The language of Jabal Rzi: Arabic or something else?

Author(s): Janet C.E. Watson, Bonnie Glover Stalls, Khalid Al-razihi and Shelagh Weir
Source: Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Vol. 36, Papers from the thirtyninth meeting of the Seminar for Arabian Studies held in London, 21-23 July 2005 (2006),
pp. 35-41
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ProceedingsoftheSeminar
forArabianStudies36 (2006): 35-41

The languageofJabalRazih:Arabicor something

else?
Janet C.E. Watson, Bonnie Glover Stalls, Khalid al-Razihi & Shelagh Weir
Summary
Thispaperconsiders
theYemenilanguage
ofJabalRzih,henceforth
Razih.JabalRazihis locatedtothenorth-west
of
variety
features
ofASA andancient
andis
Sacdahona westward-facing
atanaltitude
ofc. 2000m.Razihexhibits
Arabia,
escarpment
within
a widerareawhosedialects
weredescribed
al-Hamdni
as gutm"incomprehensispoken
bythetenth-century
polymath
ble".Oneinterpretation
ofthisvariety
is thatitis a dialectofArabicwhichis particularly
influenced
South
heavily
byAncient
itexhibanalternative
is thatitis a modern
descendant
ofanASA language
andthattheArabicelements
Arabian;
interpretation
inmind,
itsaretobe regarded
as abstraie
rather
thanas indigenous
features
ofthelanguage.
thesetwopossibilities
we
Bearing
withphonological,
andlexicalfeatures
exhibited
consider
theviewsofnativespeakers
by
together
morphological,
syntactic,
Razih.
Ancient
SouthArabian,
Ancient
North
Yemen,dialect
Arabic,
Arabian,
Keywords:

A number
ofscholarshaveremarked
thatmanyvarieties
of Yemeni Arabic, particularly
those spoken in the
westernhighlands,are heavilyinfluencedby Ancient
South Arabianlanguages(ASA) (Rossi 1938; 1940;
Diem 1973; Behnstedt1987a; 19870; 1988; 1997;
Testen 1992 for^-dialects;Simeone-Senelle,
Vanhove
& Lonnet1994 forTihmahdialects;Contini1994 in
responseto Testen1992; Rets2000). This paperconsidersthe languagevarietyof Jabal Rzih, a rugged
massif(alt. 2000 m) whichformspartof the western
of the Yemenihighlandsin the farnorthescarpment
westof Yemen(see Fig. 1). Its language,Razih,exhibits featuresof ASA and ancientArabia,and is spoken
withina widerarea whose dialectswere describedby
the tenth-century
polymathal-Hamdanas gutm "in(Robin 1991: 83, cited in Behnstedt
comprehensible"
andWoidich2005: 157).
One interpretation
of the historicalfeaturesof this
varietyis thatit is a dialectof Arabicwhichis particularlyheavilyinfluenced
by ASA; however,an alternativeinterpretation
of an
is thatitis a moderndescendant
ASA languageand thattheArabicelementsin it are to
be regardedas abstraieratherthanas indigenousfeaturesofthelanguage.
Withthesetwopossibilities
in mind,thispaperconsidersthefollowing
features:
1. The viewsof nativespeakersand nativespeakersof
languagevarietiesspokenin surrounding
regions.
2. Phonologicalfeatures,includinglateralityin the

reflexesof Arabicsin (*)] and dad (*(/),someevidence of an affricative

realizationof emphasis,and
of consonants,
theanticipatory
assimilation
particu/n/.
larly
3. Morphologicalfeatures,
including^-perfect
endings,
in the femininesingularnoun and perallomorphy
fectverb,andthebehaviouroffeminine
adjectives.
4. Syntacticfeatures,
includingthedoublemarkingof
theuse of particles
deflniteness,
fa and h + active
participleto expresscontinuousaspect,and referin thedistaldemonstrative
ent/addressee
agreement
pronouns.
thepresenceof a large
5. Lexical features,
particularly
words.
numberofnon-Arabicfunction

