and reported similar ndings, as they tested a reduced sodium (1.5% NaCl) frankfurter having a lower peak
force compared to a 2.5% NaCl added control, indicating a softer product can be caused by decreasing NaCl content. Results shown in this
study also agree with those reported by Sofos (1983a), who determined that shear force values for frankfurters decreased (P b 0.05)
with decreasing NaCl content. Results from this present study have
suggested that both the inclusion of NFE and decrease in NaCl affected
textural traits however, whether one had a greater impact than the
other is unclear.
191
Table 7
Least squares means for Phase II hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and
TRTa
Hardnessb
(N)
Springinessc
(mm)
Cohesivenessd
(%)
Chewinesse
(N mm)
Puncturef
(N)
C
1
2
3
4
SEMg
45.5h
37.0ij
39.7i
36.0j
35.4j
2.29
5.99h
5.68i
5.73i
5.77i
5.61i
0.057
53.8h
50.4hi
49.1hi
46.3i
46.4i
2.32
147h
107i
112i
98i
93i
11.38
2.04h
1.76ij
1.85i
1.72ij
1.59j
0.079
hj
Treatments: C = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 2.5%
ingoing NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 10% reduction in
NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 40% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 3 = 20% reduction in NaCl:
50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 30% reduction in NaCl: 50%
NaCl from NFE, 20% NaCl from ake salt.
b
c
50%).
d
e
f
g
a

For consumer sensory analysis, overall liking was positively impacted by the addition of NFE, as TRTs 2, 3, and 4 were rated higher
(P b 0.05) than C (Table 8). In addition, TRTs 1 and 2 were found to
be saltier (P b 0.05) than C. Yet, TRTs 3 and 4, having 20% and 30% reductions of NaCl were not found different (P > 0.05) for saltiness
when compared to C, suggesting a salt-enhancing occurrence
(Table 8). Overall liking and saltiness ratings suggest that NFE may
even have greater potential as a sodium reduction ingredient than another umami-containing ingredient, soy sauce. A similar research
study conducted by McGough et al. (in press) reported a frankfurter
TRT containing soy sauce, and providing a 30% reduction in total
NaCl, was rated less salty and was also not found different for overall
liking by a consumer sensory panel than a control containing 2.5%
NaCl. These results are further supported by a study conducted by
Kremer et al. (2009), who discovered that the inclusion of soy sauce
in salad dressings, tomato soup, and stir-fried pork could allow for a
50%, 17%, and 29% reduction in NaCl, respectively. Results from the
sensory panels in the present study are also in agreement with
Table 8
Least squares means for Phase II consumer sensory analysisa of emulsied frankfurters
TRTb
Overall liking
Salty taste
Overall taste
intensity
Texture
Internal
color
Meat taste
C
1
2
3
4
SEMc
4.50f
4.78ef
5.29d
5.07de
4.88e
0.12
4.50f
5.37d
4.85e
4.60ef
4.65ef
0.12
4.77g
5.81d
5.43e
5.29ef
5.09f
0.11
5.09d
3.88g
4.43e
4.28ef
4.07fg
0.11
3.21f
4.58d
4.48de
4.56d
4.30e
0.09
4.93e
4.98de
5.25d
5.19de
4.99de
0.11
dg
intensity, and meat taste; indicating very light or very dark for internal color; and
indicating very soft or very hard for texture.
b
NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 40% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 3 = 20% reduction in NaCl:
50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 30% reduction in NaCl: 50%
NaCl from NFE, 20% NaCl from ake salt.
c
a
192
appearance. This trend is consistent with results found from both

