CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Process of Writing
Writing is the process of expressing ideas from the writer to the reader;
the reader understands what the writer means in his writing. According to
Teitelbaun (1996), there are eight stages in writing process they are: Targeting,
Gathering Information, Brainstorming, Filtering Organizing, Drafting,
Revising, and Finalizing.
First, targeting is the process of determining who will be the audience
of the writing text. If you are writing, you are writing to do something and you
cannot accomplish that purpose without keeping it clearly in your mind.
Second, gathering information is the process of getting information
related to the topic which will be written. The different sources of information
are useful for different purposes and the writer need to choose sources wisely.
Third, brainstorming is the process of generating as many ideas as
possible without worrying the ideas are good or not, the writer can make
decision about the ideas which will be written later. Fourth, filtering is the
process of looking what ideas which will be written based on ideas in
brainstorming process.
Fifth, organizing is the process of grouping ideas related to each part of
ideas which will be written. Sixth, drafting is the process of selecting ideas
which will be written. Seventh, revising is the process of going back over the
draft and improving it, it thus producing a new draft. In this section, there are

11

12
two useful strategies can be done by the writer, the writer get comments from
other people on the draft and put it down for a day or two and then reread it.
Last, finalizing is the process of dealing the detail of grammar, mechanics, and
format of the writing.
Writing is the process of transferring idea in written. In other opinion,
Reid (1994: 14) says that the processes of writing paragraph are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Choosing a subject
Identifying the audience
Narrowing the subject to a topic.
Collecting some ideas about the topic
Listing details about some most important one you want to communicate
Stating the main idea of paragraph.
Writing the paragraph by using the detail listed
Limiting the ideas into the most important ones.
For the writers are important to take a note that writing is a process not

a product. This means that writing is never complete; that is, it is always
possible to review and revise and review and revise again. Alice (1999: 3)
states that the writing processes are as follows:
Stage I

: Prewriting

Step 1

: Choosing and narrowing a topic

Step 2

: Brainstorming

Stage II

: The Writing Process Planning (Outlining) -

Step 1

: Making Sub-lists

Step 2

: Writing the topic sentence

Step 3

: Outlining

Stage III : The Writing Process Writing and Revising Draft

Step 1

: Writing the first rough draft

13
Step 2

: Revising content and organization

Step 3

: Proofreading the second draft

Step 4

: Writing the final copy to hand it

Stages In Writing
1. Getting

2. Organizing

3. Writing

Ideas

5. Editing

Sharing

Feedback

4. Revising

Sharing

Feedback

In addition, Langan (1988: 22-34) asserts that writing has some of

stages to build written form effectively, as follows:
1. Pre writing
Pre writing is first stage in writing process and it is as a way to
think on paper and to gradually discovery just what ideas you want to
develop. Pre writing that stage will help you to think, develop a topic and
get word on paper. There some techniques that writer uses in prewriting
like: free writing, questioning, make a list and preparing a scratch outline
and important thing that by pre writing, the writer free to write something
based on their ideas.
According to Oshima and Hogue (1999:3) in pre writing will focus
not only in choosing and narrowing the topic, the writer free to choose the
topic and after that they must narrow it, but also in pre writing writer can

14
generate ideas based on that topic. In pre writing, there are three
techniques to brainstorm the ideas namely: Listing is brainstorming
techniques in which you think about topic quickly make a list of whatever
word or phrases come into mind. Second, Free Writing is a brainstorming
technique activity that writes freely about the topic. The purpose of free
writing is to generate as many ideas as possible and to write without
worrying

about

appropriateness,

grammar,

spelling,

logic,

and

organization and writer more free to writing down their ideas. Third,
Clustering is another brainstorming activity that you generate ideas about
the topic by drawing a balloon around it.
2. Writing a draft
In writing a draft, the writer should prepare to put in additional
thought and detail that did not emerge during pre writing. Thought writing
a draft, the writer can complete what they not show in prom pre writing.
3. Revising
Revising is a much stage in writing process as pre writing,
outlining and going the first draft. Revising mean rewriting a paper on
what has already done. It means that rewriting is one of way to revise the
written form to correct grammar, spelling, vocabulary, punctuation and all
things. By revising, the write will fix the mistakes and errors from what
they write.
Furthermore, according to Sudiyarto (2007: 149) revising and
editing a paper is the next step you will do after the writing process is

15
completed. There are three main areas that writer should pay attention in
revising the written form, they are:
a.

Content and Organization

You have to make sure that:
1) The introduction is interesting and it explain what the paper is
about
2) The introduction contains a clear thesis statement
3) The body of the paper is organized in a logical way
4) You do not write anything which is irrelevant to your topic
5) You have explained all your ideas clearly
6) The conclusion, synthesizes and clarifies important information
and reinforces the thesis statement

b.

Style
You have to check that:
1) All paragraphs are well-developed
2) You use variety of ways to begin your paragraph to avoid boring
repetition
3) Each paragraph has one topic sentence in it all paragraph are wellconnected by the appropriate transitional sentences
4) All the word your use are correct and convey you meaning clearly
5) You avoid using too many words without specific and concrete
meaning, such as it, someone, and everyone.
6) You use the correct grammar

16
7) You use the correct pronunciation
8) All the words are spelled correctly
c.