1. Dialect versuslanguage
Razihi is famouslyincomprehensible
to speakersof
otherYemYemeni Arabic.Razihs enjoy mystifying
enis with theirdistinctivespeech, of which theyare
proud.Once, forexample,a Yemeni taxi driverwas
almostdrivento tearsand refusedto carryon untilhis
Razih passengerstold him what languagetheywere
speaking,a languagehe neitherrecognizednorunderis not reason
stood. However, incomprehensibility
thata speechvarietyis nota diaenoughto determine
lect of a particular
language.Severaldialectsof northto speakernmainlandEnglishare notcomprehensible
ers of southernvarietiesof mainlandEnglish,and dia-

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36

JanetC.E. Watson,BonnieGloverStalls,Khalidal-Razihi& ShelaghWeir

FIGURE1. A mapofArabiashowingthelocationofJabalRzih
in thenorth-west
ofYemen(fromWeir2007).
lectsoftheAustrianBurgenland
and theSteiermark
are
to
of
in
German
incomprehensible speakers
Germany.
mutualcomprehensibility
does notimplythat
Inversely,
two speech varietiesare dialectsof one language:a
Danish,forexample,does notneed
speakerof standard
to speakNorwegianin Norwayor Swedishin Sweden
tounderstand
ortomakehim-orherselfunderstood.
Whethera spokenvarietyis a languagein its own
rightor a dialectof a motherlanguagedependson a
mixture
of subjectiveand objectivefactors:speakersof
thevarietymustfeelthattheirvarietyis a variantof a
motherlanguage,just as speakersof surrounding
varieties mustacknowledgethatthisvarietyis a variantof
theirlanguage.Conversely,
ifthevarietyis a dialectof
anotherlanguage- or a languagein its own rightthismustbe believedby a significant
majorityof both
nativespeakersand speakersof (the) surrounding
lan-

guage^) (cf.Watson1994).
Thereare severalpossiblereasonsformaintaining
a
a
These
include
lack
of
contact
with
separatelanguage.
or establishment
surrounding
language(s),maintenance
of identity,
commercial/economic
reasons,or a desireto
maintain
In certainsocieties,where
politicalautonomy.
thetraderand clientsharea language,secretcodes may
be used fortrading.In the old cityof SancD,Turkish
numbersare still used when trading(Watson 2004:
408), and are said to have once been used "in orderto
confusethegabls"(tribespeople).
Access to JabalRzih has alwaysbeen difficult
because of its steepand ruggedterrain.It is also distant
frommajorcentres- beforethecompletion
of thefirst
motortracksin thelate 1970s,itwas twoor threedays'
travelon footfromthenearestmaintownsof Sacdahor
Jzn,and over a week fromSancaD(Weir,2007). De-

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ThelanguageofJabai Rzih:Arabicor something

else?

37

in earlyClassical Arabicthatd was theemspitethis,its people have alwaysbeen in contactwith patterning

