Unit 3 - Data Transmission and Networking Media

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UNIT 3
DATA TRANSMISSION
AND NETWORKING
MEDIA
1
Outcomes 1
By the end of this subtopic, student should be able to :
Explain the basic concept of data transmission:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Analog and digital signaling

Data Modulation
Simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex transmission
Multiplexing
Point to point Transmission
Broadcast Transmission
Throughput
Bandwidth
Baseband and Broadband
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1. SIGNAL
SIGNAL
Analog
Digital
ANALOG SIGNAL
Analog
Continuous signal
Examples of analog data is the human voice
When somebody speaks, a continuous wave is created in the air
This can captured by a microphone an converted to and analog
signal.
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DIGITAL SIGNAL
Digital
Discrete signal.
Examples of digital data; is data stored in memory of a
computer in the form of 0s and 1s.
Digital signal is more reliable than any other signal.
Waveform of analog & digital signal
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Differences between analog &digital

signal
ANALOG SIGNAL
Continuous signal
DIGITAL SIGNAL
Discrete signal
Examples of analog data is the human voice Examples of digital data is the data stored in
(when somebody speaks, a continuous wave is memory of a computer in the form of 0s and
created in the air).
1s or on-off.
Cannot perform high-quality data transmission Noise and distortions have little effect, making
(very difficult to remove noise and wave high-quality data transmission
distortions during the transmission).
No security/encryption implemented in
analog cordless products (analog cordless
phone).
Able to encrypt all 1s and 0s during

transmission so your conversation is safe from
eavesdroppers (digital cordless phone).
2. DATA MODULATION
Data modulation is a technology used to modify analog signals to make
them suitable for carrying data over a communication path.
In modulation, a simple wave, called a carrier wave, is combined with
another analog signal to produce a unique signal that gets transmitted

from one node to another.
The carrier wave has preset properties (including frequency, amplitude, and phase).
Its purpose is to help convey information; in other words, its only a
messenger.
Another signal, known as the information or data wave, is added to the
carrier wave. When the information wave is added, it modifies one
property of the carrier wave (for example, the frequency, amplitude, or
phase). The result is a new, blended signal that contains properties of
both the carrier wave and added data. When the signal reaches its
destination, the receiver separates the data from the carrier wave.
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2. DATA MODULATION (cont.)

Modulation can be used to make a signal conform to a specific
pathway, as in the case of FM (frequency modulation) radio, in

which the data must travel along a particular frequency.
In FM (frequency modulation), the frequency of the carrier
signal is modified by the application of the data signal.
In AM (amplitude modulation), the amplitude of the carrier
signal is modified by the application of the data signal.
Modulation may also be used to issue multiple signals to the
same communications channel and prevent the signals from
interfering with one another.
Figure below depicts an unaltered carrier wave, a data wave,
and the combined wave as modified through frequency
modulation.
DATA MODULATION
Figure 3-5: A carrier wave modified through frequency modulation

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Network+ Guide to Networks, 4e
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3. TRANSMISSION
TRANSMISSION
Simplex
Halfduplex
FullDuplex
Simplex
Simplex transmission: allows data to travel only in a
single direction.
Example of simplex transmission: television broadcast.
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Simplex (cont)
Another example of simplex communication is a
football coach calling out orders to his team

through a megaphone.
In this example, the coachs voice is the signal,
and it travels in only one directionaway from
the megaphones mouthpiece and toward the
team.
Simplex is sometimes called one-way, or
unidirectional, communication.
Half- Duplex
Half-duplex transmission: messages can move
in either direction , but only one way at a time