Phases I and II, indicating that the addition of NFE can increase internal yellowness.
numerous authors (Fuke & Ueda, 1996; Keast & Breslin, 2002) who
cite the ability of umami-possessing substances to be able to potentiate salty taste. In addition, overall taste intensity was also increased
by the addition of NFE, as all TRTs had higher (P b 0.05) reported ratings than C; however, overall taste intensity ratings were lower as
NaCl content decreased (Table 8). Finally, for meat taste, only TRT 2
was rated as having more (P b 0.05) than C while no other differences
existed (Table 8).
The inclusion of NFE and reduction of total NaCl led to a softer
(P b 0.05) texture for all TRTs as compared to C (Table 8). These results
are in agreement with instrumental texture evaluation data where
similar trends existed. All TRTs that contained NFE were also rated
darker (P b 0.05) compared to C and concur with trends observed
from previously discussed objective color measurements.
TRTs 1, 3, and 4 had a lower (P b 0.05) pH as compared to C
(Table 9). The NFE used in this phase of research had a pH of 4.7
while the mean pH of the lean beef and fat pork trimmings was 5.6
and 6.2, respectively (data not shown). These results support similar
observations from Phases I and II, and demonstrate that pH values decreased with addition of NFE. Due to the same level of NFE usage for
all TRTs, it was expected that the pH of TRTs would not be different,
yet small differences were observed. However, due to small numeric
differences (0.1) in pH between the TRTs and C, just as in Phase II, results likely have little practical importance. Overall, cooked pH's
(Tables 3, 6 and 9) were observed to be higher than expected when
reviewing raw material and NFE pH's, especially since sodium phosphates were not included in any TRT formulations. Although specic
reasons are unclear, it is possible lower than actual raw material
pH's were recorded due to inherent raw material pH ranges coupled
with uniformity measuring challenges. Further, at the level of NFE
used (50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt), as supported
by similar results with TRT 2 from Phase I, little impact to overall
product pH may have taken place due to the buffering capacity of
the meat system and/or the inability for NFE to impact existing buffering capacity.
3.3. Phase III sodium reduction

As in previous phases, pork and beef raw materials were individually mixed for uniformity prior to batching and being assigned to either TRT or C. Because of this, proximate composition for moisture,
fat, and protein was only determined for the emulsied frankfurter
C that had an average moisture content of 55.5% average fat content
of 26.1%, and average protein content of 13.1% (data not shown).
Results for instrumental external color measurements (Table 9)
reveal only TRT 4 was darker than C signied by a lower (P b 0.05)
L* value while also being redder as demonstrated by a higher
(P b 0.05) a* value. In addition, external b* color values were found
higher (P b 0.05) for TRTs 3 and 4 compared to C suggesting a more
yellowish color. Differences observed for external a* and b* values
may be a result of smokehouse-related thermal processing variation,
since no differences existed in Phase II for external a* or b* in NFE
containing TRTs.
Internal L* values were lower (P b 0.05) for all TRTs compared to C
(Table 9). These results indicate that the addition of NFE as a NaCl
source may darken the internal color of frankfurters, which is consistent with the results from Phases I and II. For the evaluation of redness, only TRT 4 possessed a higher (P b 0.05) a* value than C while
no differences (P > 0.05) existed between any other TRTs or C. Also,
internal b* values were higher (P b 0.05) for all TRTs compared to C,
indicating that NFE addition led to an increased yellowish

No differences (P > 0.05) were observed for purge, emulsion stability, or processing yield between C and any of the TRTs (Table 9).
Seman, Olson, and Mandigo (1980) reported emulsion stability results investigating KCl inclusion in bologna that demonstrated a
trend similar to our research results. Their results concluded that no
differences existed between any controls and treatments containing
NaCl and KCl for similar emulsion and quality experiments. Similar
cook yield results were reported by Arganosa and Marriott (1990)
in research where KCl was used to substitute 50% of NaCl in restructured hams that resulted in no differences (P > 0.05) for processing
yields as compared to the control. Seman et al. (1980) also concluded
that no differences existed for cook yield when bologna was formulated for NaCl replacement using KCl. The overall conclusions resulting from the studies conducted by Seman et al. (1980) and
Table 9
Least squares means for Phase III objective external and internal color, pH, purge, emulsion stability, processing yield, and salt level for emulsied frankfurters containing natural
TRTa
Externalb
L*
C
1
2
3
4
SEMh
Internalb
a*
62.7
62.0ij
61.6ij
61.7ij
61.3j
0.39
b*
j
16.83
16.56j
16.69j
16.94j
17.71i
0.17
L*
j
14.9
16.2ij
15.8ij
17.2i
17.2i
0.53
a*
i
67.92
65.80jk
65.50jk
66.20j
65.09k
0.25
pHc
b*
j
14.60
14.55j
14.81ij
14.54j
15.24i
0.13
8.36
11.43i
11.48i
11.62i
11.64i
0.18
Purged (%)
i
6.11
6.02j
6.07ij
6.04j
6.03j
0.013
0.81
0.90i
0.67i
0.87i
0.67i
0.14