Yemenispeechvarieties:itsstrate- phaticcorrelateof i (Steiner1977: 103-105),as seems
speakersofdifferent
gic positioncoupled withrelativelyhigh rainfalland to be thecase todayin Razih.Indeed,in speechvariehas meantthatRzih has al- tiesspokennearRazih,includingthelargetribalregion
agricultural
productivity
wayscome undersome kindof local or central"state" of Minabbihnorthof JabalRzih,affrication
appearsto
contact be thestandardcorrelateof emphasisin thereflexesof
(dawlah),and henceoutsidershave maintained
withtheregion.Througha longhistory
In these
oftrade,Razihs Classical/Standard
Arabicemphaticfricatives.
have also maintainedvoluntarycontactwith outside varieties*s is realizedin all phonologicalenvironments
areas.As a result,Razihmen,and to a farlesserextent as [st],3as instay
gisteh"ant"andmastfin "summer",
YemeniArabicvarietiesspokenin yamist"tosuck"(Behnstedt19870:95).
women,understand
In commonwitha numberof westernmountainvaadjacentareasand in keymarketcentres.Comprehensibilityis not mutual,however,as demonstrated
by the rietiesof YemeniArabic(cf. Watson1989),Razihextaxiincident.The incomprehensibility
of Razihto out- hibitsregulartotalassimilation
ofcoronalstops,as ingi
sidespeakerscannotbe due solelyto geographical
isola- ggatalh"he killedhim"from/gid+ gatalh.However,
of the area has withtheodd lexicalandprobablyhistorical
tion,since the relativeinaccessibility
exceptionin
neither
Razihs
from
contact
with
other
certain
Arabic
dialects
bitt
areas,
(mostnotably "girl"and kutt
prevented
nor deterrednon-Razihsfromaccess to JabalRzih. "I was/youm.s. were" as in Cairene),Razih differs
The prideRazihsshow in theirlanguagesuggeststhat fromArabic(Macdonald2004: 501) in exhibiting
reguof//tofollowingobstruents,
as in
and lartotalassimilation
theymaintaintheirspeechdistinctness
voluntarily,
and naar - yuur "to go out in the evening",naad probablyforreasonsof politicaland social identity
commerce.The beliefthattheirvarietyhas a separate yiud "to ask", nagal - yiggul"to extract,
transpose".
languagestatusfromsurrounding
languagevarietiesis Similarly,the Razih words ssn "man", ssnah
reflectedlinguistically
in the use of the termrzihl, "woman" (in indefiniteform)must be cognatewith
vQmrah
rzihJt
or simplyis-samrit,
whichcontrasts
for Arabic 4nsan "person"(Behnstedt1987a: 98). Nasal
Razihspeakerswithyamanl,thelanguagespokenout- assimilationis a well-documented
featureof bothAnside thearea. Accordingto Khalidal-Razihi,themost cientNorthArabian(Macdonald2004: 501) and ASA,
shibbolethdistinguishing
Razih fromYa- with words sometimesinscribedwith/n/,and someimportant
manis theindependent
pronounak/ant(a)"you m.s." timeswithout(Beeston 1984: 11), but of no recorded
People of the regionalso referto Razihs using two Arabicdialect.
wordspeculiarto Razih,hs u-tl,lit."upand down".
Subjectivereasons for suggestingseparatenessof
3. Morphology
languageneed to be backed up by objectivelinguistic
reasons,whichwe considerhereundertheheadingsof 3.1 Nominalmorphology
andlexicon.
phonology,
morphology,
syntax,
In termsof theindependent
pronouns,Razih is, to our
2. Phonology
knowledge,theonlySemiticlanguagevarietyin which
thesecondpersonindependent
pronounsare practically
The reflexof Classical/Standard
Arabic in (*) is a identicalwiththedependent
forms:thus,ak "youm.s.",
Classical/Standard
Arabicdd ac "you f.s.", akkum"you m.pl.",akkun"you f.pl.",
slightlylateralfricative;
has
two
on
the
lexeme in knak"you m.s. were",knic "you f.s. were",rkic"I
reflexes,depending
(*(/)
whichit falls:eithera voicedinterdental
as in saw youf.s.".
fricative,
thevastmajority
of Yemenispeechvarieties(Behnstedt
The feminine
singularnounhas twocomplementary
eithernullor,morecommonly,
1985) or, in oldertermsincludingciris "molar",cw endings:whenindefinite
"mutualhelp",and namesofterraces,
a voicelesslateral -ah,andwhendefinite
-it,eveniftheworddoes notend
transcribed
hereas c. The lateralrealisation
of normallyin -ah. Whenwordsare loanedoutof Arabic,
affricate,
both* and *d is certainly
ancientand is inall probabil- however,theynotonlytaketheal- definitearticle(see
do nottake-/,e.g. alityan archaicfeaturein thosevarietieswhichcurrently 4. 1 below) butalso, if feminine,
have lateral*d and/or*i (Steiner 1977; Macdonald jumhuriyyah
"therepublic".
2004: 500). Descriptionsgiven by the eighth-century Adjectivesare morecomplicatedthannouns.Femiof Arabic,Sbawayhi,for*d suggesta lat- ninesingularadjectivesfallintoone of fourcategories:
grammarian
eral articulationfor early Classical Arabic (Watson activeparticiplesshow no genderinflection,
thusdri
2002: 13). Thereis also considerable
evidencefromroot "sowing"andsmir"speaking"maytakea masculineor

