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International Journal of Mathematical

Education in Science and Technology
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A study on the teaching of the concept

of negative numbers
a

Kemal Altiparmak & Ece zdoan

Faculty of Education, Ege University , zmir, Turkey

Published online: 15 Sep 2009.

To cite this article: Kemal Altiparmak & Ece zdoan (2010) A study on the teaching of the
concept of negative numbers, International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and
Technology, 41:1, 31-47, DOI: 10.1080/00207390903189179
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International Journal of Mathematical Education in

Science and Technology, Vol. 41, No. 1, 15 January 2010, 3147

A study on the teaching of the concept of negative numbers

Kemal Altiparmak* and Ece Ozdogan
_
Faculty of Education, Ege University, Izmir,
Turkey

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(Received 27 June 2008)

This study mainly aims to develop an effective strategy to overcome the
known difficulties in teaching negative numbers. Another aim is to measure
the success of this teaching strategy among a group of elementary level
_
pupils in Izmir,
Turkey. Learning negative concepts are supported by
computer animations. The academic achievement test developed by the
researchers was administered to 150 sixth-grade pupils at the beginning
of and following the learning period. The teaching strategy was applied to
the experiment group (n 75) as stated above, while the traditional
teaching model most frequently used in Turkey was applied to the control
group (n 75). At the end of the study, a significant difference was found
in favour of the experiment group (t 17.51, df 148, p 0.000 5 0.05).
Keywords: the concept of negative numbers; computer-aided learning;
constructivism; visualizing

1. Introduction
Research on negative numbers shows that pupils have difficulty in understanding
negative or signed numbers (Janvier 1983, quoted in [1]). Difficulties about the
concept of negative numbers have a quite long history [2]. It took 1500 years before
mathematicians got used to the rule of signs of the directed numbers [1]. It is stated
that in the past, many famous mathematicians faced difficulties in making reliable
explanations about rule of signs [3]. For many centuries, attempts have been made
to attribute the negative numbers to some kind of a practical behavioral validity in
order to solve the problem of their legitimacy . . . . After many failures or unsatisfying
results, (MacLaurin, Euler, Laplace, Cauchy, etc.), a German mathematician,
Herman Hankel, finally solved the problem [4]. Presenting such a complicated
subject to learners and expecting them to grasp these concepts play an important role
in instruction. Therefore, it is important to reveal the difficulties experienced when
teaching negative numbers. These difficulties are described by various researchers
in three categories, the first of which is about the meaning of the numerical system
and the direction and multitude of the number [5]. The second concerns the
difficulties experienced with regard to the meaning of arithmetic operations [6]. The
third difficulty is related to the meaning of the minus sign [7]. The problems in these
three domains contain abstract concepts. Concretized mathematical activities can be
effective in helping understand abstract mathematical notions, such as negativity
and the meaning of arithmetic operations. Past research has shown that individuals
*Corresponding author. Email: kemal.altiparmak@ege.edu.tr
ISSN 0020739X print/ISSN 14645211 online
2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/00207390903189179
http://www.informaworld.com