(walkie-talkie)
Example of half-duplex transmission: walkie-talkie
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For example :
intercom system that requires you to press a talk button
to allow your voice to be transmitted uses half-duplex
transmission.
If you visit a friends apartment building, you press the
talk button to send your voice signals to his apartment.
When your friend responds, he presses the talk button in
his apartment to send his voice signal in the opposite
direction over the wire to the speaker in the lobby where
you wait.
If you press the talk button while hes talking, you will
not be able to hear his voice transmission.
Full-Duplex
Full-duplex: signals free to travel in both directions
simultaneously.
Example of full-duplex: telephone conversations.
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When signals are free to travel in both directions
over a medium simultaneously, the transmission is

considered full-duplex.
Full-duplex may also be called bidirectional
transmission or, sometimes, simply duplex.
When you call a friend on the telephone, your
connection is an example of a full-duplex
transmission because your voice signals can be
transmitted to your friend at the same time your
friends voice signals are transmitted in the opposite
direction to you.
In other words, both of you can talk and hear each
other simultaneously.
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4. Transmission Direction: Multiplexing

A form of transmission that allows multiple signals to travel
simultaneously over one medium is known as multiplexing. To

carry multiple signals, the mediums channel is logically
separated into multiple smaller channels, or subchannels. Many
different types of multiplexing are available, and the type used
in any given situation depends on what the media, transmission,
and reception equipment can handle.
For each type of multiplexing, a device that can combine many
signals on a channel, a multiplexer (mux), is required at the
transmitting end of the channel.
At the receiving end, a demultiplexer (demux) separates the
combined signals and regenerates them in their original form.
Networks rely on multiplexing to increase the amount of data
that can be transmitted in a given time span over a given
bandwidth.
5.Relationships Between Nodes
Figure 3-10: Point-to-point VS broadcast transmission

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Point to Point Transmission

When a data transmission involves only one
transmitter and one receiver, it is considered a

point-to-point transmission.
The sender only transmits data that is intended to
be used by a specific receiver.
Broadcast transmission
Broadcast transmission involves one transmitter and
multiple, undefined receivers. For example, a TV

station indiscriminately transmitting a signal from its
tower to thousands of homes with TV antennas uses
broadcast transmission.
A broadcast transmission sends data to any and all
receivers, without regard for which receiver can use
it. Broadcast transmissions are frequently used on
both wired and wireless networks because they are
simple and quick.
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6.Throughput and Bandwidth

Throughput: measure of amount of data transmitted during
given time period
Also called as capacity

Expressed as a quantity of bits transmitted per second, with
prefixes used to designate different throughput amounts. For

example, the prefix kilo combined with the word bit (as in kilobit)
indicates 1000 bits per second.
Bandwidth: difference between highest and lowest frequencies
that a medium can transmit
Range of frequencies is directly related to throughput.
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7.Baseband and Broadband

Baseband: digital signals sent through direct current (DC)
pulses applied to a wire

Requires exclusive use of wires capacity
Baseband systems can transmit one signal at a time
Ethernet
Broadband: signals modulated as radiofrequency (RF) analog
waves that use different frequency ranges

Does not encode information as digital pulses
broadband transmission is used to bring cable TV to your home.
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Outcomes 2
Describe common transmission flaws (kecacatan
penghantaran):
Noise
Attenuation
Latency
Transmission flaws
1
Attenuation
Noise
Latency
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1. Attenuation
Attenuation (pengurangan/penyusutan):
the loss of signal strength over long distances
when signals travel along cabling.
Measured in decibels (dB).
Copper cabling has much greater attenuation
than fiber-optic cabling, which makes copper
suitable only for relatively short cable runs.
A digital device, known as a remodulator,
provides better signal quality by removing all of

the accumulated noise and attenuation and
transmitting a cleaned-up signal.
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Loss of signal strength as transmission travel away
from source
Analog signals pass through an amplifier,which
increase not only voltage of a signal but also noise
accumulated.
2. Noise (Hingar)
Noise :
interference in cabling by proximity to electrical
equipment that generates electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
Any undersirable influence degrading or distorting
signal
Noise is generated by all electrical and electronic
devices, including :
motors
fluorescent lamps
power lines, and office equipment.
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Noise can usually be reduced (but never entirely
eliminated) by using higher-quality components,

lowering the temperature of components, or
using shielded cabling
noise
An analog signal distorted by noise
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A digital signal distorted by noise
3. Latency
Latency (masa pendam):
Delay between transmission and receipt of a signal
Many possible causes:
Cable length
Intervening connectivity device (e.g., modems and
routers)
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Outcomes 3
Describe Transmission Media in network
Explain physical characteristics of :
1.
2.
3.
4.
coaxial cable,
STP,
UTP, and
fiber-optic media.
Transmisson Media
Unguided
Guided
Unshielded
Twisted Pair
Cable
Shielded
Twisted Pair
Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optic
Cabel
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Twisted pair cables