i
6.5
6.2i
6.6i
6.6i
7.1i
0.53

i
92.52
92.29i
92.26i
92.53i
92.85i
0.20
Saltg (%)
2.5
2.5
1.9*
1.6*
1.2*
ik
*Indicates values were calculated based on C and TRT 1 as they could not be measured using the Quantab method due to KCl content.
a
Treatments: C = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 20% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl
from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt, 20% replacement of NaCl with KCl; TRT 3 = 35% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 15% NaCl from ake salt, 35% NaCl replacement with KCl;
TRT 4 = 50% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% replacement of NaCl with KCl.
b
c
d
e
f
g
Percentage of salt in fully-cooked, emulsied frankfurters.
h
Arganosa and Marriott (1990) support that NFE have similar functional properties as other successful NaCL replacement ingredients.
NaCl levels from TRTs 2, 3, and 4 were lower than those in the C
and TRT 1 (Table 9). Statistical analysis was not performed for TRTs
2, 3, or 4 NaCl measurement data and the reported values were extrapolated based on C and TRT 1 analyzed levels. This approach was
taken since the NaCl measurement methodology used could only detect and quantify the presence of chloride ions and was unable to
distinguish between chloride ions coming from NaCl and those originating from KCl. Therefore, any reported measurements would have
been inaccurate for actual NaCl content. Nonetheless, clear reductions
in NaCl did exist and demonstrate the extent of the NaCl reduction
potential from NFE and KCl inclusion. Finally, as previously discussed
in Phases I and II, differences between ingoing and nished product
NaCl must be taken into consideration when interpreting the results.
TPA testing revealed that C was harder (P b 0.05) than all TRTs, indicating that the inclusion of NFE and reduction in NaCl content can
lower product rmness (Table 10). TRTs 1, 3, and 4 were found less
(P b 0.05) springy than C while all TRTs were determined less
(P b 0.05) cohesive and chewy than C (Table 10). Further, puncture
testing demonstrated that TRTs 3 and 4 required less (P b 0.05) peak
force to break the outer skin of the frankfurters as compared to C
(Table 10). Results presented by Whiting and Jenkins (1981) suggested that frankfurter texture was unaffected by changes in ratios
of NaCl and KCl, which may indicate that textural differences found
in this study may be related to the addition of NFE.
However, contradicting NaCl replacement results have also been
reported by Seman et al. (1980) as their research ndings suggested
that replacing a portion of NaCl by the inclusion of KCl in bologna actually allowed for higher textural hardness values. Yet, ndings from
Hand, Terrell, and Smith (1982) are in agreement with the results
from this study, as they found a treatment containing 65% NaCl and
35% KCl to be less rm than a control throughout a six week storage
period. Based upon the conicting results of previous research studies, it is possible that the textural differences in this study were
caused by both a reduction in NaCl as well as KCl and NFE addition.
Table 10
Least squares means for Phase III hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and
TRTa
Hardnessb
(N)
Springinessc
(mm)
Cohesivenessd
(%)
Chewinesse
(N mm)
Puncturef
(N)
C
1
2
3
4
SEMg
46.7h
38.0i
38.1i
35.2i
31.2j
1.75
6.02h
5.82i
5.89hi
5.80i
5.61j
0.052
57.9h
48.0ij
51.1ij
52.1i
46.7j
1.93
163h
106i
116i
106i
82j
5.96
1.87h
1.73hi
1.89h
1.61ij
1.53j
0.075
hj
Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt, 20% replacement of NaCl with KCl;
TRT 3 = 35% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 15% NaCl from ake salt, 35% NaCl
replacement with KCl; TRT 4 = 50% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50%
replacement of NaCl with KCl.
b
c
50%).
d
e
f
g
a
193