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32

K. Altiparmak and E. Ozdogan

with greater conceptual knowledge represent problems more accurately than those
with less conceptual knowledge (Rittle-Johnson et al., 2001, quoted in [8]). Getting
students to attain only algebraic skills for the operations about negative numbers
could not be sufficient to help the learner to eliminate the three difficulties underlying
the concept of negative numbers. A teaching strategy should be formulated which
will allow pupils to relate conceptual information. Transforming abstract concepts
from the environment in which the individual lives in an already known context
is necessary for an individual who is confronted with the concept of negative
number for the first time. This may not always be possible. In such cases, computer
technology should be utilized. Proponents of using computer technology in teaching
advocate that computer technology makes learning easier and more effective and
it also motivates pupils [9,10].
In the literature, different terminologies have been used for negative numbers.
Ball [5] managed to solve problems, such as the meaning of a negative number, the
number system, arithmetic operations and the meaning of negativity by forming
models for events taking place in the students environment in accordance with
the dilemmas he identified. Greeno [11] characterized number sense theoretically as
a form of cognitive expertise by using a metaphor of an environment for conceptual
domains. He tried to define the domain of numbers and quantities as an example
of a conceptual environment. Ganor-Stern and Tzelgov [12] suggested disentangling
two possible representations of negative numbers: the holistic representation, where
absolute magnitude is integrated with polarity; and the components representation,
where absolute magnitude is stored separately from polarity. The results of both
tasks support the components representation of negative numbers. Their results
demonstrate a size effect for positive as well as for negative numbers and thus
support a components representation. Researchers [7,13,14] studied cognitive
representation of negative numbers through various standards and classifications.
They indicated that negative numbers could reasonably be represented in a cognitive
way on the number line. Gallardo [15] suggested discrete models for teaching
negative numbers. The author expressed the relevance of using these teaching models
in the addition and subtraction of integers. Peled [16] constructed the quantitative
and the number line dimensions for the negative number concept. The researcher
mentioned levels of numerical knowledge and the addition and subtraction of
numbers on the number line (a, b 4 0, a b, b a, a  b, b  a, a b, b a,
a  b, b  a). Hativa and Cohens [1] research has identified difficulties in
students understanding of the concepts of either signed or negative numbers and
in operations on these numbers. The method they suggested features computer use to
promote autonomous learning processes by solving challenging problems that are
adapted to students aptitudes, using the number line as an intuitive model. Their
findings support prior evidence that students have pre-instructional intuitions and
informal knowledge of negative numbers and can perform simple operations on
them. Bruno and Martinon [17] use the term numerical knowledge to refer to
the concepts, procedures, representations and algorithms in relation to the notion of
number. They describe three forms of numerical knowledge: abstract, contextual
and number line.
Practicing mathematics should not be restricted to a concrete process. Pupils
beginning to learn through concrete processes must be then directed to an abstract
process. It is important that pupils should be elevated to a stage at which they can
think in abstract terms. Hence, the three dimensions to this end as described in this

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International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 33

study include: the negative case; the meaning of the calculations and the number line;
interpretation and explanation for the meaningful learning of negative numbers.
Crucial in providing a shift in learning from concrete to abstract, these three
dimensions form the scope of this study (see Section 2). For this purpose, computer
animations prepared using the MacroMedia Flash program were used to overcome
the difficulties encountered in teaching negative numbers, and special care was taken
to prepare animations that would draw pupils attention. Contexts were formed by
staging real-world situations and thus, a lab was created to bring the outside world
into the classroom. In some cases, artificial chip models were created in animations
since some negative cases cannot be transferred into the real-world context. The
main aim of this study was to develop an effective instructional strategy to overcome
the known difficulties in teaching negative numbers. The second aim was to measure
the success of this strategy among the students. Therefore, the students were divided
into two groups: an experiment group and a control group. The control group
received the teacher-centred traditional teaching method, which is often used in
Turkey.

2. The concept of negative numbers in three dimensions

2.1. The negative case
One of the difficulties encountered in teaching negative numbers concerns the
numerical system. The number system consists of negative and positive numbers.
The magnitude and direction of the numbers is of first-degree importance
in understanding their meaning. Reducing real life problems into mathematical
models (expressions) can provide meaningful learning in the case of negative
numbers. For example, a seagull is flying two meters above the sea expressed
mathematically as 2. The temperature is two degrees below zero expressed as 2.

