29

Chapter 4 STEAD FLOW IN PRESSURIZED NETWORK

4.1 WATER PIPE NETWORKS
A pipe network can be described as a system of interconnected pipes, forming one or more closed
loops. A loop may be defined as a connected set of pipes and their end nodes, every node of
which is an end-node of exactly two pipes of the set. The term node is applied to any point at
which water enters or leaves the network or to any pipe junction within the network. Thus each
pipe is defined by a pair of end-nodes.
The distribution of steady flow within such a pipe system is determined by the following factors:
The head-discharge relationship for each pipe
The governing network flow equations
The boundary conditions of the system

Head-discharge relationships for pipes

The head loss H in a pipe of given length can be related to the discharge Q by a correlation of the
general form: h = r Qm
Where:
r is a pipe resistance coefficient and the exponent m is a constant. The values to be assigned to r
and m depend on the flow equation being used (i.e. Darcy-Weisbach equation, Colebrook-White
equation, The Hazen-Williams equation).

Network analysis

In any pipe network the number of unknown flows corresponds to the number of pipes in the
network and their evaluation involves the solution of an equal number of simultaneous equations.
These governing equations are of two types:
1. Continuity equations: the algebraic sum of the flows at any node must be zero (flows
into and away from each node must balance).
Consider a pipe network having P pipes and N nodes. The continuity or node equations are of the
general form: Qij + Ei = 0 for any node i
Where:
Qij refers to flow from node i to node j, the subscript j representing nodes connected to
node i.

Y3WEE & Y4 CE, S1-2012

30

Ei is the external supply/demand at node i. The sign convention adopted in this text is that
flow towards a node is considered as positive, flow away from a node is assigned a
negative value

Illustrative example 4.1-- continuity equation

2.

Loop equations: the integrated head loss around any loop must be zero.

The loop equations are of the general form: hij

= 0 for each loop

Where:

hij = rijQijm is the head loss in the pipe connecting nodes i and j and the summation covers all
pipes which comprise the loop. The sign convention adopted here is that head loss associated
with clockwise flow is considered positive and head loss associated with anticlockwise flow is
considered negative.

Boundary conditions

The boundary conditions must be sufficient to def

define
ine flow distribution. Boundary conditions for
water networks include supplies (inflows to the system) and demands (outflows from the system),
nodes having constant head e.g. service reservoirs, flow control devices such as non-return
non
valves,
pressure reducing
cing valves and pumps.
Typical examples of sets of boundary conditions sufficient to define flow and pressure
distribution in water networks are:
(1) Magnitude of supplies and demands are known; one nodal pressure is known;
(2) Magnitudes of pressures at supply nodes and magnitudes of demands are known.
Y3WEE & Y4 CE, S1-2012

31
The following figures show example of three-loop pipe network indicated supply and demand
values and example of node equations.

4.2PIPE NETWORK ANALYSIS

Analysis of water distribution system includes determining quantities of flow and head losses in
the various pipe lines, and resulting residual pressures. In any pipe network, the following two
conditions must be satisfied:
1. The algebraic sum of pressure drops around a closed loop must be zero, i.e. there can be
no discontinuity in pressure.
2. The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving that junction; i.e. the law
of continuity must be satisfied.
Based on these two basic principles, the pipe networks are generally solved by the methods of
successive approximation. The widely used method of pipe network analysis is the Hardy-Cross
method.
[For more information, refer to pages 512-522 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING book BY B.C
PUNMIA, 1995558-568.]

4.3ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES

Engineers find it useful to employ the "energy grade line" (EGL) and the "hydraulic grade line"
(HGL) in working with the pipe systems. These imaginary lines help the engineers to find the
trouble spots in the system (usually points of low pressure).
According to Bernouilli's equation:

Y3WEE & Y4 CE, S1-2012

32
E = H = P/g +Z + V2/2g

Where:

P/g = pressure head: represents the energy per unit weight stores in the fluid due to
pressure under which the fluid is,
Z = elevation head: represent the potential energy
V2/2g = velocity head: represent kinetic energy
E = H= Total head or Energy.
Each term, although ordinarily expressed in meters, represents Newton-meters of energy per
Newton of flowing fluid.
4.3.1

The Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

HGL in a piping system is formed by the locus of points located a distance P/g (= p/) above the
centre of the pipe, or P/g + Z above a pre-selected datum. It is a line representing the total head
available to the fluid - minus the velocity head and can be expressed as:
HGL = Z + P/g is the static or piezometric head or hydraulic grade line (HGL), which
represents the level to which a liquid will rise in a piezometric tube.