Format
You have to ensure that:
1) Your paper has the correct margins, spacing, heading and sections
2) You have followed the correct guidelines for typing
3) You include all necessary parts, as required( including abstract and
table of contain)
Clearly, writing is a kind of communication through written text. In

the process of this communication, the writer should be able to consider the
person who will be the reader and how to make the written text easy to read
and understandable.
Writing is not an easy work to do, since in writing, the writers are
expected to understand many indicator in order to make communicative
writing and understandable. According to Brown (1994: 342-343) there are
six indicators which will be investigated in writing it is content, organization,
discourse, syntax, vocabulary and mechanic.
On the other hand, Jacobs (1981: 90) said that there are five
components of writing. First, content; he applies several descriptors:
knowledgeable, substantive, through development of thesis, and relevant to
assigned topic. Second, organization; he applies six descriptors: fluent
expression, ideas clearly stated or supported, succinct, well organize, logical
sequencing, and cohesive. Third, vocabulary; he also states vocabulary into

17
four descriptors; sophisticated range; effective word/idiom choice and usage;
word form mastery; appropriate register. Fourth, language Use; consist of
eight descriptors: effective complex construction; few error of agreement,
tense, number, word order/ function, articles, pronouns, preparation. The last
one is mechanics; described about demonstrates mastery of conventions, few
error of spellings, punctuations, capitalization, paragraphing and handwriting.
Bellow are the categories of scoring these aspects are:
Table 2:
Indicator and score of writing based on jacob
C
O
N
T
E
N
T

Score
Level
30-27
26-22
21-17
16-13

O
R
G
A
N
I
Z
A
T

Score
Level
20-18
17-14
13-10

Criteria
Excellent to Very Good: knowledgeable; substantive;
thorough development of thesis; relevant to assigned topic
Good to Average: some knowledge of subject; adequate
range; limited development of thesis; mostly relevant to
topic, but lacks detail
Fair to Poor: limited knowledge of subject; little
substance; inadequate development of topic
Very Poor: does not show knowledge of subject; nonsubstantive; not pertinent; or not enough to evaluate

Criteria
Excellent to Very Good: fluent expression; ideas clearly
stated/supported; succinct; well organized; logical
sequencing; cohesive
Good to Average: somewhat choppy; loosely organized but
main ideas stand out; limited support; logical but incomplete
sequencing
Fair to Poor: non-fluent; ideas confused or disconnected;
lacks logical sequencing and development

18
I
O
N
V
O
C
A
B
U
L
A
R
Y

9-7

Score
Level
20-18
17-14
13-10
9-7

L
A
N
G
U
A
G
E

Score
Level
25-22

U
S
E

17-11

21-18

10-5

M
E
C
H
A
N
I
C
S

Score
Level
5
4
3
2

Very Poor: does not communicate; no organization; or not

enough to evaluate

Criteria
Excellent to Very Good: sophisticated range; effective
word/idiom choice and usage; word form mastery;
appropriate register
Good to Average: adequate range; occasional errors of
word/idiom form; choice; usage but meaning not obscured
Fair to Poor: limited range; frequent errors of word/form;
choice usage; meaning confused or obscured
Very Poor: essentially translation; little knowledge of English
vocabulary; idioms, word form, or not enough to evaluate
Criteria
Excellent to Very Good: effective complex construction; few
errors of agreement, tense, number, word order/ function,
articles, pronouns, prepositions
Good to Average: effective but simple construction; minor
problems in complex constructions; several errors of
agreement, tense, number, word order/function, articles,
pronouns, prepositions but meaning seldom obscured
Fair to Poor: major problems in simple/complex
constructions; frequent errors of negations, agreement, tense,
number, word order/function, articles, pronouns, prepositions
and/or fragments, run-ons, deletions; meaning confused or
obscured
Very Poor: virtually no mastery of sentence construction
rules; dominated by errors; doesnt communicate, or not
enough to evaluate
Criteria
Excellent to Very Good: demonstrates mastery of
conventions; few errors of spelling, punctuations,
capitalizations, paragraphing
Good to Average: occasional errors of spelling, punctuation,
capitalizations, paragraphing, but meaning not obscured
Fair to Poor: frequent errors of spelling, punctuation,
capitalizations, paragraphing, poor handwriting, meaning
confused or obscured
Very Poor: no mastery of conventions; dominated by errors
of spelling, punctuation, capitalizations, paragraphing,

19
handwriting illegible; or not enough to evaluate
(Quoted from: Jacobs, L. Holly. Testing ESL Composition: A Practical
Approach. London: Prentice Hall. 1981: 90)

B. Product Orrientied
According to Harmer (2008: 325) product orriented means that the
main thing to be focussed in laerning is product rather than the process of
writing itself.
Compositions were to supported to (a) meet certain standards of
prescribed English rhetorical style (b) reflect accurate grammar, and (c) be
organized in conformity with what the audience would consider to be
conventional. A good deal of attention was placed on model compositions
that students would emulate and on how well a students final product
measured up against a list of criteria that included content, organization,
vocabulary use, grammatical use, and mechanical considerations such as
spelling and punctuation.

C. The purpose of writing

The following are four general writing purposes and one can join two
or more in a piece of writing:
1

To inform
To inform someone of something is the most common purpose.
This kind of writing is also called informative writing. Informative writing

20
focuses on the readers attention upon the objective world, object, events,
and ideas, not dealing with feeling or attitudes toward them, examples:
news account, encyclopedia articles, laboratory and scientific reports,
textbook, articles in professional journals, etc.
2

To express yourself,
Expressing writing emphasizes on the writers feelings and
reactions to the world: people, object, event and ideas, examples of

expressing writing are diaries, personal letters.

To persuade.
In persuasive writing the writer persuades someone to believe or to
do something. This writing aims to sway the readers opinion or attitudes,
arouse the reader to action or bring about a particular response. Persuasive
writing depends much upon the use of evidence and logical reasoning,
examples of this writing are, advertisement, political speeches and
editorial

To entertain
This writing is only meant to entertain the reader. The writer tries
to attract the reader attention and makes them forgetting their problems.
This writing brings the reader to other world. Examples of this writing are
fictions, comedies, comics and anecdotes.