2.2. Meaning of the calculations and the number line

What is the meaning of these operations (we consider only the adding and
subtracting operations in this work) 2 3 5, 2 (3) (1), 2 (3) (5)?
Building the meaning of calculations helps students establish connections between
what they learn and their real-world applications. Real-world contexts provide
opportunities for students to link their learning to their own environments. Students
experiences at home, at school and in their community offer contexts for worthwhile
mathematical tasks [18]. For this reason, numerous authors state the importance of
choosing an appropriate context. [19,20]. . . . It is important to note that while
contexts should be realistic, they are not only restricted to real-world situations.
If the contexts are related to the cultures of the children, it is a correct choice.
But contexts should also support new strategies and concepts [21]. Linchevski and
Williams [22] indicated that the longer a model or adaptations of it can keep pace
with the development in mathematical understanding, the more it can prompt and
elicit the students progress. Heddens and Speer [23] stated that the concept of
number should develop in pupils through the following steps: using real objects
or real life problems, in other words, using a concrete process; using pictures of
objects or graphs (semi-concrete). Thus, the learner will achieve a state in which he or
she will not need concrete objects for numbers. Lakoff and Nunes [24] assert that

34

K. Altiparmak and E. Ozdogan

most mathematical and abstract concepts are conceptualized in concrete terms;

for instance, thinking of numbers as points on a line. Numbers can be shown in two
ways on the number line. These are the point and the vector. This position is also
effective for understanding the numbers magnitude and direction. The situations
given in the contexts are transformed into a graph by the number line. Number
line diagrams provide a concrete illustration of a linear ordering. They are intended
to provide a basis for the understanding of order relations between elements or to
provide an ordered framework within which operations can be carried out [25].

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2.3. Interpretation and explanation

This stage includes defining the place of negative numbers in the number system,
understanding relations between negative numbers and contexts, interpreting the
physical meaning of negative numbers, making generalizations and obtaining rules
for operations, understanding the meanings of operations and how they relate to one
another and analysing change in various contexts [18]. Since the difficulties examined
under three categories in the literature are contained in these three dimensions,
they guided this article for the concept of negative numbers and its teaching. They
constitute a basis for the constructivist instructions devised by the researchers and
used to teach negative numbers.

3. Material and methods

3.1. Selection of the experiment and control groups
In the elementary schools in Turkey, the curriculum for 1st5th grades begins with
natural numbers and continues with positive rational numbers and positive real
numbers. Children at these grades are between the ages of 7 and 12. According to
Piaget, these are the ages at which concrete operations begin. In grade 6, pupils are
confronted with negative numbers for the first time. This study has been completed
_
on 150 pupils (grade 6) in an elementary school in the city of Izmir.
Seventy five
pupils from three out of five classes in this school formed the control group, while
75 pupils in the other two classes were included in the experiment group. Study
groups were selected according to their academic achievement in mathematics
(grade 5) in the previous year. Table 1 presents a comparison of the academic
achievement in mathematics of the experiment and control groups by t-test.
It is observed that there is a difference between the means of the groups. Since the
result of 4.444.45 Sig. 2 tailed is 0.917 4 0.05, it was concluded that there is no
significant difference between the means of the groups. As seen in Table 1,

Table 1. Comparison of the academic achievement in mathematics of the experiment and

control groups by t-test (grade 5).
Groups

SD

df

Control group
Experiment group

75
75

4.453
4.440

0.776
0.792

1.104

148

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 35

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achievement levels of the pupils in the experiment and control groups are very close
to each other.