4.3.2

The Energy Grade Line (EGL)

EGL is formed by the locus of points a distance V2/2g above the HGL, or the distance V2/2g +
p/ + z above the datum. It is a line that represents the total head available to the fluid and can be
expressed as:
EGL = H = p / + v2 / 2 g + Z

For a frictionless incompressible fluid with no machine between section 1 and 2: E1 = E2

For a real fluid: E1 = E2 + hf
The energy or energy grade line gives the total energy head at any point and it shows the
variation of the energy along the entire pipe.
The hydraulic grade line gives the pressure head at any point and it shows the variation of the
pressure along the entire pipe.

For a fluid flow without any losses due to friction (major losses) or components (minor losses),
the energy line would be at a constant level. In a practical world the energy line decreases along
the flow due to losses. A turbine in the flow reduces the energy line and a pump or fan in the line
increases the energy line.
Y3WEE & Y4 CE, S1-2012

33
The following hints are useful for drawing HGL and EGL.

As the velocity goes to zero, the HGL and the EGL approach each other. Thus, in a
reservoir, they are identical and lie on the surface.
The EGL and HGL slope downward in the direction of the flow due to the head loss in the
pipe. The greater the loss per unit length, the greater the slope. As the average velocity in
the pipe increases, the loss per unit length incr
increases.
A sudden change occurs in the HGL and the EGL whenever a loss occurs due to a sudden
geometry change as represented by a valve or a sudden enlargement, or reduction.
A jump occurs in the HGL and the EGL whenever useful energy is added to the fluid as
a
occurs with a pump, and a drop occurs if useful energy is extracted from the flow, as in
the presence of a turbine.
At points where the HGL passes through the centerline of the pipe, the pressure is zero. If
the pipe lies above the HGL, there is a vacuum in the pipe, a condition that is often
avoided, if possible, in the design of piping systems; an exception would be in the design
of a siphon.

Y3WEE & Y4 CE, S1-2012

34

Illustrative example 4.2

Roughly draw the HGL and EGL between point A and F of the following piping systems

Illustrative example 4.3

Water flows from point A to B trough a pipeline at a rate of 0.4 m3/s. The pressure head at A is
7m. consider no loss of energy between A and B. The pipe diameter at AD = 0.3 m and at point
BD = 0.6m; the location of point A is 10m and of point B is 15 m above datum. Find the pressure
head at B and draw the energy line.

Y3, S1-2011

35
4.4 HYDRAULIC LOSSES
In any real moving fluid, energy is dissipated due to friction; turbulence dissipates even more
energy for high Reynolds number flows. Head loss is divided into two main categories, "major
losses" associated with energy loss per length of pipe, and "minor losses" associated with bends,
fittings, valves, etc.
For relatively short pipe systems, with a relatively large number of bends and fittings, minor
losses can easily exceed major losses. In design, major losses are estimated by using empirical
formulas or equationa and minor losses are usually estimated from tables using coefficients or a
simpler and less accurate reduction of minor losses to equivalent length of pipe.
4.4.1

Major losses

Major losses or head loss due to friction may be computed from the following formulae:

Darcy-Weisbach formula
Hazen Williams formula
Manning's formula
Combined Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equation

The Darcy-Weisbach equation

Weisbach first proposed the equation we now know as the Darcy-Weisbach formula or DarcyWeisbach equation:
 

    


Or Q = AV= /4 D2 V, then V = 4Q/ D2

In terms of discharge: hf

Therefore,
 



  



 .

Where:
hf = head loss due to friction (m)
f = friction factor. Some book use
L = length of pipe work (m)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (m)
v = average velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s)

Y3WEE and Y4CE, S1-2012



36
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
The friction factor f generally varies from 0.02 for new smooth pipes to 0.075 for old rough
pipes. However, f depends upon Reynolds number Re = VD/
VD/ and the relative roughness k/D.
For old pipes,   .  !! "

'


For new pipes   .  !! " '+

For laminar flow  

$%

Hazen William's formula

This formula relates velocity of flow, hydraulic mean radius and hydraulic gradient.

Mannings formula

 
$' (
&
For circular pipes, R = D/4, where D is the diameter.
. ')* 

$' (
&
Or the slope S = hf/L


Therefore the formula reduced to , 

The discharge Q (m/s) is given by  
Where
V = mean velocity of flow (m/s)
D = diameter of the pipe (m)
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S = Hydraulic gradient
L = length of pipe (m)
R = discharge (m3/s)
R = hydraulic radius (m)

Y3WEE and Y4CE, S1-2012

&

.*

.'
&

'


'


 (

37
n = Mannings coefficient of roughness

Combined Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equation

As we have seen in Darcy-Weisbach, f depends upon Reynolds number Re and the relative
roughness k/D which can be expressed by Colebrook-White equation. This was plotted by Mood
(1944). So the value of f can be obtained by using Moody diagram.