Twisted pair cables consist of one or more pairs
of insulated copper wires that are twisted

together and housed in a protective jacket. Like
all copper cables, twisted pair uses pulses of
electricity to transmit data.
Data transmission is sensitive to interference or
noise, which can reduce the data rate that a cable
can provide. A twisted pair cable is susceptible to
electromagnetic interference (EMI), a type of
noise.
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A source of interference, known as crosstalk, occurs when
cables are bundled together for long lengths. The signal

from one cable can leak out and enter adjacent cables.
When data transmission is corrupted due to interference
such as crosstalk, the data must be retransmitted. This can
degrade the data carrying capacity of the medium.
In twisted pair cabling, the number of twists per unit
length affects the amount of resistance that the cable has to
interference.Twisted pair cable suitable for carrying
telephone traffic, referred to as CAT3, has 3-4 turns per
foot making it less resistant. Cable suitable for data
transmission, known as CAT5, has 3-4 turns per inch,
making it more resistant to interference.
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UTP
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most commonly
encountered type of network cable in North America

and many other areas. Shielded cables (ScTP and FUTP) are used almost exclusively in European
countries.
UTP cable is inexpensive, offers a high bandwidth, and
is easy to install. This type of cable is used to connect
workstations, hosts and network devices. It can come
with many different numbers of pairs inside the jacket,
but the most common number of pairs is four. Each
pair is identified by a specific color code.
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Many different categories of UTP cables have been developed
over time. Each category of cable was developed to support a

specific technology and most are no longer encountered in
homes or offices. The cable types which are still commonly
found include Categories 3, 5, 5e and 6.
There are electrical environments in which EMI and RFI are so
strong that shielding is a requirement to make communication
possible, such as in a noisy factory. In this instance, it may be
necessary to use a cable that contains shielding, such as Shielded
twisted-pair (STP) and Screened twisted-pair (ScTP).
Unfortunately both STP and ScTP are very expensive, not as
flexible, and have additional requirements due to the shielding
that make them difficult to work with.
All Categories of data grade UTP cable are traditionally
terminated into an RJ-45 connector.
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STP & ScTP

Shielded cables and screened twisted pair are
used almost exclusively in European

countries.
Individual pair are wrapped in a shield and
then the entire four pairs are wrapped in
another shield
Used for data transmission (in a noisy
factory)
Not as flexible (bulky), and have additional
requirements due to the shielding that make
them difficult to work with.
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SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
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Coaxial Cable
Like twisted pair, coaxial cable (or coax) also carries data in the
form of electrical signals. It provides improved shielding

compared to UTP, so has a lower signal-to-noise ratio and can
therefore carry more data. It is often used to connect a TV set
to the signal source, be it a cable TV outlet, satellite TV, or
conventional antenna. It is also used at NOCs to connect to the
cable modem termination system (CMTS) and to connect to
some high-speed interfaces.
Although coax has improved data carrying characteristics,
twisted pair cabling has replaced coax in local area networking
uses. Among the reasons for the replacement is that - compared
to UTP - coax is physically harder to install, more expensive,
and harder to troubleshoot.
Coaxial cable
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Coaxial cable
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Fiber optic cables