Results from the consumer sensory analysis are reported in
Table 11. Only TRT 4 revealed a lower (P b 0.05) overall liking rating
than the C and no other differences existed suggesting overall liking
was not affected by the inclusion of NFE until a 50% reduction of
NaCl with 50% inclusion of KCL was present (Table 11). Further,
while TRTs 1 and 2 were rated saltier (P b 0.05) than C, all TRTs, although not all signicant, also received higher ratings for saltiness
than C. The sensory results for salty taste indicate that the inclusion
of NFE appears to offer a salt-enhancing effect and, further, allow
for an increase in the perceived salty taste, despite being included
in TRTs with decreased NaCl and inclusion of KCl. Results suggest
that NFE may be more functional than other umami-containing ingredients at replacing NaCl in conjunction with KCl as supported by a
comparable study performed by McGough et al. (in press) investigating similar functionality interests with soy sauce. Investigating NaCl
reduction in frankfurters using soy sauce, their research reported
that a TRT where NaCl was reduced by 35%, did not result in a higher
consumer sensory saltiness rating when compared to the C; whereas,
in the current study an NFE containing TRT comprising a 35% NaCL reduction was found to have a higher salty taste rating. This is likely due
to a saltiness-enhancing ingredient effect from NFE. The belief that
umami-containing substances, such as NFE, are able to enhance saltiness is further supported by sensory results from numerous studies in
food products (Fuke & Ueda, 1996; Keast & Breslin, 2002). In addition,
overall taste intensity was also increased by the addition of NFE, as all
TRTs received higher (P b 0.05) ratings by panelists than C. For bitterness, TRTs 1 and 4 were rated as being more bitter (P b 0.05) than C
while TRTs 2 and 3 had, although not signicant, numerically higher
scores suggesting a bitterness effect from all TRTs did exist. Signicantly lower (P b 0.05) scores for bitterness in TRTs 2 and 3 (containing 20 and 35% KCl, respectively) compared to TRT 1 (containing 50%
NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt) could be attributed to a bitterness masking effect from NFE or simply from the low level of KCl in
the formulation. Nonetheless, this research indicates TRT 4, containing a 50% NaCl from ake salt and a 50% KCl replacement level for
total formulation NaCl may be approaching minimum threshold
levels where bitterness avors can be detected by consumers.
For consumer texture analysis, the inclusion of NFE led to a softer
(P b 0.05) texture for all TRTs as compared to C (Table 11). These ndings are similar to those results and trends reported for instrumental
texture evaluations from both Phases I and II. Consumer internal color
ratings were also impacted by the addition of NFE, as all TRTs containing NFE were rated darker (P b 0.05) than C. These results are
Table 11
Least squares means for Phase III consumer sensory analysisa of emulsied frankfurters
TRTb
Overall
liking
Salty
taste
Overall taste
intensity
C
1
2
3
4
SEMc
4.84d
4.87d
5.07d
4.86d
4.40e
0.13
4.42f
5.20d
4.82e
4.47f
4.60ef
0.12
4.52g
5.79d
5.18ef
4.98f
5.35e
0.12
dg
Bitterness Texture
2.66f
3.23de
2.89ef
2.91ef
3.50d
0.13
5.50d
4.20ef
4.46e
4.07f
3.55g
0.11
Internal
color
Meat
taste
3.54g
4.68de
4.48ef
4.21f
4.91d
0.10
5.01de
5.02de
5.20d
5.02de
4.81e
0.11
intensity, bitterness, and meat taste; indicating very light or very dark for internal
color; and indicating very soft or very hard for texture.
b
Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt, 20% replacement of NaCl with KCl;
TRT 3 = 35% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 15% NaCl from ake salt, 35% NaCl
replacement with KCl; TRT 4 = 50% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50%
replacement of NaCl with KCl.
c
a
194
supported by the instrumental L* measurements, as similar trends