The friction factor could be fund from The Moody Chart. The Moody Chart or sometimes the
Friction Factor Chart enables a user to plot the Reynolds number and the Relative Roughness of
the pipe and to establish a reasonably accurate value of the friction factor for turbulent flow
conditions.
The Moody Chart encouraged the use of the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and this quickly
became the method of choice for hydraulic engineers. The development of the personnel
computer from the 1980s onwards reduced the time needed to perform the friction factor and
head loss calculations, which in turn has widened the use of the Darcy-Weisbach formula to the
point that all other formula are now largely unused.

Y3WEE and Y4CE, S1-2012

38

Moody chart: Friction factor as a function of Reynolds number and relative roughness for round pipes

Types of Fluid Flow Problems

In the design and analysis of piping systems that involve the use of the Moody chart, we usually
encounter three types of problems:
1. Determining the pressure drop when the pipe length and diameter are given for a specified
flow rate (or velocity)
2. Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and diameter are given for a specified
pressure drop
3. Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and flow rate are given for a specified
pressure drop.

Illustrative example 4.4

Water flows at Q = 0.2 m3/s through 500 m of 200 mm diameter cast-iron pipe (with roughness e
= 0.26 mm). If Reynolds number is Re = 128000. Determine (a) the head loss and (b) the
pressure drop if the pipe slopes down at 10 in the flow direction

Y3WEE and Y4CE, S1-2012

39
Illustrative example 4.5

N.B: Kinematic viscosity of the liquid v = 1.3 *10-6m2/s

4.3.2 Minor losses

For any pipe system, in addition to the Moody-type friction loss computed for the length of pipe.
Most pipe systems consist of considerably more than straight pipes. These additional
components add to the overall head loss of the system. Such losses are generally termed minor
losses, with the apparent implication being that the majority of the system loss is associated with
the friction in the straight portions of the pipes, the major losses or local losses. In many cases
this is true. In other cases the minor losses are greater than the major losses. The minor losses
may raised by:
1. Pipe entrance or exit
2. Sudden expansion or contraction
3. Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings
4. Valves, open or partially closed
5. Gradual expansions or contractions
The major losses may not be so minor; e.g., a partially closed valve can cause a greater pressure
drop than a long pipe. The losses are commonly measured experimentally. The data, especially
for valves, are somewhat dependent upon the particular manufacturers design.
Y3WEE and Y4CE, S1-2012

40

The most common method used to determine these head losses or pressure drops

where
KL means (local) loss coefficient. Although KL is dimensionless, it is not correlated in the
literature with the Reynolds number and roughness ratio but rather simply with the raw size of
the pipe. Almost all data are reported for turbulent-flow conditions.
The table below shows the values of KL for different fittings

Fitting
Valves:

KL

Fitting
Elbows:

KL

Globe, fully open

10

Regular 90, flanged

0.3

Angle, fully open

Regular 90, threaded

1.5

Gate, fully open

0.15

Long radius 90, flanged

0.2

Gate 1/4 closed

0.26

Long radius 90, threaded

0.7

Gate, 1/2 closed

2.1

Long radius 45, threaded

0.2

Gate, 3/4 closed

17

Regular 45, threaded

0.4

Swing check, forward flow

Swing check, backward flow

infinity

180 return bends:

Tees:

Line flow, flanged

0.2

Line flow, threaded

0.9

Flanged

0.2

Branch flow, flanged

1.0

Threaded

1.5

Branch flow, threaded

2.0

Pipe Entrance (Reservoir to Pipe):

Pipe Exit (Pipe to Reservoir)

Square Connection

0.5

Square Connection

1.0

Rounded Connection

0.2

Rounded Connection

1.0

Re-entrant (pipe juts into tank)

1.0

Re-entrant (pipe juts into tank)

1.0

enlargement of the pipe, local loss HL = (1-A1/A2)2 ( V12/2g)

For contraction of the pipe, local loss HL = (1-A1/A2)2 (V22/2g)

N.B: for

Where V1 and V2 are respectively the velocity of flow in small and big diameter

Y3WEE and Y4CE, S1-2012

41

Illustrative example 4.6

For the following system, determine the head loss for Q = 60 l/s. suppose that the roughness of
the pipe e = 0.15mm and the flow is turbulent with Re = 106

Illustrative example 4.7 - Flow between two reservoirs

Y3WEE and Y4CE, S1-2012