D. Written Competence

21
Communicating in written language requires different understanding
about the contexts of situation i n which written style is used. This style is
usually used when people do not have the opportunity to meet and talk; they
do not share the contexts of situation; there are things that are not recoverable
so that nearly everything has to be written down. A fiction such as Harry
Potter is a good example of how contexts of situation are described in great
details. This poses a great challenge in English education in this country
especially because the government regulation says that school graduates are
expected to be able to write in English (Depdiknas 2005).
According to Brown (1994:325) some characteristics of written
language, there are:
a. Permanence
Once something is written down and delivered in its final form to
its intended audience, the writer abdicates a certain power: power to
emend, to clarify, to withdraw. That prospect is the single most significant
contributor to making writing a very scary operation. Student writers often
feel that the act of releasing a written work to an instructor is not unlike
putting yourself in front of a firing squad. Therefore, whatever to can do as
a teacher and guide and facilitator to help your students revise and ravine
their work before final submission will help to give them confidence in
their work.
b. Production time
The good news is that, give appropriate stretches of time, a writer
can indeed become a good writer by developing efficient processes for
achieve and student writing within time limits, or writing for display as
noted in the previous section (examination writing, for example). So, one

22
of your goals, especially if you are teaching in an EAP context, would be
to train your students to make the possible use of such time limitations.
This may mean sacrificing some process time, bit with sufficient training
in process writing, combined with practice in display writing, you can help
your students to deal with time limitations.
c. Distance
One of the thorniest problems writer face is anticipating their
audience. That anticipation ranges from general audience character to how
specific words and phrase and sentences and paragraphs are going to be
empathy, in that good writers can read their own writing from the
perspective of the mind of the targeted audience. Writers need to be able to
predict the audiences general knowledge, cultural and literary schemata,
specific subject-matter knowledge, and very importantly, how their choice
of language will be interpreted.
d. Orthography
Everything from simple greetings to extremely complex ideas are
captured thorough the manipulation of a few dozen letters and other
written symbols. Sometimes we take for granted the mastering of the
mechanics of English writing by our students. If students are non-literate
in the native language, you must begin at the very beginning with
fundamentals of reading and writing.
e. Complexity
The complexity of written as opposed to spoken-language was
illustrated. Writer must learn how to remove redundancy (which may not
jibe with their first language rhetorical tradition). How to combine

23
sentences, how to make references to other elements in a text, how to
create syntactic and lexical variety, and much more.
f. Vocabulary
Writing places a heavier on vocabulary use than does speaking.
Good writer will learn to take advantage of the richness of English
vocabulary.
g. Formality
Whether a students is filling out a questionnaire or writing a full
blown essay, the conventions of each form must be followed. For ESL
students, the most difficult and complex convention occur in academic
writing where students have to learn how to describe, explain, compare,
contrast, illustrate, defend, criticize, and argue.
1. Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is the examination of language use by members
of a speech community. It involves looking at both language form and
language functions and includes the study of both spoken interaction and
written texts. It identifies linguistic features that characterize different
genres as well social and cultural factors that aid in our interpretation and
understanding of different texts and types of talk. A discourse analysis of
written texts might include a study of topic development and cohesion
across the sentences, while an analysis of spoken language might focus on
these aspects plus turn taking practices, opening and closing sequences of
social encounters, or narrative structure.
The study of discourse has developed in a variety of disciplines
sociolinguistics, anthropology, sociology, and social psychology. Thus
discourse analysis takes different theoretical perspectives and analytic

24
approaches: speech act theory interactional sociolinguistics, ethnography
of communication, pragmatics, conversation analysis, and variation
analysis. Although each approach emphasizes different aspects of language
use, they all view language as social interaction. This digest focuses on the
application of discourse analysis to second language teaching and learning.
It provides examples of how teachers can improve their teaching practices
by investigating actual language use both in and out of the classroom, and
how students can learn language through exposure to different types of
discourse. (Douglas: 2011)
2. The Concept Genre Based Approach
There are three concepts of Genre Based Approach in language
teaching (Rozimela in Emil, 2007) namely English for Specific Purpose
(ESP), North American Rhetoric Studies and Australian Systemic
Functional Linguistics (SFL). However, Systemic Functional Linguistic
(SFL) concept has a great influence toward teaching English as a foreign
language setting in Indonesia. Genre Based Approach based on SFL was
firstly developed in Australia and now is adapted in CBC.
Christie in Emil (2007) says that genre should be explicitly taught
and learned in order that the students have the control of appropriate
written genres. In other words, the teachers should be aware of their ways
in teaching. Sometimes the teachers should create situations in which
students can reinvent the wheel of a genre (Coe in Emil, 2007).

25
Related to this, Christie in Emil (2005) states that the teachers
should give various kinds of genres to the students in language teaching
and learning process. By using various kinds of genres the teachers can
guide the students better when they learn. Furthermore, Refnaldi (2005)
says that by using valued genres, the teachers provide the students with an
explicit of linguistic choices, both within and beyond the sentences.
Genre-Based Approach acknowledges that writing takes place in
social situation and reflects a particular purpose and that learning can
happen consciously through imitation and analysis that facilitates explicit
instruction. This approach also gives an understanding how different text
requires different structure. Genre-Based Approach in teaching and
learning process expects the students to be able to identify the form of
genre with the different social function, generic structure and lexico
grammatical features.
There are number of definitions regarding communicative
competence. But the communicative competence model offered by CelceMurcia et. al. (in Depdiknas, 2003) has been chosen as the model
delineating what it is that the learners need to achieve at the end of
program. Celce- Murcia et. al. suggest that in order to communicate
effectively in a language, one needs to possess linguistic competence,
socio-cultural competence, actional competence strategic competence, and
ultimately, discourse competence (Depdiknas: 2003).