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38

JanetC.E. Watson,BonnieGloverStalls,Khalidal-Razihi& ShelaghWeir

femininesingularsubject;adjectivesendingin -I take
final -t irrespective
of theirdefiniteness,thus arih
rzihJt
"I f. am Razih",zannahjsJt"military
(colour)
of non-participle
dress";themajority
adjectivesexhibit
thesame allomorphy
as feminine
nouns,as in (awlah
"tall f.s. (indef.)",it-lawTlit
"thetall f.s. one"; and fiadnally,a few (probablyclosed-class)non-participle
show
no
in
as
mabruk
inflection,
jectives
gender
"blessed",bJd"far",mal"full",garib"near".

Behnstedt
(1987a: 85) proposesan origihypothesized.
nal definite
marker
of *//-.
However,thefactthatwords
borrowedfromYemeni or StandardArabicinvariably
takethearticleal-, unlesstheinitialconsonantis a cor"therepublic"and at-trah
onal, as in al-jumhuriyyah
"therevolution",
coupledwiththeRazih phenomenon
of totalassimilation
of//(see3.2 above) and thepresence of YemenivarietiesaroundSacdahto the east of
JabalRzih withthedefinitearticlein-Zan-(Behnstedt
1987: 85; 19876: 98) leads us to positan originalarti3.2 Verbal morphology
cle form*w-. This suggestsa connectionbetween
RazihandAncientNorthArabian,rather
thanOld AraAs in ASA and Himyaritic
as well as ModernSouth bic, sinceone of themajordifferences
betweenAncient
Arabian,EthiopieSemiticand Yemenidialectsspoken NorthArabianand Old Arabicis recordedto havebeen
in the westernmountainrange(Behnstedt1985), the thehn-fhversusal- definitearticle(Macdonald2000:
firstsingularand secondpersonverbalinflectional
suf- 49ff;2004: 517).
fixestakeinitial--as opposedto initial-t-inRazih,as
in katabuk"I wrote",sumruk"I spoke" (cp. Sancn 4.2 Grammaticalization
and particles
katabt"I wrote",thkayt
"I spoke").
The apparentallomorphydescribedabove forthe Grammaticalization
has led to theuse ofa largenumber
feminine
nounmirrors
thatof thethirdfeminine
singu- of particlesin Razih and consequentdeverbalization.
lar inflection
of the perfectverb,which ends in - Thus, "was" does notinflectbutfunctions
as a parwordas infihm"sheunderstood",
sinf "she ticle,whichtakespronounsuffixes,
as in knic"youf.s.
finally,
heard",butin -att-whenn objectpronounis suffixed, were",knh "he was" etc. The continuousaspect is
as in fihmattak
"she understoodyou m.s.", sinfattak expressednotby an imperfect
verbor by an imperfect
"sheheardyoum.s."
verbprefixedby bi- or a reflexof bayn-,butratherby
theactiveparticiple
prefixed
by, bymen,orbyho,by
children
andwomen.Examplesincludehoh-dgg cal4. Syntax
b-bbh"he is knockingon thedoor",and theexample
4.1 Definiteness
froma storyinnm-mkulmij-jahht "theym. are
This use of particle+ activeparticiple
eatingchildren".
In contrastto all recordeddialectsof Arabic,Razih has an interesting
parallelin thearchaicEnglishstruc+
exhibitsdoublemarkingof definiteness:
of
ture
a
active
wherea has thesense of "in
gemination
participle,
theinitialconsonant
ofthenounoradjective,as in some the act or process of1,as in come -running,
go adialectsspokento thesouthof Ibb,coupledwithaspira- hunting
This
use
of
(Collins EnglishDictionary).
or
tionof thefinalconsonant.Indefiniteness
is markedby resemblesthat of - in AncientSouth Arabian
lackofinitialgemination
and ha, as
and,moresaliently,
glottaliza- (StefanWeninger,
personalcommunication),
tionof the finalconsonant.Thus, ib-bef1"thehouse" we shall see below (section6), has thebasic preposicontrasts
withbf "house".Since, in manylanguages, tionalsenseof "in"in dialectsspokenin al-Hugariyyah.
functionwordsresultfromthe grammaticalization
of
contentwords or semanticallyfullerfunctionwords, 4.3 Agreement
finalaspirationherecould have resultedfromthephofeature
ofRazih,knownalso occasionally
nological contractionand semanticbleachingof the A distinctive
thirdmasculinesingularpronoun(h) (JanRets,per- in early Classical Arabic (Fischer 2002:146), is the
sonal communication);
this is analogous to Amharic systematic
of distaldemonstratives
notonly
agreement
wherethe definitearticlehas emergedfromsemantic withthereferent
butalso withtheaddressee.Thus,"that
bleachingof thethirdmasculinedependent
pronoun,as m.s."is realizedas dak whentheaddresseeis male,dc
in betu= "hishouse"or "thehouse".
whentheaddresseeis female,dkumwhentheaddressSince the prefixaielementof definitemarkingin- ees are male, and dkun whenthe addresseesare fevolves gemination
of theinitialconsonantof thenoun male. The paradigmfor"thatf.s."is similarlytk,tc,
or adjective,irrespective
of the identity
of the conso- tkum,and tkun.Examplesof addresseeagreement
in
formof thedefinite
articlecan onlybe the distaldemonstratives
fromearlyClassical Arabic,
nant,thestarred