3.2. Structure of the achievement test

The achievement test was devised by the researchers by taking into consideration the
targets and behaviours in relation to negative numbers as treated in the mathematics
curriculum for sixth-grade pupils. The targets and behaviours determined by the
researchers were examined by a panel of experts in mathematics education and three
main domains for negative numbers the negative case, the meaning of the
calculations and the number line, and interpretation and explanation were
determined in accordance with their suggestions. A total of 12 sub-domains were
defined under the three main domains. It was confirmed that all questions
were appropriate for the academic levels of the students. For reliability analysis,
the achievement test was administered to 300 sixth-grade pupils. The analyses
revealed a reliability coefficient of 0.89 (Cronbachs alpha). All the results obtained
were analysed using a statistical analysis programme.
3.2.1. The negative case
Sixth-grade pupils know very well what the number 5 means but they may have
difficulty in understanding the meaning of the number 5 because they may not have
so far used it consciously in the environment they live. For this reason, the number
5 is a more abstract concept for them than 5. Most of the questions in this section
present real life problems involving negative numbers.
3.2.2. Meaning of the calculations and the number line
Another difficulty in understanding the negative number concept is mathematical
operations. The questions in this section were designed to reveal the different
meanings underlying mathematical operations and it comprises nine subsections,
which are, respectively:
(a) Describing integers on the number line; this sub-domain involves eight
questions.
(b) Ordering of integers; this sub-domain involves two questions.
(c) Writing the operation corresponding to a given context; this sub-domain
involves nine questions. For example: I owed my friend 5 liras this morning.
To pay back this amount, I worked the whole day and earned 6 liras. So how
much money do I now have? Similar questions were also asked for students
to write the operations for particular contexts.
(d) Writing the problem about a given operation; this sub-domain involves
four questions, one of which is write a problem (context) for the operation
4  (2).
(e) Describing a given operation on the number line; this sub-domain involves
four questions; i.e. show the operation 6 5 on the number line.
(f) Transforming a given problem on the number line; this sub-domain involves
two questions; i.e. a building has 20 floors; 5 below the ground level and
15 above the ground level. The lift comes from the 7th floor down to the

36

K. Altiparmak and E. Ozdogan

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Figure 1. (a) The operation corresponding to the number line. (b) The problem which
corresponds to the number line. (c) Interpretation and explanation.

3rd floor below the ground. How many floors did the lift move? Show the
operation on the number line.
(g) Transforming a situation represented on the number line into an operation;
this sub-domain involves seven questions, one of which is as follows:
Write the operation corresponding to the number line in Figure 1a.
(h) Transforming a situation given on the number line into a problem; this
sub-domain involves one question: Write the problem corresponding to the
number line in Figure 1b.
(i) Performing operations with negative numbers. There are seven addition and
subtraction problems. One of these are 7 (3) ?, 9 7 ?, 12 (2) ?,
18 5 ?, 128 ?.
3.2.3. Interpretation and explanation
There are four questions in this section, for example:
Can length be negative? Why? What is the difference between the operations
(3) (1) and (3)  (1)? Please explain. Another question is explain the
difference between the two lines in Figure1c. Students were asked to answer the
questions and explain them in terms of mathematical principles and operations.

3.3. Information about the instruction models applied to the experiment and
control groups
Researchers investigated the same subjects in both experiment and control groups
simultaneously. The study period covered 7 weeks. During the first and last weeks,
pre- and post-tests were administered; these are composed of the same questions.
For 5 weeks, the subject of negative numbers was taught by the researchers to the
experiment and control group pupils twice a week for 2 class hours (2  45 min).
The instructions as applied to the experiment and control group pupils are presented
below, respectively.
3.3.1. Experiment
In sixth-grade experiment group, the tests were administered to three different
classes. There were a total of 75 pupils in these three classes. Table 2 below presents
the targets for each week and the methods used in these classes.

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 37

Table 2. Targets of each week and the ways followed in the classes.

Weeks
1st week
2nd week
3rd week
4th week

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5th week
6th week
7th week

Targets aimed to be achieved at

the end of class
Pre-test
Number system, number magnitude,
direction.
Writing down the operation corresponding
to the given context.
Writing down the operation corresponding
to the given context.
Showing on the number line the given
operations and the context.
Repetition of the subjects given in the 2nd,
3rd, 4th and 5th weeks.
Post-test

Methods used

Macromedia Flash animations,

Discussion
Macromedia Flash animations,
Discussion
Macromedia Flash animations,
Discussion
Macromedia Flash animations,
Discussion
Problem solving