26
The schema of communicative competence according to CelceMurcia et. al. as follows (Depdiknas: 2003)
Figure 1 : Model of Communicative Competence According to Celce-Murcia et. al

Following Celce-Murcia et. al., the ultimate communicative

competence is discourse competence. Having discourse competence means
being able to participate in communication or being able to participate in
the creation of text because communicating (orally or written) is creating
texts in different context (Depdiknas: 2003).
Communicative competence according to Savignon in Getreda
Yosmi (2008) that should be achieved by language learners are:
a. Linguistic competence is the mastery of linguistic code, the ability
touse the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a language.
b. Sociolinguistic competence knows how to use and respond to language
appropriately, given the setting, the topic, and the relationships among

27
the people communicating. It requires an understanding of social
context in which language is used.
c. Discourse competence is the ability to interpret to interpret a series of
sentence and the larger context and how to construct longer stretches
of language so that the parts make up a coherent whole.
d. Strategic competence knows how to recognize and fix communication
breakdowns, how to work around gaps in ones knowledge of the
language, and how to learn more about the language and in the context.
It is strategies that one uses to compensate for imperfect knowledge of
rules.
In the early stages of language learning, teacher and students may
want to keep in mind the goal of communicative efficiency: That learners
should be able to make themselves understood, using their current
proficiency to the fullest. The students acquire language proficiency by
learning the language and use it to communicate whether in written and
also spoken form.
Generally, in teaching English, especially in using GBA, teachers
usually encounter with constraints when talking about communicative
competence. These constraint includes: (1) the strategy how to make the
students speak up, (2) how to make them understand a reading text easily,
and (3) how to make them write a short text correctly. Hopefully teachers
are able to plan an effective instructional materials, implemented it in
language teaching, and the all the goals are achieved by the students.
3. The Genre-Based Approach in Teaching Writing

28
Derewianka (1990) have identified four stages, named the
Curriculum Cycle, through which a particular text type can be made
explicit to students. The four stages of the Curriculum Cycle are: Stage
(1) developing control of the genre, Stage (2) Modeling the text type,
Stage (3) Joint construction, Stage (4) Independent Construction of text.
Cope and Kalantzis (in Yan, 2004) propose three phases in GenreBased approach in teaching writing. First, the target genre is modeled for
the students. Second, the teacher and students jointly construct a text. Each
student independently constructs the last, a text. Meanwhile, Yan (2004)
modified six teaching writing procedures based on genre approach model:

a. Preparation
The teacher begins preparing the students to write by defining a
situation that will require a written text and placing it within a specific
genre, such as a persuasive essay arguing for or against an issue of
current interest. This activities the schemata and allows students to
anticipate the structural features of this genre.
b. Modeling and reinforcing
In this step the teacher introduces a model of the genre and lets
students consider the social purpose of the text, including who the
audience will be. Next, the teacher discuses how the text is structured
and how its organization develops to accomplish its purpose. The

29
students may do some comparisons with order texts to reinforce what
they have learned about the particular genre.
c. Planning
In this step the teacher introduced a model of the genre and lets
students schemata about the topic, including brainstorming,
discussing, and reading a associated material. The aim is to help the
students develop and interest in the topic by relating it to their
experience.
d. Joint constructing
During this step, which will facilitate later independent
composing, the teacher and students work together to begin writing a
text.

While doing so, the teacher uses the writing processes of

brainstorming, drafting and revising.

The students contribute

information and ideas, and the teacher writes the generated text on the
blackboard or computer. The final draft provides a model for students
to refer to whom they work on their individual compositions.
e. Independent constructing
At this point students have examined model text and have
jointly constructed a text in the genre. They now undertake the task of
composing their own text on a related topic. Class time can be setaside for students to compose independently so that the teacher is
available to help, clarify, or consult about the process. The writing task
can be continued as a homework assignment.

30
f. Revising
Students eventually will have a draft that wills undergo final
revision and editing. This does not necessarily mean that teachers
have to collect all the papers and mark them one by one, students may
check, discuss, and evaluate their work with follow students, as the
teacher again guides and facilitates. The teacher may make an effort to
publish the students work, which will impart a sense of achievement
and motivate the students to become better writers.
According to Derewianka (1994), the Genre-Based Approach
suggests that students should be familiarized with the genre before they
can write appropriately in it. So, a typical writing lesson includes three
phases: deconstruction, joint construction and independent constructions.
At the deconstruction phase, the teacher provides a model text and leads
students to an understanding of the purpose and features of the genre
through exposure

to exploration of the text. At the joint construction

phase, the teacher provides a topic for the class to write collaboratively in
the chose genre. Here, teachers still guides while the students take a more
active part in the learning activity. Independent construction is the phase
where students have a more complete sense of ownership of their
composition because they plan and write all by themselves.

It is an

opportunity for students to apply their built-up knowledge and to exploit

the genre with more confidence. Clearly, each phase helps the students
move towards a deeper understanding and greater control of the chose

31
genre. When necessary, the class can return to deconstruction after
independent construction so that the phase forms a cycle.
Each genre is likely to develop different aspects of a pupils
linguistic competence; work in each genre is likely to enable each pupil to
demonstrate particular achievements and development needs; working on
a variety of genres, help teachers to address a broad range of the aims of
the English curriculum (Jon Davison and Jane Dawson, 1998:135-136)
4. The Teaching Writing in Curriculum Cycle
The teaching learning process is an interaction between the
teachers and the students which have some components namely goal,
students and teachers, materials, methods and evaluation. This process will
be successful when all the components support each other. Other
components such a curriculum, infrastructure and environment also
influence whether the students are successful or not in teaching learning
process.
Based on this reason, Depdiknas tries to increase the result of
teaching learning by doing the revision of the curriculum. Therefore,
Depdiknas has applied the teaching learning process by using two cycles
and changing the use of class into grade. There are some theories related
to this application that was proposed by Hammond et.al, Martin and Susan
Feez. From the three theories related to the application of teaching
learning cycle based on Genre Approach, the researcher chooses the
theories teaching learning cycle proposed by Hammond et.al to be applied