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ThelanguageofJabalRazih:Arabicor something
else?
are rareand certainly
notas systemalthoughattested,
aticas in Razih.The mostcommoninvolvepluralmale
addressees,as in dlikumhayrunlakum"thatis bestfor
you" in the Qur'an (chapter24, al-Nur) and dkum
shibukum"here is your companion"(Fischer 2002:
with
146). Thereare occasionalexamplesof agreement
as
in
a feminine
ka-dliki
"allhu
addressee,
yahlaqum
"thus
God
creates
what
He
will"
where
Maryam
yas'u
is addressedin theQur'an (chapter3, l "irnrn).
Adis not
dresseeagreementin the distal demonstratives
inModernStandardArabicor inthemajority
attested
of
recordedmoderndialectsofArabic.

39

southernArabia in the earlycenturiesAD withtheir

withinisolatedenclavesor amongstpeople
maintenance
who wishedto retainthelanguageas a symbolofpolitical and/orsocial identity.

7. Conclusion

In thispaper,we haveexamineda numberoffeatures

of
Razih.Some appearto be Arabicand evenancientfeaturesof Arabicor commonSemitic,suchas lateralized
and referent/addressee
distaldemonstratives,
fricatives,
while othersdo not seem to be Arabicat all. At this
Razih
stage,we leave open thequestionas to whether
is
a
of
or
is
better
as
another
dialect
Arabic
5. Lexicon
regarded
languagewithcertainfeaturesderivedfroma common
In additionto a highpercentage
ofbasicwordsthathave Semiticsourceand othersadoptedfromArabic.Razih
no directcorrespondence
in northern
Arabicdialects,5 also raises more generaltheoreticalissues of what is
speechvarietyto one
Razih has a large proportion
of non-Arabicfunction involvedin assigninga particular
we intendto
words.These includetheprepositions
sl/s"to,until",6 languageor another.These are all matters
studyofRazih.
ta "between","in",therelativepronoundJ,thead- pursuein ourfuture
verbshe "up" and tal "down",and theparticles
Ja or
h, whichprecedean activeparticipleto indicatecontinuousaspect(see 4.2 above). In termsof thesemanAcknowledgements
numberof termswhichare
tics,Razihhas a substantial
to This paper is a productof a collaborativeprojectto
phonologicallysimilarbut semanticallydifferent
thoseinnorthern
Arabicand YemeniArabicdialects,as studythelanguageof JabalRzih. The authorswishto
in cindi"maybe"(in Arabic cindmeans "with,at the thanktheBritishAcademyforfunding
thispreliminary
house of), camal "to plough" (in Arabic camila "to phase of the JabalRzih Languageprojectthrougha
smallresearchgrant.
make,do"),nah "at,near"(Hndin YemeniArabic).