First week: Pre-test was administered to the experiment and control group pupils.
Second week: The pupils were asked questions related to magnitude and direction.
For example, what is the meaning of 4? What does it express? This question was
answered correctly by 90% of the pupils. What is the meaning of 4 in your opinion?
13% of the pupils could provide correct examples for this question. These sort of
activities performed at the beginning of class helped shaping pupils thinking about
numbers. Interpretation of the magnitude and direction of the negative numbers in
the minds of pupils is the most important stage in learning the concept of negative
numbers. For pupils to grasp the meaning of negative numbers, researchers prepared
a discussion media for them through animations using a Macromedia Flash program
(Figure 2). In this animation, different positions of a seagull relative to the sea level
have been examined. The choice of altitude in this animation is made by a pupil or by
the teacher. Thus it is possible to determine the position of the seagull at a desired
altitude by the help of animation. Separately, pupils were asked to do transformations on the number line about the seagulls height. Thus the pupils themselves
marked the zero point on the number line first; then they placed negative numbers on
the left side of the line. The pre-information of the students about negative numbers
was concretized by the help of this animation. Later during the class hour, the pupils
were asked to give examples in which negativity is present. The pupils provided the
example of a thermometer. They were then asked to compare 8 C and 3 C. They
replied that 8 C was colder and showed this on the number line. The meaning
of positive and negative numbers was discussed with the pupils in the dimensions of
magnitude and direction by the help of the animation.
Third week: The numbers and operations provided are closely related to the context.
Every student must see the relationship among them. For this reason, animations
were created for specific contexts that the pupils experienced in their environment
during the week and they were asked to formulate the operations corresponding
to contexts. One of the contexts for the animation was as follows: a seagull is flying
2 m above sea level (2). It has continued flying, ascending 3 m (3). Relative to sea
level, the final position of the seagull can be expressed by the operation
(2) (3) (5). Eventually, the seagull is flying 3 m above the sea level and

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38

K. Altiparmak and E. Ozdogan

Figure 2. The animation about number system, numbers magnitude and direction.

it is represented on the number line. Another seagull is flying 2 m above the sea level
(2). Seeing a fish 3 m below it (3), the seagull has dived in 1 m below the sea level
(2) 3 (1).
Fourth week: Addition and subtraction have the same meaning: Adding is joining,
while subtraction is separating or taking away. The two operations have the same
meaning. This can be expressed by using double language [17]: I have 3 is
equivalent to I owe 3; I won 2 is equivalent to I lost 2, and I have 2 more
than you is equivalent to I owe 2 more than you. A story that uses positive
numbers: Ali had 2 and he was given 3; now he has 2 (3) 5, can be
considered as equivalent to Ali had 2 and they took away 3; now he has
2  (3) 5. Similarly, the story involving subtraction with positive numbers:
Ali had 3 and they take took 2 off him; now he has 3 (2) 1 is equivalent
to Ali had 3 and he was given 2; now he has 3 (2) 1 [17]. For students,
it is not possible to explain contextually transforming taking away negative
quantities into adding positive quantities. Therefore, an artificial chip model was
used in animations. The animations are presented, respectively, in Figures 3 and 4.
These were shown to the pupils transforming taking away negative quantities into
adding positive quantities with a pseudo model.
In the 3rd and 4th weeks, animations for other contexts were made. Pupils were
also asked to prepare contexts for events they confront in their environments and
transform these contexts into operations using the same logic used in the above
animation. Thus, the pupils were encouraged to self-construct. For instance, the
following dialogue occurred between a pupil and the teacher:
T: The temperature is 3 and it increases by 5 degrees. What is the temperature
after this rise? How can you express this by an operation?
S: The temperature rose by 5 degrees.

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International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 39

Figure 3. The animations about operation.

Figure 4. The animations about context.

K. Altiparmak and E. Ozdogan

40
T:
S:
T:
S:

What is the temperature now?

The temperature is 2 degrees.
Can you show this by operation?
5  3 2, 2 degrees.