32
in teaching learning process to increase students writing competence. It
has similar ideas and the same objectives related to the new curriculum
(KTSP). Besides, Genre-based approach is used in this theory.
Based on Helena in Hammond et al (2004), classroom
programming based on four stages and two cycles which are aimed at
providing support for learner as they move from spoken to written texts.
The four stages are:
Stage one

: Building the Context or Field of the topic or text type

Stage two

: Modeling of the Genre under focus

Stage three

: Joint Construction of Text

Stage four

: Independent Construction of the Text

In the classroom, however, the division of the cycle into stages is

not always the same. When one stage is considered complicated, this stage
can take longer time than the rest. The proposed table is as follows:

33

Figure 2 : Cycles and Stages of Learning

The following table describes the cycle of teaching learning

(Depdiknas, 2004): However, teachers may begin the steps at any point
depending on the students need. Hammond et.al in Depdiknas states there
are two cycles in teaching learning as follows:
a. Oral Cycle
In this cycle, the teaching learning focuses on oral form but
written form is allowed to do. There are four steps in oral form as
follows:

1) Building Knowledge of Field

At this first stage, the teachers build the background
knowledge of the students. For example, they will write a text of
fried noodle. Teachers invite the students to participate by using
vocabularies needed in producing the text, using nouns,
conjunctions and structures. The student may use other words out
of the topic enlarge their vocabularies. Both the students and the
teachers also have a class discussion and talk about the expression
used in the text such as giving instruction, introducing, giving
information or opinion and also lexico grammatical features related
to the topic being discussed. Another activity is sharing ideas or
experiences with the students.
2) Modeling of Text

34
At this stage, the teachers introduce a model of a text of
conversation and ask the students to find the concept of genre
based on the text or conversation. Teachers will use some English
features

like

imperative,

modals,

introduce

transactional

conversation and interpersonal conversation. They also invite the

students to read the text or present the conversation in front of the
class. So, in reading conversation the students also listen and
speak. Besides comprehending the meaning of the text, reading
focuses on comprehending the function of the text and structure.
Furthermore, a teacher introduces generic structures of the text
whether they are recount, narrative, descriptive, report or
procedure and lexico grammatical feature of the text.
3) Join Construction of Text
At this stage, the students work in group or in pairs to make
a conversation or simple text. They will have a class discussion and
the teacher will lead them. Therefore, the teacher and the students
develop the text together and share the ideas. It is expected that
their knowledge at first stage will lead them to create a new text or
modify them into similar text or into new form. While sharing
ideas with the students, the teacher also discuss about schematic
structure and lexica grammatical features in constructing the text.
4) Independent Construction of Text

35
Finally, the teachers let the students create a text or
conversation individually. They may find a new topic that they
want effectively. Teacher suggests the students to use knowledge
that they get on previous stages. After preparing the text, the
students present their work and the teachers lead them how to
present the text correctly in front of the class.
b. Written Cycle
In this cycle, the teaching learning process focuses on written
form. After mastering the oral form, the students will learn the written
form. Some steps of written cycles are:

1) Building Knowledge of Field

At this first stage, the teachers build the students
knowledge and review the previous topic. Both teachers and the
students also talk about structure and relevant vocabularies in
written form.
2) Modeling of Text
At this stage, the students are introduced to the text in
written form. Both the teachers and the students may have a class
discussion and talk about the kinds of the text whether they are
narrative, recount or descriptive text.
3) Joint Construction of Text

36
After giving of a model, the teachers ask the students to
make the first draft of the text. The ideas can be experiencing,
doing brainstorming or reading magazine or newspaper. The topics
are free for every group. There some steps of doing a text in JCOT:
a) Collect the ideas, for example identification, then description,
or orientation, first event, second event, then orientation.
However, it depends on the text types.
b) Check all of the information including time, action
arrangement, conjunction and place.
c) Determine the sentence to express detail information
d) Arrange the words on good coherence paragraph
e) Check the choosing word and tenses
4) Independent Construction of Text
Finally, the students will make a text by themselves or work
independently. They may ask the teacher when they find problems
to make the text in written form based on the genre they have
learned.
E. Teaching Written In Junior High School
In the process of teaching writing, teachers no longer merely concern
with the text produced by the students but also how this text has been
produced. Finachiarro and Bonomo (1973) argue that the teacher in teaching
writing should teach: (1) The sound spelling correspondences, (2) The mechanics
of the writing, (3) Letter of writing, formal or informal, (4) Practical,

37
functional writing, outlining, summarizing, (5) The organization and the
expression of the idea, (6) The differences between speaking and writing.
According to Reimes (1983), in producing a piece of writing, a writer
has to deal with context, syntax, mechanics, organization, word choice, purpose,
audience, and the writing processes. Meanwhile, writing process involves
four steps: getting ideas, getting started, writing drafts and revising.
Similarly, Nation (1989) proposes an approach by looking at the
skills being involved in process, and to define the sub skills as stages in the
process. The writing process contains gathering ideas, organizing ideas, write
ideas to text and then reviewing.
In teaching writing, Nunan (1999) mentions two different views that
can be seen by the teacher toward students writing. They are product approach
and process approach. The product approach means the writing focused on
the final result of the writing; letter composition, essay, letter, story and so on.
The teachers will see outcome is readable, grammatically correct, and obeys
discourse convention such as main topics, supporting details.
While in the process approach, the writing focuses on the means of
the final product created. The teacher will start out by viewing the ideas that
redefined, develop, and transformed. And motivation plays such as an important
role in the process. The students have to have motivation to carry out the
product of writing well.
In English curriculum, Kurikulum Tingkat SatuanPendidikan (2006),
for Junior high school, writing is placed in the fourth skill which has to be

38
mastered by the students. For year ten students of Junior high school, the
standard of competencies for writing is expressing meaning in short functional
text and simple essay in the form of narrative, descriptive and recount daily
life context.
The basic competencies are:
a.