Unlike TP and coax, fiber optic cables transmit data using pulses of light.
Although not normally found in home or small business environments,

fiber optic cabling is widely used in enterprise environments and large
data centers.
Fiber optic cable is constructed of either glass or plastic, neither of
which conducts electricity. This means that it is immune to EMI and is
suitable for installation in environments where interference is a
problem.
In addition to its resistance to EMI, fiber optic cables support a large
amount of bandwidth making them ideally suited for high-speed data
backbones. Fiber optic backbones are found in many corporations and
are also used to connect ISPs on the Internet.
Each fiber optic circuit is actually two fiber cables. One is used to
transmit data; the other is used to receive data.
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Multimode
Of the two forms of fiber optic, multimode is the
less expensive and more widely used. The light

source that produces the pulses of light is usually an
LED.
It is referred to as multimode because there are
multiple rays of light, each carrying data, being
transmitted through the cable simultaneously. Each
ray of light takes a separate path through the
multimode core.
Multimode fiber optical cables are generally suitable
for links of up to 2000 meters. However,
improvements in technology are continually
improving this distance.
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Single Mode
Single mode fiber optic cables are constructed in
such a way that light can follow only a single path

through the fiber.
The light source for single mode fiber optic cables is
usually a LED laser, which is significantly more
expensive and intense than ordinary LEDs. Due to
the intensity of the LED laser, much higher data rates
and longer ranges can be obtained.
Single mode fibers can transmit data for
approximately 3000 meters and are used for
backbone cabling including the interconnection of
various NOCs. Again, improvements in technology
are continually improving this distance.
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Test Yourself
FO UTP
A company must provide network connectivity between

three buildings on a single campus. The cables must be run
outside and there is a high probability of lighting storms in
the area.
A company must provide network connectivity between
two buildings located 1 km apart.
3. A company must provide 100Mbps connectivity to users
located in their main office by running cables from the
central switch to the individual desktops. The maximum
distance from the switch to a workstation is 60 meters.
Outcomes 4
Describe benefit and limitation of different
networking media in terms of :
1. Throughput
2. Noise Immunity
3. Size and Scalability
4. Cost
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1.Throughput
Probably most significant factor in choosing transmission
method
Limited by signaling and multiplexing techniques used in given
transmission method
Transmission methods using fiber-optic cables achieve faster
throughput than those using copper or wireless connections
Noise and devices connected to transmission medium can limit
throughput
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UTP
STP
STP and UTP can both transmit data
at 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps,
and 10 Gbps, depending on the
grade of cabling and the
transmission method in use.
Fiber Optic
Fiber has proved reliable
in transmitting data at
rates that can reach 100
gigabits (or 100,000
megabits) per second per
channel.
Coaxial Cable
Each type of coax is suited to a
different purpose. When discussing
the size of the conducting core in a
coaxial cable, we refer to its
American Wire Gauge (AWG) size.
The larger the AWG size, the
smaller the diameter of a piece of
wire. RG-6 coaxial cables are used,
for example, to deliver broadband
cable Internet service and cable TV,
particularly over long distances.
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2.Noise Immunity
Some types of media are more susceptible to noise than others
Fiber-optic cable least susceptible
Install cabling away from powerful electromagnetic forces

May need to use metal conduit to contain and protect cabling
Possible to use antinoise algorithms
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UTP
signals transmitted over
UTP may be subject to
filtering and balancing
techniques to offset the
effects of noise.
STP
Because of its shielding,
STP is more noise
resistant than UTP.
Fiber Optic
Because fiber does not
conduct electrical
current to transmit
signals,
it is unaffected by EMI.
Its impressive noise
resistance is one reason
why fiber can span
such long distances
before it requires
repeaters to regenerate
its signal.
Coaxial Cable
Because of its shielding,
most coaxial cable has a
high resistance to noise.
It can also carry signals
farther than twisted pair
cabling before
amplification of the
signals becomes
necessary (although not
as far as fiber-optic
cabling). On the other
hand, coaxial cable is
more expensive than
twisted pair cable
because it requires
significantly more raw
materials to
manufacture.
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3.Size and Scalability