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Fifth week: During this week, some studies were made to represent solutions of
problems on the number line. Solution of a problem using the number line is a semiconcrete step. After this step, the pupil will be able to learn the concept of minus
concretely. Studies with number line were prepared using Macromedia Flash
program.
Sixth week: During this week the pupils were made to solve problems about the
subjects studied in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th weeks. Thus, the pupils deficiencies
were overcome in a way that they themselves could see.
Seventh week: Experiment and control group pupils were administered the post-test.
Algorithmic structure of the constructive instructions conducted each week is
presented below:
Step 1: Inform the pupils about the aims of the course (subject) and the
expectations of the researcher.
Step 2: Have the pupils watch the flash animations prepared based on their a priori
information and in parallel with their own contexts: Ernest [26] underlined the
importance of sensitivity towards and attentiveness to the learners previous
constructions. Contexts selected from pupils own environments enable them to
construct the information in a meaningful way.
Step 3: Get the pupils to form their own strategies using the mathematical model
in the flash animation shown: after Step 2, pupils were asked through appropriate
questions to transform the situation they watched in animation into mathematical
language and form a mathematical model using their own strategies.
Step 4: Discuss in classroom the ideas of the pupils forming their own mathematical models.
Step 5: Give support with clues to the pupils facing difficulty in forming the desired
model: After the students discussed the model, they still make mistakes or have
misconceptions.
Step 6: Get the pupils to attain the desired model.
3.3.2. Control
Traditional mathematics teaching was used for the pupils in the control group during
the application period. Having examined the curriculum, the researcher determined
the aims of the subject drawing upon related books and notes or the subject matter.
Concepts, formulae and algorithms related to the subject were explained by the
researcher on the white board. Meanwhile, the researcher solved numerous problems
contained in the books and based on memorized algorithms on the white board
as he did in the experiment group. Following this stage, questions were written
on the white board and the pupils were invited to solve them. Meanwhile, the
teacher discussed the problem and asked a pupil to go before the whiteboard to

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 41

solve the problem. The teacher helped the pupil where he/she had any difficulty in
solving the problem. Homework was assigned to the students for the next class, and
at the beginning of the next class, some of the homework was solved by the
researcher or by a pupil [27].

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3.4. Results
Our main purpose in this study is to investigate whether there is a significant
difference between experiment and control groups in the pre- and post-tests. Since
there are two independent groups, results were obtained using independent t-tests.
Table 3 shows the results of the t-test analysis for pre-test questions administered
to the experiment and control groups, which were formulated depending on their
fifth-grade achievement scores in mathematics.
As seen in Table 3, there is no significant statistical difference between the results
of the pre-test for the experiment and control groups (p 0.334 4 0.005). The results
of pre- and post-tests compared by the t-test for the 12 sub-domains in the
achievement test are presented below.

3.4.1. Results of pre- and post-tests compared by t-test for 12 sub-domains

As observed in all the 12 sub-domains presented in detail in Section 3.2 of Table 4,
while no significant difference was found between the pre-test results of the
experiment and control groups, there is a significant difference ( p 5 0.001 level)
between their post-test results in favour of the experiment group
In the sub-domain of transforming a given problem on the number line, a pupil in
the pre-test experiment group answered the following question: a building has
20 floors; 5 below the ground level and 15 above the ground level. The lift comes
from the 7th floor down to the 3rd floor below the ground. How many floors did the
lift move? Show the operation on the number line. Similarly, a pupil in the control
group answered the same question as 7  3 4. At the end of the application period,
a pupil in the experiment group answered the same question as 7 (3) 10 and
drew the following number line.