Expressing meaning in form of short functional text (for example

announcement, advertisement, invitation, etc.) formal or informal accurately,

b.

fluently and acceptable by using various written form in daily life context.
Expressing meaning and rhetorical stages in simple essay accurately,
fluently and acceptable in daily life context in form of narrative,
descriptive and recount text type.
While, the activities done in writing are:

a.
b.

To make an announcement individually and publish it.

To make narrative, news or descriptive text draft by doing chain

writing a paragraph that illustrates something.

c.
To conduct peer correction to review the draft.
d.
To rewrite the reviewed-draft.
The indicators of the above competences are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Using reported speech sentences to deliver news.

Using simple present tense to make a description.
Using adverbial clause in writing a narration.
Producing narrative text.
Producing description text.
The process of teaching learning of English at the Junior High School

focuses on the students ability to communicate in daily lives. So the students

are demanded to apply their knowledge into real life. For grade eight of the

39
Junior High School, the students have to understand the text and use it in real
situation.
In KTSP, learning a language is started with oral to written form where
each cycle consists of four steps; Building Knowledge of the Field (BKoF),
Modeling of Text (MoT), Joint Construction of Text (JCoT), and Independent
Construction of Text (ICoT). For grade eight of the Junior High School use
type of genre, consist of: Descriptive text, narrative text, recount text and the
focus of the research is descriptive textand below one of the lessons planthe
learned from descriptive text in junior high school.
1.

The Nature of Text and Context

There are three variables belonging to context of situation namely
field, tenor and mode (Halliday, 1985: 24). Fields indicates the types of
activity in which a text operates its context and ideas. Tenor handles the
status and role relationship of the participants, while mode is concerned
with the channel of communication whether it is spoken or written. These
three contexts of situation variables determine the chosen language style
and lexis.
The context of culture determines the place where the functioned
language occurs. This context then produces genres in which types of
genres will be varied withinCULTURE
culture where the language is functioned. In
Genre
short, this context leads the functioned language in classification of genres.
Figure 3. The Relationship of Text and Context

40

SITUATION
Who is involved
(Tenor)
Subject
Matter

Chanel
TEXT

(Taken From Depdiknas: 2004)

It can be concluded that text is language that is functioned. The

functioned language is then realized through two contexts, context of
situation and context of culture. The context of situation regards to
situations where the language is realized in which it is determined by three
variables, namely field, tenor and mode. Further, the context of situation
can be specified through register, the variation of language that occurs in
the variation of context of situation itself.
2.

Type of genre
Several definitions of the concept of genre as it is used in the area
of language teaching and learning have been presented. Martin in Refnaldi
quoted from ulfatmi (2012:14) defines genre as a goal-oriented, staged
social process. Genre are social processes because members of a culture
interact to achieve them; they are goal-oriented because they have evolved
to achieve things; and staged because meanings are made in steps and it
usually takes writers more than one step to reach their goals. Besides that

41
Nunan in his book Language Teaching Methodology (1991: 44) states that
the

term

genre

refers

to

purposeful

socially-constructed,

communicative event.
Genres also have accompanying schematic or generic
structures, that is, typical beginning, middle, and end. Thus, genres are
staged, culturally purposeful activities that, as Jim Martin argue users of a
language draw on to get things done. Examples of genres examined in this
perspective include recounts, procedures, reports, narratives, descriptions,
expositions, and observations, that is, descriptions of the texts that
emphasize the stages through which they move to achieve their particular
goal.
Following to (Depdiknas: 2003) there are kind of genre in
curriculum from Junior High School until Senior High school.
G
E
N
R
E

R
E
C
O
U
N
T

R
E
P
O
R
T

SOCIAL
FUNCTION

To retell
events
for the
purpose
of informing
or
entertaining
To describe
the
way things
are,
with reference
to a range of
natural,
manmade
and social
phenomena in
our

GENERIC STRUCTURE

Orientation: provides
the setting and
introduces participants
Events: tell what
happened, in what
sequence.
Re-orientation:
optional-closure of
events
General classification:
tells what the
phenomenon under
discussion is.
Description tells what
the phenomenon under
discussion is like in
terms of (1) parts, (2)
qualities, (3) habits or
behaviors, if living; uses,
if non-natural.

SIGNIFICANT
LEXICOGRAMATICAL
FEATURE

Focus on specific
Participants
Use of material
processes
Circumstances of time
and place
Use of past tense
Focus on temporal
sequence.
Focus on Generic
Participants.
Use of Relational
Processes to state what
is and that which it is.
Use of simple present
tense (unless extinct).
No temporal sequence.

42
environment.
D
I
S
C
U
S
S
I
O
N

To present (at
least) two
points of view
about an issue.

G
E
N
R
E

SOCIAL
FUNCTION

Issue:
- Statement
- Preview
Arguments for and
against or Statement of
differing points of
view.
- Point
- Elaboration
Conclusion or
Recommendation.

GENERIC STRUCTURE

Focus on generic
human and generic
nonhuman
Participants.
Use of:
- Material Processes,
e.g. has produced,
have developed, to
feed.
- Relational Processes,
e.g., is, could have,
cause, are.

SIGNIFICANT
LEXICOGRAMATICAL
FEATURE

- Mental Processes,

E
X
P
L
A
N
A
T
I
O
N

E
X
P
O
S
T
I
O
N

To explain the
processes
involved in
the
formation or
workings of
natural or
socio cultural
Phenomena.

A general statement to
position the reader.
A sequenced
explanation of why or
how something occurs.

To persuade
the
reader or
listener that
something s
the
case.