were noted for the TRTs and C. No differences (P > 0.05), however,
were found for meat taste between any of the TRTs or C (Table 11).
4. Conclusions
Varying levels of NFE were investigated as a means to replace and
reduce sodium in emulsied frankfurters in three phases of research.
The non-NFE containing control, with 2.4% nished product NaCl,
possessed characteristics typical of an industry standard frankfurter
throughout all research phases.
Phase I results indicated a treatment (TRT 2) containing 50% NaCl
from NFE + 50% NaCl from ake salt delivered the most desirable consumer sensory and quality attributes, and was therefore utilized as a
baseline for continued investigations for sodium reduction feasibility
in subsequent research phases. In Phase II, both quality and consumer
sensory results indicated that a treatment (TRT 3) containing 50%
NaCl from NFE + 30% NaCl from ake salt (20% total NaCl reduction)
could be the most acceptable formulation combination for industrial
applications to effectively achieve sodium reduction without affecting
consumer acceptance. Resulting in 2.0% total NaCl in the nished
product, this TRT formulation did not provide a substantially negative
impact on quality attributes, and consumer sensory traits were either
found not different or improved when compared to the control. Phase
III results suggested that the most successful treatment (TRT 3) formulation contained 50% NaCl from NFE + 15% NaCl from ake salt
+ 35% KCl, and resulted in 1.6% total NaCl in the nished product.
This TRT possessed similar quality and consumer sensory attributes
when compared to the control. In addition, bitterness, from the inclusion of KCl, was not detected in this TRT, as conrmed by consumer
sensory analysis.
All research phases indicated that it is possible to successfully utilize NFE for replacing a portion of NaCl in frankfurters. This research
also demonstrated that NFE possesses the ability to increase sensory
attributes such as overall liking, salty taste perception, and overall
taste intensity suggesting a avor and salt-enhancing effect. Finally,
Phase III results advocate that NFE has the ability to attenuate bitterness when included in frankfurter formulations containing up to 35%
KCl level.
The industrial application of NFE to reduce sodium in emulsied
frankfurters should include consideration of potential textural effects
and color impacts. Few quality differences existed from the decrease
in sodium; however, objective texture and instrumental color were
the most impacted attributes when compared to controls and thus
practical impact should be assessed. The addition of sodium phosphates or other functional ingredients may aid in the improvement
of the frankfurter textural concerns that were identied from the addition of NFE and reduction of sodium. Other approaches such as
using powdered or granulated NFE may also aid in obtaining texture
similar to a non-NFE containing frankfurter. Products manufactured
using other formulations and/or processing methods existing in the
industry may further negate product color effects from NFE found in
our studies.
Additional studies are required to better determine the best combinations of sodium reduction, NFE usage, and KCl inclusion to
provide a reduced sodium frankfurter with desirable sensory and
quality attributes. Further research should also be completed to
determine the effects the reduction of sodium by addition of NFE
have on the shelf life and safety of these products. Furthermore, additional experimentation should be conducted to include a wider subset
of processed meat products, particularly in those products in which
NaCl is used more for avor and less for functionality.
Acknowledgments
This project was funded by Kikkoman USA R&D Laboratory, Inc.
The authors wish to thank Dr. Larry Borchert for his advice and
counseling throughout this project.
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Reducing Sodium Levels in Frankfurters Using A Natural Flavor Enhancer

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Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

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Reducing sodium levels in frankfurters using a natural avor enhancer

M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

respectively. Further, Yamaguchi and Takahashi (1984) found that

Phase I TRT formulations

Phase II TRT formulations

Phase III TRT formulations

Phase II NaCl reduction using NFE

Phase III NaCl reduction using NFE and KCl

M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

temperature of 71.1 C. The smokehouse schedule included a smoke

2.3. Natural avor enhancer preparation

The stability of raw emulsion was also determined on the day of

2.9. Processing yield measurements

M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

25 mm diameter cylinder (TA-25) was used to determine the texture

into labeled sample cups, covered, and held in a warming cabinet

Hardness the peak force during the first compression

3.1.1. Proximate composition

compression50% to that during the first compression

2.11.2. Puncture analysis

3. Results and discussion

3.1.2. Instrumental color measurements

M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

Emulsion stabilitye (%)

Processing yieldf (%)

stability reported for TRT 4 compared to TRTs 2, 3 and C may have

compared to C, demonstrating a trend of decreased required peak

M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

3.2. Phase II sodium chloride reduction

3.2.2. Instrumental color measurements

Emulsion stabilitye (%)

Processing yieldf (%)

M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

3.2.7. Consumer sensory analysis

M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

appearance. This trend is consistent with results found from both

3.3. Phase III sodium reduction

3.3.4. Purge, emulsion stability, and processing yield measurements

Emulsion stabilitye (%)

Processing yieldf (%)

M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

3.3.7. Consumer sensory analysis

M.M. McGough et al. / Meat Science 91 (2012) 185194

supported by the instrumental L* measurements, as similar trends

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