Table 3. Means and standard deviations for the academic

achievement pre-test.
Groups

SD

df

Control group
Experiment group

75
75

26.773
25.333

8.195
9.465

148

Interpretation and explanation

Conducting the operations involving negative numbers

Transforming a given situation on the number line into a problem

Transforming a given situation on the number line into an operation

Transformation of a given problem on the number line

Showing the operation on the number line

Writing the problem about a given operation

Writing of the operation corresponding to the given context

Ordering of integers

Representation of integers on the number line

6.40
7.16
2.25
3.65
1.18
1.65
2.73
6.93
2.20
3.72
1.97
3.54
1.56
3.00
2.16
7.46
1.36
1.80
1.60
3.93
1.48
6.69

The meaning of negative number

Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test

Sub-domains for negative numbers

Control group

1.29
0.87
1.49
1.44
0.83
0.70
1.61
2.40
2.11
2.35
1.78
1.75
1.66
1.91
1.82
2.37
1.65
1.47
1.47
1.94
1.14
2.98

SD
6.32
8.52
2.36
6.53
1.09
2.90
2.64
12.90
2.00
6.76
1.84
4.72
1.93
3.92
2.10
11.70
1.28
2.40
1.86
6.18
1.34
8.82

1.28
0.62
1.17
1.48
0.82
0.90
1.77
3.08
2.11
2.70
1.66
1.90
1.81
1.77
1.82
2.36
1.49
1.20
1.55
2.23
1.28
4.15

SD

Experiment group

Table 4. Results of pre- and post-tests compared by the t-test for 12 sub-domains in the achievement test (n 75, df 148).

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0.38
11.00
0.40
12.03
0.68
9.46
0.33
13.22
0.58
7.37
0.47
3.91
1.31
3.05
0.17
10.95
0.31
2.72
1.08
6.58
0.67
3.61

42
K. Altiparmak and E. Ozdogan

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 43

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While a student in the control group provided the following answer:

For the questions in this group concerning the transformation of a given problem
on the number line, the increase observed in the achievement of the experiment
group pupils for the results of the pre- and post-tests was 103%, while the ratio was
92% for the control group.
In general, as is the case in the sub-domain of transformation of a given problem
on the number line, incorrect answers in different structures came from the control
group pupils to the questions in other sub-domains. In the end, the main reason
behind the incorrect answers provided by the control group pupils is the difficulty
they experienced in understanding the concepts related to negative numbers, when
compared with the pupils in the experiment group. We reached this conclusion both
via our observations and by the help of the results of the statistical analyses shown
in Table 4. The main reasons why most of the pupils in the control group failed to
understand the concepts can be listed as follows.
(1) The fact that the animations of real-life models, which make it easy for the
pupils to understand concepts related to negative numbers, were not brought
into the classroom; thus, the concept of negative numbers remained as
abstract for the pupils in control group.
(2) The fact that contexts, which were simultaneously introduced with
animations, were not transferred to the number line.
(3) The fact that pupils did not receive traditional teaching methods and the
opportunities which help pupils grasp the concept of negative numbers
and their features thoroughly; the failure to choose suitable problems related
to the subject matter, getting the pupils to memorize the rules of the subject,
in other words, not being able to establish a relationship with reality, the
failure to give pupils the opportunity to think sufficiently or exercise math by
himself/herself, etc.
(4) For the pupils in control group, not being able to follow the abstract, conceptual and number line dimensions, respectively, as described in Section 2,
and to complete these stages sufficiently in terms of educational activities.

3.5. The results of t-test comparing the post-test results for the entire
achievement test
As seen in Table 5, there was a significant intergroup difference ( p 5 0.001 level) on
all questions in favour of the experiment group.
Table 5. t-test results for the entire academic achievement test.
Groups

SD

df

Control group
Experiment group

75
75

47.54
78.20

6.96
13.46

17.51

148

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K. Altiparmak and E. Ozdogan