Thesis

Position: Introduces
topic and indicates
writers
position. Preview:
Outlines the main
arguments to be
presented.
Arguments

e.g.,feel.
Use of Comparative:
contrastive and
Consequential
conjunctions.
Reasoning expressed as
verbs and nouns
(abstraction).
Focus on generic,
nonhuman
Participants.
Use mainly of Material
and Relational
Processes.
Use mainly of temporal
and causal
Circumstances and
Conjunctions.
Some use of Passive
voice to get Theme
right.
Focus on generic
human and non-human
Participants.
Use of simple present
tense.
Use of Relational
Processes.
Use of Internal
conjunction to state

43

N
E
W
S
I
T
E
M

G
E
N
R
E

E
X
P
O
S
I
T
I
O
N
H
A
R
T
A
T
O
R
Y

To inform
readers,
listeners or
viewers about
events of the
day which are
considered
newsworthy or
important

SOCIAL
FUNCTION

Exposition
(Hortatory)
To persuade
the
reader or
listener that
something
should or
should not be
the case.

Point: restates main

arguments outlined in
Preview. Elaboration:
develops and supports
each Point/argument
Reiteration: restates writers
position.
Newsworthy Event(s):
recounts the event in
summary form
Background Events:
elaborate what
happened, to whom, in
what circumstances.
Sources: comments by
participants in,
witnesses to and
authorities expert on
the event.

GENERIC STRUCTURE

Thesis: announcement

of issue concern.
Arguments: reasons for
concern, leading to
recommendation.
Recommendation:
statement of what
ought or ought not to
happen.

argument
Reasoning through
Causal Conjunction or
nominalization.

Short, telegraphic
information about story
captured in headline.
Use of Material Processes
to retell the event
(in the text below, many
of the Material Processes
are nominalised).
Use of projecting Verbal
Processes in Sources
stage.
Focus on Circumstances
(e.g. mostly within
Qualifiers).
SIGNIFICANT
LEXICOGRAMATICAL
FEATURE

Focus on generic
human and non-human
Participants, except for
speaker or writer
referring to self.
Use of:
- Mental Processes: to
state what writer
thinks or feels about
issue, e.g. realize,
feel, appreciate.
- Material Processes:
to state what
happens, e.g., is
polluting, drive,
travel, spend, should
be treated.
- Relational Processes:
to state what is or
should be, e.g.,
doesnt seem to have
been, is
Use of simple present
Tense

44
To share with
others an
account of an
unusual or
amusing
incident.

Abstract: signals the

retelling of an unusual
incident.
Orientation: sets the
scene.
Crisis: provides details
of the unusual incident
Reaction: reaction to
crises
Coda: optional reflection on or
evaluation of the
incident.

Use of exclamations,
rhetorical questions and
intensifiers (really, very,
quite, etc.) to point up
the significance of the
events.
Use of material Processes
to tell what
happened.
Use of temporal
conjunctions.

N
A
R
R
A
T
I
V
E

To amuse,
entertain and
to
deal with
actual
or vicarious
experience in
different
ways;
Narratives
deal
with

Orientation: sets the

scene and introduces
the participants.
Evaluation: a stepping
back to evaluate the
plight.
Complication: a crisis
arises.
Resolution: the crisis is
resolved, for better or
for worse.
Re-orientation:

Focus on specific and

usually individualized
Participants.
Use of Material Processes
(and in this text,
Behavioral and Verbal
Processes.
Use of Relational
Processes and Mental
Processes.
Use of temporal
conjunctions and

G
E
N
R
E

SOCIAL
FUNCTION

GENERIC STRUCTURE

SIGNIFICANT
LEXICOGRAMATICAL
FEATURE

A
N
E
C
D
O
T
E

P
R
O
C
E
D
U
R
E

problematic
events
which lead to
a
crisis or
turning
point of some
kind, which in
turn finds a
resolution.
To describe
how
something is
accomplished
through a
sequence of
actions or
steps.

optional

temporal Circumstances.
Use of past tense.

Goal
Materials (not required
for all Procedural
texts).
Steps 1-n (i.e., Goal
followed by a series of
steps oriented to
achieving the Goal).

Focus on generalized
human agents.
Use of simple present
tense, often Imperative.
Use mainly of temporal
conjunctions (or
numbering to indicate
sequence).
Use mainly of Material
Processes.

45

D
E
S
C
R
I
T
I
O
N

R
E
V
I
E
W

G
E
N
R
E

To describe a
particular
person, place
or
thing.

Identification:
Identifies phenomenon
to be described.
Description: describes
parts, qualities,
characteristics.

Focus on specific
Participants
Use of Attributive and
Identifying Processes.
Frequent use of Epithets
and Classifiers in
nominal groups.
Use of simple present
tense

To critique
an art work,
event for a
public
audience.
Such
works of art
include
movies, TV
shows,
books, plays,
operas,
recordings,
exhibitions,
concerts and
ballets.

Orientation: places the

work in its general and
particular context,
often by comparing it
with others of its kind
or through analogue
with a non-art object
or event.
Interpretive Recount:
summaries the plot
and/or provides an
account of how the
reviewed rendition of
the work came into
being; is optional, but
if present, often
recursive.
Evaluation: provides
an evaluation of the
work and/or its
performance or

Focus on Particular
Participants.
Direct expression of
options through use of
Attitudinal Epithets in
nominal groups ;
qualitative Attributes
and Affective Mental
Processes.
Use of elaborating and
extending clause and
group complexes to
package the information.
Use of metaphorical
language (e.g., The wit
was there, dexterously
ping ponged to and fro

SOCIAL
FUNCTION

GENERIC STRUCTURE

SIGNIFICANT
LEXICOGRAMATICAL
FEATURE

production; is usually
recursive.
Evaluative Summation:
provides a kind of
punch line which sums
up the reviewers
opinion of the art
event as a whole; is
optional.