Three specifications determine size and scalability of
networking media:
Maximum nodes per segment
Depends on attenuation and latency
Maximum segment length
Depends on attenuation, latency, and segment type
Populated segment contains end nodes
Maximum network length
Sum of networks segment lengths
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UTP
STP
The maximum segment length

for both STP and UTP is 100 m,
or 328 feet, on Ethernet
networks that support data rates
from 1 Mbps to 10 Gbps.
These accommodate a maximum
of 1024 nodes. (However,
attaching so many nodes to a
segment is very impractical, as it
would slow traffic and make
management nearly
impossible.)
Fiber Optic
Coaxial Cable
Depending on the type of

fiber-optic cable used,
segment lengths vary
from 150 to 40,000
meters. This limit is due
primarily to optical loss,
or the degradation of the
light signal after it travels
a certain distance away
from its source.
The maximum
segment length of 185
meters (or roughly
200).
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4.Cost
Many variables can influence final cost of implementing specific
type of media:
Cost of installation
Cost of new infrastructure versus reusing existing infrastructure

Cost of maintenance and support
Cost of a lower transmission rate affecting productivity
Cost of obsolescence
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UTP
Inexpensive.
High-grade UTP, can
be expensive too,
however.
For example, Cat 6e
costs more per foot
than Cat 5 cabling
STP
Typically, STP is
more expensive than
UTP because it
contains more
materials and it has a
lower demand. It also
requires grounding,
which
can lead to more
expensive
installation.
Fiber Optic
Fiber-optic cable is
the most expensive
transmission
medium. Because of
its cost, most
organizations find it
impractical to run
fiber to every
desktop.
In addition, hiring
skilled fiber cable
installers costs more
than hiring twisted
pair cable
installers.
Coaxial Cable
The sheath, which
protects the cable
from physical
damage, may be
PVC or a more
expensive, fireresistant plastic.
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5.Connectors and Media Converters

Connectors: pieces of hardware connecting wire to network
device
Every networking medium requires specific kind of connector
Media converter: hardware enabling networks or segments
running on different media to interconnect and exchange

signals
Type of transceiver
Device that transmits and receives signals
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UTP
STP
STP and UTP use RJ-45
(Registered Jack 45) modular
connectors and
data jacks, which look similar
to analog telephone connectors
and jacks. However, telephone
connections follow the RJ-11
(Registered Jack 11) standard.
Fiber Optic
With fiber cabling, you can
use any of 10 different types
of connectors.
Most common connector
types:
the ST (straight tip), SC
(subscriber connector or
standard connector), LC
(local connector), and MTRJ (mechanical transfer
registered jack).
Coaxial Cable
F-type connectors attach to coaxial
cable so that the pin in the center of
the connector is the conducting
core of the cable. Therefore, F-type
connectors require that the cable
contain a solid
metal core. A BNC connector is
crimped, compressed, or twisted
onto a coaxial cable. It connects to
another BNC connector via a turning
and locking mechanism.
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Outcomes 5
Explain the best practices for cabling buildings and
work areas.
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The best practice for installing cable is to follow the TIA/EIA 568
specifications and the manufacturers recommendations.

Be careful not to exceed a cables bend radius, untwist wire pairs
more than one-half inch, or remove more than one inch of
insulation from copper wire.
Install plenum-rated cable in ceilings and floors, and run cabling
away from where it might suffer physical damage. Maintain clear,
comprehensive documentation on your cable plant.
TIA/EIAs 568 Commercial Building Wiring Standard, also
known as structured cabling, provides guidelines for uniform,
enterprise-wide, multivendor cabling systems.
Structured cabling is based on a hierarchical design that begins
with a service providers facilities and end at users workstations.
Cable Design and Management

Cable plant: hardware making up enterprise-wide cabling
system
Structured cabling: TIA/EIAs 568 Commercial Building
Wiring Standard
Entrance facilities point where buildings internal cabling plant
begins
Demarcation point: division between service carriers network and
internal network
Backbone wiring: interconnection between telecommunications
closets, equipment rooms, and entrance facilities

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Cable Design and Management

(continued)
Structured cabling (continued):
Equipment room: location of significant networking hardware,
such as servers and mainframe hosts

