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TOPIC 1:
MEASUREMET AND ERROR
DEE1012- MEASUREMET

Learning outcome:
1) Understand measurement process; primary sensing

element, variable manipulation element and data

presentation element.

2) Understand error in measurement; gross error,

systematic error, absolute error, relative error.

3)

Understand Standards used in measurement;

international standard, primary standard, secondary
standard, working standard.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Measuring is basically is used to monitor a process or

operation or as well as the controlling process

For example thermometers, barometers, are used to

indicate the environmental conditions

Similarly water, gas and electric meters are used to

keep track of the quantity of the commodity used,

and also special monitoring equipment used in
hospital

DEFINITION OF MEASUREMENT
The process of determining the amount, degree, or

capacity by comparison ( direct or indirect) with the

accepted standards of the system units being used.
(Electronic measurement, H.s Kalsi)
OR
The process by which physical parameters can be

converted to meaningful numbers. (Bhavani and

Vasantha)

DEFINITION OF MEASUREMENT
PROCESS,
MACHINE
OR SYSTEM
BEING
MEASURED

OUTPUT

INPUT

True value
of
variable

MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM

Measured
value of
variable

Before make a measurement, the

things that must be considered is:
Measurement method
Identify which parameter to be measured
How much measurement should be taken
Select the appropriate instrument
Have the knowledge and experience of handling

equipment

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ELEMENT OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Any instrument or a measuring system can be described

in general by using block diagram.

The block diagram indicates the necessary elements and

their functions in a general measuring system

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FUNCTIONAL

ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
Converted
signal

Amplified
signal

Human
readable
form

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Example of element in measurement

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The various elements can be grouped

as:
1. Primary sensing element.

2. Variable conversion element.

3. Variable manipulation element.
4. Data transmission element
5. Data presentation element.

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i.

Primary sensing element:

An element of an instrument which makes first, the

contact with the quantity to be measured.

In ammeter, coil carrying current to be measure is

primary sensing element.

In most of the cases, a transducer follows primary

sensing element which converts the measured into
a corresponding electrical signal.

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ii. Variable Conversion Element (Data

Conditioning)

The output of the primary sensing element is in electrical

form such as voltage, frequency or any other electrical
parameter.

Such an output may not be suitable for the actual

measurement system.

For example of the measurement system is digital then

the analog signal obtained from the primary sensing
element is not suitable for the digital system.

Thus analog to digital converter is required which is

variable conversion element.

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iii.

Variable Manipulation Element

(Data Conditioning)

The level of the output from the previous stage may not

be enough to drive the next stage.

Thus, variable manipulation element manipulates the

signal, preserving the original nature of the signal.

For example an amplifier which just amplifies the

magnitude of the input, at its output, retaining the
original nature of the signal.

It is not necessary that variable manipulation element

must be always after variable conversion element

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iv. Data transmission Element

When the elements of the system are physically

separated, it is necessary to transmit the data from

one stage to other.

This is achieved by the data transmission element.

The transmitted data may be used by the system,

finally for monitoring, controlling or analyzing

purposes.

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vi Data presentation element:

the person handling the instrument must get information

in the proper form, according to the purpose for which it

is intended.

If the data is to be monitored, then visual display devices

are used as data presentation element.

If the signal is to be recorded for analysis purpose, then

magnetic tapes, recorders, high speed cameras are used

as data presentation elements.

For control and analysis purpose, the microprocessors,

computers and microcontrollers may be used as data

presentation elements.

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Example: Analog meter

Consider a simple analog meter used to measure current

or voltage as shown in Figure 3.

The moving coil is primary sensing element.

The magnets and coil together act as data conditioning

stage to convert current in a coil to a force.

This force is transmitted to the pointer through

mechanical linkages which act as data transmission

element.

The pointer and scale act as data presentation element.

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Example Analog meter

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TERMINOLOGY OF SCALE AND RANGE

Scale

A series of marks at regular intervals on an instrument

that is used for measuring. It is a part of the

instrument that shows the value of a parameter
measured. The scale is depending on the range.

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TERMINOLOGY OF SCALE AND RANGE

Range
The minimum and maximum values of a quantity for
which an instrument is designed to measure is called
its range . E.g ammeter range : 0mA to 5 mA

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DEFINITION OF ERROR
The deviation/ different between true

values (computed) and measured values of

quantities

Factors that affect the measurements are related to

the measuring instruments

the person using the instrument

Error may be expressed either as absolute or as

percentage relative error

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1.ABSOLUTE ERROR

The difference between the true value of the

variable and the measured value of the variable

Can be expresses as,

=
Where;
e = absolute error

Yn = expected value (calculate)

Xn= measure valued

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2. PERCENTAGE OF RELATIVE ERROR

Can be express as,

% =

100%

% =
100%

% =

100%

= 100% %

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EXAMPLE OF ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE ERROR

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EXAMPLE 1
A voltmeter reads 7.2 V and the true value of the

voltage is 7.5 V. Determine the absolute error and

percentage of relative error
Solution:

Yn = 7.2 V
Xn = 7.5 V
e = Yn -Xn= 7.5V-7.2 V=0.3V
% e = Yn Xn X 100 =
Yn

7.5 V-7.2 V X100 =4%

7.5V

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EXAMPLE 2
A circuit below have 20V power supply connected

parallel to resistor R1 = 15k and R2 = 7k. A volt

meter connected to R1 resistor and give 19.5V
measured value. Calculate percentage relative error
of that meter.