The eight grade Junior High School students are required to understand
well the following genres: Recount, Descriptive, and Narrative. Each genre
has different social function, generic structure and significance features. The

46
following are the social purposes, schematic structures and lexico grammatical
features of Recount, Descriptive, and Narrative.
a. Recount
1)

Social Function
To retell events for the purpose of informing or entertaining.

2)

Generic structure:
a)

Orientation: provides the setting and introduces

participants.

b) Events: tell what happened, in what sequence.

c) Re-orientation: optional-closure of events.
3)

Significant Lexico grammatical Features

a)

Focus on specific participants

b)

Use of material processes

c)

Circumstances of time and place

d)

Use of past tense

e)

Focus on temporal sequence

b. Descriptive
1) Social Function
To describe a particular person, place or thing.
2) Generic structure:
a) Identification: identifies phenomenon to be described.
b) Description: describes parts, qualities, characteristics
3) Significant Lexico Grammatical Features
a) Focus on specific participants
b) Use of attributive and identifying processes
c) Frequent use of epithets and classifiers in nominal groups.
d) Use of simple present tense
c. Narrative

47
1) Social Function
To amuse, entertain and to deal with actual or vicarious
experience in different ways; narratives deal with problematic events
which lead to a crisis or turning point of some kind, which it turn finds
a resolution.
2) Generic structure:
a)

Orientation: sets the scene and introduces the

participants.
b)

Evaluation: a stepping back to evaluate the

plight
c)

Complication: a crisis arises

d)

Resolution: the crisis is resolved, for better or

for worse.
e)

Re-orientation: optional.

3) Significant Lexico Grammatical Features

a) Focus on specific and usually individualized participants
b) Use of material processes
c) Use of relational processes, and mental processes.
d) Use of temporal conjunctions, and temporal circumstances.
e) Use of past tense.
From the three genres above, the researcher chooses only one genre in
this study that is recount text, because of limited time to do this research.
F. Relevance Studies

48
There have been some researchers studying genre based in the
language learning classroom. A study was conducted by Darmansyah (2011)
found that the teachers tend to use several modeling activities in joint
construction phase: it was also found that there is a significant shift in the
focus of teaching writing using the Genre Based Approach and the other
written procedure or approach previously used.
Suparno (2010) studied the implementation of Genre-based Approach
at MTsN Kalijambe Sragen. The objective of the current study is to describe
the teaching learning process at MTsN Kalijambe Sragen using Genre-based
Approach. The result of this research shows in the learning objectives, model
of syllabus, the material of teaching, the classroom procedure, classroom
activities and the problem faced by the teacher. The goal of teaching English
is to enable the students in understanding English as means of communication
and active in practicing English. The classroom procedure consists of two
patterns. The first patterns are BKOF, MOT, JCOT, and ICOT. The second
patterns are BKOF, MOT, and ICOT. The classroom activities consist of the
activities during BKOF, namely asking question and giving explanation. The
activity during MOT is giving model text. The activity during JCOT is group
work and the activities during ICOT are giving task in the classroom and
giving the task as homework. The writer also found the problems faced by the
teacher, namely lack of students activity, student vocabulary and
pronunciation, different capability of the student, difficulties in managing the

49
class, and the lack of time. The teacher of MTsN Kalijambe Sragen does not
always use the stages of Genre-based Approach in teaching English.
Fatmawati (2009) described the learning cycle of Genre-based
Approach in teaching writing, clarifying the teacher and student roles of
Genre-based Approach in teaching writing, and explaining the problems faced
by the teacher in implementing the Genre-based Approach in teaching
writing. The result of the research shows that the learning cycle of classroom
teaching learning process the teacher applies written cycle, The problems
faced by the teacher in BKOF are the passive students and students ability in
under average, MOT such as the students have difficulty to understand the
teachers explanation. However, they do not care the teachers instruction and
passively in responding. In short the students have difficulty to focus and
concentrate on teaching learning process. The problems faced by the teacher
in JCOT are unclear elaboration of the teacher, no correction from the teacher
in students worksheet, and waiting for friends work. In ICOT the problems
faced by the teacher are not maintaining the time allotment and students
irresponsibly in conducting.
Ribeiro (2006) has also studied about Effectiveness of Genre-Based
Approach in Graduate School telling that the teacher must possess not only
textual and knowledge, but also social and cultural knowledge, and this may
be difficult to acquire if the instructor does not use that genre often or has
never used it. The reality found by the writer rather deviates with the ideal

50
that the teacher often ignore both of correlating the text to the social context
and involving students experience in process of teaching and learning.
G. Conceptual frame work
Based on the fundamental concept from this research, researcher
thought that it was necessary to describe the framework of this study. It can
be drown up as follows:

Teacher

Students

Teaching writing

Four stages

process
Teaching writing

BKOF

through Genre Based

MOT

TeacherApproach
teaching writing

JCOT

based on kind of the text

ICOT
Students writing
skill

51

New English about Curriculum that we called KTSP is implemented to

answer the unsastifactory result of the previous curriculum in English teaching
and learning context. Therefore, Genre Based Approach is regarded approriete
to be implemented in English teaching. Consequenly, a reserach about the
Uncertainty in The Teaching and Laerning Process of Writing at Junior High
School 9 Solok Selatan. The procedure leraning activity were: teacher explain
the students to knpw basic theory of the genres of text: Recount, Descriptive,
and Narrative, to be able to analyze the social function, schematic structure
and significant grammatical patterns of texts and to be able to write texts
based on genres consist of four stage BKOF, MOT, JCOT, and ICOT. Finally,
the researcher will found the answer research question.
H. Hypothesis
Hypothesis of this research is students ability in writing descriptive
text is low because the teacher didnt use the appropriate method in teaching.

52