Telecommunications closet: contains connectivity for groups of
workstations in area, plus cross connections to equipment rooms
Horizontal wiring: wiring connecting workstations to closest
telecommunications closet
Work area: encompasses all patch cables and horizontal wiring
necessary to connect workstations, printers, and other network
devices from NICs to telecommunications closet
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Installing Cable
Many network problems can be traced to poor cable
installation techniques
Two methods of inserting UTP twisted pairs into RJ-45 plugs:
TIA/EIA 568A and TIA/EIA 568B
Straight-through cable allows signals to pass straight through
between terminations
Crossover cable: termination locations of transmit and receive
wires on one end of cable reversed
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Outcomes 6
By the end of this subtopic, student should be able to
define the characteristics of wireless transmission
1) Signal Propagation (Penyebaran isyarat)
2) Signal Degradation (Penurunan isyarat)
3) Antenna
4) Narrowband, broadband and spread spectrum signals
5) Fixed and mobile wireless communication
Wireless Network?
Networks that transmit signals through the
atmosphere via radio frequency (RF) waves are

known as wireless networks or WLANs (wireless
local area networks).
Wireless transmission media is now common in
business and home networks and necessary in
some specialized network environments.
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The Wireless Spectrum

All wireless signals are carried through the air by
electromagnetic waves.
The wireless spectrum is a continuum of the
electromagnetic waves used for data and voice
communication. On the spectrum, waves are
arranged according to their frequencies, from lowest
to highest.
The wireless spectrum (as defined by the FCC,
which controls its use) spans frequencies between 9
KHz and 300 GHz.
Each type of wireless service can be associated with
one area of the wireless spectrum.
AM broadcasting, for example, sits near the low-
frequency end of the wireless communications

spectrum, using frequencies between 535 and 1605
KHz.
Infrared waves belong to a wide band of frequencies
at the high-frequency end of the spectrum, between
300 GHz and 300,000 GHz.
Most cordless telephones and many wireless LANs
use frequencies around 2.4 GHz. Other wireless
LANs use a range of frequencies near 5 GHz.
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The Wireless Spectrum
Figure 3-37: The wireless spectrum

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1. Signal propagation
A wireless signal would travel directly in a straight line from
its transmitter to its intended receiver. This type of

propagation, known as LOS (line-of-sight), uses the least
amount of energy and results in the reception of the clearest
possible signal.
When an obstacle stands in a signals way, the signal may pass
through the object or be absorbed by the object, or it may be
subject to any of the following phenomena: reflection,
diffraction, or scattering. (Pantulan, pembelauan, atau berselerak.)
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Phenomena 1 : Reflection
Reflection in wireless signaling is no different from
reflection of other electromagnetic waves, such as

light. The wave encounters an obstacle and reflects
or bounces backtoward its source.
A wireless signal will bounce off objects whose
dimensions are large compared to the signals average
wavelength. In the context of a wireless LAN, which
may use signals with wavelengths between one and
10 meters, such objects include walls, floors,
ceilings, and the Earth. In addition, signals reflect
more readily off conductive materials, like metal,
than insulators, like concrete.
Phenomena 2 : Diffraction
In diffraction, a wireless signal splits into
secondary waves when it encounters an

obstruction. The secondary waves continue to
propagate in the direction in which they were
split.
If you could see wireless signals being diffracted,
they would appear to be bending around the
obstacle. Objects with sharp edgesincluding
the corners of walls and deskscause diffraction.
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Phenomena 3 : Scattering
Scattering is the diffusion, or the reflection in
multiple different directions, of a signal. Scattering

occurs when a wireless signal encounters an object
that has small dimensions compared to the signals
wavelength.
Scattering is also related to the roughness of the
surface a wireless signal encounters. The rougher the
surface, the more likely a signal is to scatter when it
hits that surface. In an office building, objects such as
chairs, books, and computers cause scattering of
wireless LAN signals. For signals traveling outdoors,
rain, mist, hail, and snow may all cause scattering.
Because of reflection, diffraction, and scattering,
wireless signals follow a number of different

paths to their destination. Such signals are known
as multipath signals.
Figure below illustrates multipath signals caused
by these three phenomena.
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Figure 3-39: Multipath signal propagation
2. Signal degradation
No matter what paths wireless signals take, they are bound
to run into obstacles.