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4. Discussion
It was observed that the instruction supported by animations with a constructivist
basis applied on the experiment group in the study yielded better results than the
traditional instruction of negative numbers applied on the control group. A number
of researchers have stated that application of constructivist teaching principles to the
teaching model yielded satisfactory results in teaching [28,29]. This is also confirmed
by the findings of this study. In addition, it has been suggested by many researchers
that computer use in teaching enables learners to construct their own learning
[10, 3032]. Concepts were constructed according to real-world contexts by allowing
students not only to grasp concepts like problem, solution and the processes involved
but also their applications; for instance, why they need to solve these problems [29].
One of the founders of Realistic Mathematics Education (RME), Freudenthal [33]
regards mathematics as a human activity. Learning is realized by the individual
himself. The animations in this context have been selected in a way that would
encompass and reveal all realities of the concept of negative number that pupils
confront in their environments and these animations were prepared in accordance
with the targets specified in the curriculum. Attention was paid to the fact that there
should not be any contradiction in the selection of contexts. The mathematical
models in the animations presented to the pupils by the teacher were transformed
into mathematical language by the pupils themselves depending on their previous
knowledge. Thus, since the learners concentrated on the animation of the events they
encountered in their environment, they themselves could construct the knowledge
successfully using their previous experience. An important point to which we would
like to draw attention here is that the pupils themselves realized the act of learning by
following the instructions provided. This study should not be considered as RME.
Animation models of the events occurring outside the classroom were brought into
the classroom with the help of the technology. However, learning, which is one of the
rules of RME, was inspired by the idea that learning is realized by the pupils taking
part in it.
Contextual animations help pupils to transform abstract concepts into concrete
ones. Pupils interest in computer animations was one of the reasons that the results
of the study came out positively. In other words, pupils displayed positive attitude
towards the course from the very beginning. In the control group, instead of
computer animations, the scenarios in the animation were drawn on board by the
tutor using verbal expressions.
The result that this method is more effective than classical methods in teaching
negative numbers is attributed to the tests applied on the experiment and control
groups. In other words, there is a significant difference between the two groups,
as shown in Table 5 (t 17.51, df 148, p 0.000 5 0.05).
Traditional memorization and similar methods are usually used to teach negative
numbers. Here, teaching is teacher-centred. Pupils are not allowed to learn math
through their own materials. Concepts are tried to learn without relating them to
real-world situations or through formulations or rules. This kind of math teaching
may make it difficult for pupils to form concepts in their minds. In a learning model,
where concepts have not yet formed, stages of analysis and synthesis cannot be
formed, either. In other words, mathematics is not a vicious circle in which only
numbers and letters are used. For example, in this traditional method 6  9 3.
The reason why the answer is 3 is not taught as Because 9 is greater than 6, and

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International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 45

it makes the result negative. Thus, numbers become boring for pupils. When they
are dealing with positive numbers, they are suddenly confronted with negative
numbers. Their abstract meanings are not known; what is 3, and what does it
mean? But in tests, when they are asked the question 69 ?, they are told that the
correct answer is 3. Although the number 3 was marked as the correct answer,
it was not related to the context. Here, only one example is provided to show the
insufficiency of the traditional method and we could increase the number of these
examples. Studies have shown that students learn best when they are active [34].
A context in which the learners express their ideas and discuss the matter
comfortably eliminates the concerns about mathematics. A teaching method in
which there is a cause and effect relation between concepts and in which there is no
memorization can help pupils to transform abstract concepts into concrete ones.
Researchers claim that visual and constructivist approaches depicted with geometrical presentations give opportunity to pupils to grasp more easily the meanings
underlying concepts [28].
The structure of the achievement test we prepared in this study involves the
negative case, meaning of the calculations and the number line, and interpretation
and explanation. It does not measure any kind of ability to memorize. It is an
achievement test in which only the pupils who learned the concepts well and reached
the level of analysing and synthesizing can provide correct answers. We hope that
the model devised in this study for the learning of negative numbers and which lasted
for 5 weeks would attract the attention of educators in Turkey.

Acknowledgement
_
The authors thank Dr Eralp Altun, from Ege University, Izmir,
Turkey, for reading the
manuscript and providing feedback.

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