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Solution:
R1 and R2 parallell with power supply 20V. So VR1 and
VR2 =20 V.
Yn
Xn

= 20 V
= 19.5V

%e

=
=
=

Yn - Xn X 100 %
Yn
20 - 19.5 X 100%
20
2.5 %

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EXERCISE
1. A Voltmeter reads 111.5V. The error taken from an

error curve is 5.3%. Calculate the true value of the

voltage.
Answer: 117.74V
% =

100%

111.5
% =
100% = 5.3%

111.5
5.3
(
)100% =

100
111.5 = 0.053
0.053 = 111.5
= 117.74V

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MAIN TYPES OF ERRORS

Classified by THREE:
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors

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1. GROSS ERROR
These are mainly due to human mistakes :
carelessness or lack of experience of human being
mistakes in reading, recording observation and

calculating results
incorrect adjustment of instruments
Improper applications of instruments: Using a 0100
V voltmeter to measure 0.1 V, etc.

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1. GROSS ERROR
The complete elimination of gross error is not

possible, but can minimize them by:

taking reading (at least 3seperate reading),

recording and calculating properly

Make sure know use the meter or instrument
This error cannot be treated mathematically

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2. SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Occur due to shortcomings of the instruments, such

as defective or worn parts, ageing effects and

environmental effects.

3 types of systematic errors :

Instrumental error- friction, magnetic and zero &

full scale adjustment.
2. Environmental error due to surrounding external
condition such as temperature, pressure, humidity,
stray magnetic and electrostatics fields
3. Observation error- parallax error
1.

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2. SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Way to minimize :

Calibrate meter ( instruments)

Choose suitable meter ( instuments)for measurement.
Reduce effects caused by temperature change,
humidity, magnetic and electrostatic by using
magnetic
cleaning the instruments, and housing the instruments
properly depending on the application and type of
the instrument.

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3. RANDOM ERROR
These are errors that remain after gross and

systematic errors have been substantially reduced.

These errors are due to unknown causes.

Way to minimize:
increase number of observation
using the statistical methods to obtain best

approximation reading

This error can be treated mathematically

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT
1.

2.

Accuracy Closeness with which an instrument

reading approaches the true value of the variable
being measured.
Precision A measure of consistency or
repeatability of measurement.
If the readings are taken repeatedly does not
change, the instrument have high precision.
Accurate instruments, precision must be high. But
precision does not guarantee accuracy
Digital instruments are more precise than analog instruments

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT
3. Resolution The smallest change in the measured

value to which the instrument can respond. It is the

smallest change the instrument can measure.

4. Significant Figure - Significant figures convey actual

information regarding the magnitude and the

measurement precision of a quantity. The more
significant figures , the greater the precision of
measurement.
Example 68, 69- two significant figures.
68.0, 67.9- three significant figures

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Country significant figures

Number

Significant Figures

52
520

5.14
5.014

5.1250
0.0034
21000
0.0213
1.000
1000.0

3
4
2

5
3
4
5

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STANDARD IN THE MEASUREMENT

Measurement Standard is a measurement devices or

measurement system that define, create and

protect the quantity value for comparison with other
measurement devices.

It is consists of 4 categories as follows:

1.International Standards

2.Primary Standards
3. Secondary Standards (Reference standard)
4. Working Standards

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1.International Standards
Define by international agreement. They represent

certain units of measurement to the closest possibly

accuracy that production and measurement
technology allow.

Example BSI(British Standard Institution),

IEC(international Electro technical commission) and

ISO (International Organization for Standard)

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1.International Standards

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1.International Standards

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2.Primary Standards
Maintain by national standards laboratories in

different parts of the world.

The main function is the calibration and verification

of secondary standards

Example, Makmal Metrologi Kebangsaan Malaysia

SIRIM.

Makmal Metrologi kebangsaan (NML)

(dibwh sirim) merupakan badan yang
bertanggungjawab ke atas piawaian
pengukuran unit SI yang kita gunakan
sehingga kini.

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3. Secondary Standards (Reference

standard)
It is basic reference standards used in industrial

measurement laboratories.

Each industry has its own secondary standard.

Example: SIRIM, Timbang & Sukat kem. Perdagangan

& perindustrian, Pusat penyelidikan pertahanan,

local universiti and industries

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4. Working Standards
Working standard is the principle tools of a

measurement laboratory and the lowest level of

standards.
They are used to check and calibrate general
laboratory instruments for accuracy.

Example : The resistor manufacturing industry

maintains a standard resistor in the laboratory for

checking the values of the manufactured resistors.

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STANDARD IN THE MEASUREMENT

International Standards (defined based on

international agreement )

Primary Standards (maintained by national

standards laboratories)

Secondary Standards ( used by industrial

measurement laboratories)

Working Standards ( used in general laboratory)

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