When they do, the original signal issued by the transmitter
will experience fading, or a change in signal strength as a
result of some of the electromagnetic energy being
scattered, reflected, or diffracted after being issued by the
transmitter.
Because of fading, the strength of the signal that reaches the
receiver is lower than the transmitted signals strength. This
makes sense because as more waves are reflected, diffracted,
or scattered by obstacles, fewer are likely to reach their
destination.
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Attenuation is not the most severe flaw affecting
wireless signals.
Wireless signals are also susceptible to noise
(more often called electromagnetic interference
or simply, interference, in the context of wireless
communications).
Interference is a significant problem for wireless
communications because the atmosphere is
saturated with electromagnetic waves.
For example, wireless LANs may be affected by cellular
phones, mobile phones, or overhead lights. Interference

can distort and weaken a wireless signal in the same way
that noise distorts and weakens a wired signal. However,
because wireless signals cannot depend on a conduit or
shielding to protect them from extraneous EMI, they are
more vulnerable to noise.
The extent of interference that a wireless signal
experiences depends partly on the density of signals within
a geographical area. Signals traveling through areas in
which many wireless communications systems are in use
for example, the center of a metropolitan areaare the
most apt to suffer interference.
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3. Antenna
Just as with wired signals, wireless signals originate
from electrical current traveling along a conductor.

The electrical signal travels from the transmitter to
an antenna, which then emits the signal, as a series of
electromagnetic waves, to the atmosphere. The signal
propagates through the air until it reaches its
destination.
At the destination, another antenna accepts the
signal, and a receiver converts it back to current.
Figure below illustrates this process.
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Each type of wireless service requires an antenna
specifically designed for that service.

The services specifications determine the antennas power
output, frequency, and radiation pattern. An antennas
radiation pattern describes the relative strength over a
three-dimensional area of all the electromagnetic energy
the antenna sends or receives.
A directional antenna issues wireless signals along a single
direction.This type of antenna is used when the source
needs to communicate with one destination, as in a pointto-point link. A satellite downlink (for example, the kind
used to receive digital TV signals) uses directional
antennas.
In contrast, an omnidirectional antenna issues and receives
wireless signals with equal strength and clarity in all

directions. This type of antenna is used when many
different receivers must be able to pick up the signal, or
when the receivers location is highly mobile.TV and radio
stations use omnidirectional antennas, as do most towers
that transmit cellular telephone signals.
The geographical area that an antenna or wireless system
can reach is known as its range. Receivers must be within
the range to receive accurate signals consistently. Even
within an antennas range, however, signals may be
hampered by obstacles and rendered unintelligible.
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4. Narrowband, broadband and spread

spectrum signals.
Narrowband : A transmitter concentrates the signal energy at a
single frequency or in a very small range of frequencies.

Broadband : Uses a relatively wide band of the wireless
spectrum. Broadband technologies, as a result of their wider
frequency bands, offer higher throughputs than narrowband
technologies.
Spread-spectrum : The use of multiple frequencies to transmit
a signal is known as spread-spectrum technology (because the
signal is spread out over the Wireless spectrum).
In other words, a signal never stays continuously
within one frequency range during its transmission.

One result of spreading a signal over a wide
frequency band is that it requires less power per
frequency than narrowband signaling. This
distribution of signal strength makes spreadspectrum signals less likely to interfere with
narrowband signals traveling in the same frequency
band.
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Fixed and mobile wireless communication
Wireless
Communication
Fixed VS Mobile?
In fixed wireless systems, the locations of the transmitter and receiver
do not move. The transmitting antenna focuses its energy directly

toward the receiving antenna. This results in a point-to-point link.
One advantage of fixed wireless is that because the receivers location
is predictable, energy need not be wasted issuing signals across a large
geographical area. Thus, more energy can be used for the signal.
Fixed wireless links are used in some data and voice applications.For
example, a service provider may obtain data services through a fixed
link with a satellite. In cases in which a long distance or difficult
terrain must be traversed, fixed wireless links are more economical
than cabling.
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Fixed VS Mobile?
However, many types of communications are unsuited to
fixed wireless, For example, a waiter who uses a wireless