6. Relationshipto varietiesspokenin other

partsofYemen

Notes

Razihshowssomesimilarities
to Yemenivarietiesspo- 1 Given by Behnstedt(19876: 94) forthe regionas
kenin isolatedareas in thesouthof thewesternmounretroflex;accordingto our analysis,the sound is
tainrange,whichcannotbe due to recentcontact.In
somewhatlateral.We do notbelieveBehnstedsinadditionto ^-perfect
attestedthrough
mostof thewestto be an error,butitmayhavebeendue
terpretation
ernmountain
D
Sufal
of
Ibb
and
west
of
to
a
on thepartof his mainin(south
range,
speechimpediment
fordefinite
formant
did
to ourknowledge,
mannot,
al-Qcidah)shareswithRazihC-gemination
(Behnstedt
- e.g. i-4dn"theear"- and -Vh/-t
in the
allomorphy
age to visitRzih).
thirdfeminine
Cf.Khalidal-Razihi'stranslation
ofkanmyamaniysingularperfectverb(in D Sufalthisis
realizedas -ih after-/-stemvowels,-ah after-a- stem
of
yn as "theywere fromoutsidethe governorate
-t- beforeobject suffixes).
Sacdah"and notas "theywereYemenis".According
vowels,and non-geminate
The dialectof al-Hugariyyah
to Weir(2007), Rzihisreferto theregionwhichex(southof Tacizzand north
of Aden) shareswithRazih a particleh' this introtendssouthofJabalRzihas al-yaman.
duces the activeparticiplein Razih (see 4.2). In al- 3 Interpreted
by Behnstedt(19876: 95) as resulting
frommetathesis
ofan affricate
ts.
however,h functionsas a preposition
Hugariyyah,
The singularfemininemarker-/is also mostcom"in",as in ha m-gibl"in the mountains"(Prochzka
1993: 225). Althoughthesevarietiesdo not have the
monlyattestedin nisbas in AncientSouthArabian
same richnessof non-Arabicfeaturesas Razih, their
(Kogan & Korotayev1997: 230).
data suggesta retraction
of the ancientlanguagesof
Whichholdsfora largenumberofYemenivarieties,

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40

JanetC.E. Watson,BonnieGloverStalls,Khalidal-Razihi& ShelaghWeir

Germanand Englishin thissemanticfieldresultsin
as demonstrated
by Behnsteds(1997: 10) findings
thatonly30-60 % of wordsrelatingto theface in
40 % correspondence.
to wordsrelating
to the 6 Otherwiseattestedin this sense in Maltese (ProYemenivarietiescorrespond
facein northern
Arabicdialects.A similarstatistical
chzka 1993:239).
between
two
such
distinct
as
languages
analysis

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' addresses
Authnrs
Janet . Watson,Professor
of Arabicand Linguistics,
School of Languages,University
of Salford,SalfordM5
UK.
4WT,
e-mailj.c.e.watson@salford.ac.uk
BonnieGloverStalls,AdjunctAssociateProfessor,
of Linguistics,University
of SouthernCalifornia,
Department
Los Angeles,CA 90089-163,USA.
e-mailstalls@usc.edu
KhalidAbdoal-Razihi,SchoolInspector,
Governorate
ofSacdah,Yemen.
e-mailkhalidabdo67@yahoo.com
of Anthropology,
School of Orientaland AfricanStudies,Flat2, 4
ShelaghWeir,ResearchAssociate:Department
Acol Rd,LondonNW6 3AH, UK.
e-mailsweir@compuserve.com

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