handheld computer to transmit orders to the restaurants
kitchen could not use a service that requires him to remain
in one spot to send and receive signals. Instead, wireless
LANs, along with cellular telephone, paging, and many
other services use mobile wireless systems.
In mobile wireless, the receiver can be located anywhere
within the transmitters range. This allows the receiver to
roam from one place to another while continuing to pick up
its signal.
Summary
Information can be transmitted via two methods: analog or
digital
In multiplexing, the single medium is logically separated into
multiple channels, or subchannels
Throughput is the amount of data that the medium can
transmit during a given period of time
Baseband is a form of transmission in which digital signals are
sent through direct current pulses applied to the wire
Noise is interference that distorts an analog or digital signal
112
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Summary (continued)
Analog and digital signals may suffer attenuation
Cable length contributes to latency, as does the presence of any
intervening connectivity device

Coaxial cable consists of a central copper core surrounded by a
plastic insulator, a braided metal shielding, and an outer plastic
cover (sheath)
Twisted-pair cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated
copper wires
There are two types of twisted-pair cables: STP and UTP
113
Summary (continued)
There are a number of Physical layer specifications for Ethernet
networks
Fiber-optic cable provides the benefits of very high throughput,
very high resistance to noise, and excellent security
Fiber cable variations fall into two categories: single-mode and
multimode
Structured cabling is based on a hierarchical design that divides
cabling into six subsystems
114
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Summary (continued)
The best practice for installing cable is to follow the TIA/EIA
568 specifications and the manufacturers recommendations

Wireless transmission requires an antenna connected to a
transceiver
Infrared transmission can be used for short-distance
transmissions
115
58

Unit 3 - Data Transmission and Networking Media

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Analog and digital signaling

Waveform of analog & digital signal

Differences between analog &digital

Able to encrypt all 1s and 0s during

them suitable for carrying data over a communication path.

In modulation, a simple wave, called a carrier wave, is combined with

another analog signal to produce a unique signal that gets transmitted

Its purpose is to help convey information; in other words, its only a

2. DATA MODULATION (cont.)

pathway, as in the case of FM (frequency modulation) radio, in

Figure 3-5: A carrier wave modified through frequency modulation

Network+ Guide to Networks, 4e

Example of simplex transmission: television broadcast.

football coach calling out orders to his team

in either direction , but only one way at a time

Example of half-duplex transmission: walkie-talkie

Example of full-duplex: telephone conversations.

When signals are free to travel in both directions

over a medium simultaneously, the transmission is

4. Transmission Direction: Multiplexing

simultaneously over one medium is known as multiplexing. To

5.Relationships Between Nodes

Figure 3-10: Point-to-point VS broadcast transmission

Point to Point Transmission

transmitter and one receiver, it is considered a

multiple, undefined receivers. For example, a TV

6.Throughput and Bandwidth

given time period

Also called as capacity

prefixes used to designate different throughput amounts. For

Bandwidth: difference between highest and lowest frequencies

that a medium can transmit

Range of frequencies is directly related to throughput.

Network+ Guide to Networks, 4e

7.Baseband and Broadband

pulses applied to a wire

Broadband: signals modulated as radiofrequency (RF) analog

waves that use different frequency ranges

broadband transmission is used to bring cable TV to your home.

Network+ Guide to Networks, 4e

A digital device, known as a remodulator,

provides better signal quality by removing all of

Loss of signal strength as transmission travel away

Noise can usually be reduced (but never entirely

eliminated) by using higher-quality components,

An analog signal distorted by noise

A digital signal distorted by noise

Twisted pair cables

of insulated copper wires that are twisted

A source of interference, known as crosstalk, occurs when

cables are bundled together for long lengths. The signal

encountered type of network cable in North America

Many different categories of UTP cables have been developed

over time. Each category of cable was developed to support a

STP & ScTP

used almost exclusively in European

SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR

form of electrical signals. It provides improved shielding

Fiber optic cables

Although not normally found in home or small business environments,

less expensive and more widely used. The light

such a way that light can follow only a single path

A company must provide network connectivity between