Magnetrol O&g

INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS
SERIES
A Guide to Level Instrumentation for Onshore/Offshore Oil Processing
Level & Flow

Applications for
CRUDE OIL
PROCESSING
Level and flow controls
in these applications are
crucial for both process
control and safety
shutdown systems.
Crude Stream
Level Applications

Plant Inlet
Level Applications:
APPLICATION
NOTE: The actual nature and number of steps

in crude oil processing most often depends
upon the source and makeup of the wellhead
production stream. In some cases, several of
the steps shown in the schematic below may
be integrated into one unit or operation, performed in a different order or at alternative
locations, or not required at all.
PAGE
1. Production Fluid Storage 3

2. Chemical Injection
Fluid Tanks
Natural Gas Processing
3. Wellstream Separator 4
4. Crude Dehydration
5. Crude Desalting
6. Crude Degassing
6
6
8. Storage Tanks
9. Vapor Recovery
Chemicals
7. Water Processing
Separation
Natural Gas
Water
Test
Separation
Flow Applications:
Water Stream
Level Applications
Flow controls for

pumps, compressors,
and liquids are found
throughout crude oil
field operations.
Continuous Gas Flow:

Thermatel
Model TA2
Thermal
Dispersion
Mass Flow
Transmitter
Crude Dehydration
Flow Alarm:
Thermatel
Model TD2
Thermal
Dispersion
Flow Switch
Natural Gas processing is found in

many crude oil drilling and processing
operations. For information on level
applications for natural gas processing,
see our Natural Gas Processing
brochure.
Sumps
Collection Tanks
Water
7
5
Primary Water Treatment
Desalting
Skim Tanks
and Vessels
Coalescers
Degassing
Crude Collection
and Storage Tanks
Vapor Recovery
Recycle Gas/Flare
Secondary Water Treatment

Coalescers
Flotation Units
To reservoir
To disposal
PRODUCTION FLUID STORAGE

Application: A variety of chemicals are typically stored in
the field or processing facility to expedite processing time
by preconditioning an inlet fluid. These fluids may first enter
into a hold tank to allow upstream solids and liquids time to
separate prior to production, which allows the facility to
better handle upset conditions without stopping production.
Stored additive chemicals include dispersants, flocculants,
surfactants, glycols, diluents and rust inhibitors.
INSTRUMENTATION
Storage Tanks
Challenges: Fluids are typically stored in a series of outdoor steel tanks. The tank fluid volume should be continuously monitored since level variations may lead to upsets.
Tanks contain agitated media with suspended solids that
can coat floats, displacers and probes.
Point Level:
Continuous Level
and Interface Level:
Eclipse Model 705 GWR
Transmitter with Enlarged
Coaxial Probe; or Pulsar
or R82 Non-contacting,
Pulse Burst Radar
Transmitters
Thermatel Model TD1/TD2

Thermal Dispersion Switch;
or Model A15 Series
Displacer-Actuated
Level Switch
CHEMICAL INJECTION
Application: Chemical agents employed in crude processing include drilling fluid additives, methanol injection for
freeze protection, glycol injection for hydrate inhibition,
produced water treatment chemicals, foam and corrosion
inhibitors, de-emulsifiers, desalting chemicals, and drag
reduction agents. Chemicals are frequently administered by
way of chemical injection skids.
Challenges: Level monitoring controls chemical inventory
and determines when the tanks require filling. The careful
selection and application of level controls to chemical injection
systems can effectively protect against tanks running out of
chemicals or overfilling.
INSTRUMENTATION
Chemical Injection Skid
Point Level:
Echotel Model 961
Ultrasonic Switch;
THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Switch;
Tuffy II Floatactuated Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter; or Jupiter
Magnetostrictive
Level Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or Aurora
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
supplied with
switches or
transmitters
WELLSTREAM SEPARATORS
Application: Separators are large drums designed to
separate wellstreams into their individual components.
They are commonly designed to separate two-phase
(gas/liquid) or three-phase (gas/crude/water) wellstreams.
Separators are also classified according to horizontal or
vertical configuration (see below), operating pressure,
turbulent or laminar flow, and test or production separation.
Challenges: Interface level measurement will actuate a
valve to adjust vessel level. An emulsion layer along the
oil/water interface can contaminate the oil with water or
the water with oil. Foaming along the gas/liquid interface,
if entrained, can cause liquid carryover or gas blowby.
Oil Field Separator
TWO PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SEPARATORS

Vertical (right): Vertical separators can accommodate large surges of
liquids. They are well suited for high sediment loads; conical bottoms are
sometimes attached for large volumes of sediment. Vertical separators
are preferred when wellstreams have large liquid-to-gas ratios. These
separators occupy less floor space than horizontal types and are often
found on offshore platforms where floor space is at a premium.
GAS OUT
NATURAL GAS
WELLSTREAM
IN
Horizontal (below): These separators are well suited for three-phase

separation because of their large interfacial area between the two liquid
phases. Horizontal types are preferred when wellstreams have high gasto-oil ratios, when wellstream flow is more or less constant, and when
liquid surges are insignificant. These separators also have a much
greater gas/liquid interface area, which aids in the release of solution gas
and in the reduction of foaming.
OIL
GAS OUT
EMULSION
WELLSTREAM
IN
OIL OUT
NATURAL GAS
WATER
OIL
EMULSION
WATER
WATER OUT
INSTRUMENTATION
HORIZONTAL
Point Level:
Series 3 Float-actuated
External Cage Level
Switch; THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Switch; Model A15
Series DisplacerActuated Level Switch
Continuous Level
ECLIPSE Model 705;
JUPITER Magnetostrictive Level
Transmitter;
or E3 Modulevel
Displacer Transmitter
WATER
OUT
OIL OUT
VERTICAL
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can
be supplied with
switches or
transmitters
Flow Indication:
ALARM:
THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Flow Switch;
CONTINUOUS:
THERMATEL
Model TA2 Mass
Flow Meter
CRUDE DEHYDRATION
Application: Not all water is removed from crude oil during
the first stage of gravity separation. Separated crude may
contain up to 15% water which exists in an emulsified form
that is difficult for a separator to remove. The oil and water
emulsion must be broken down so that the water can be
removed before the crude is shipped. De-emulsification
processes are accomplished using chemical agents such
as glycol and heat.
Challenges: Level control is found on two-phase and
three-phase water knockout drums, heater treaters and
chemelectric dehydrators. Interface measurement is critical
in dehydration as it keeps the water-emulsified oil from
flowing over the separator weir.
INSTRUMENTATION
Knock-out Drum
Point Level:
Series 3 FloatActuated External
Cage Level
Switch
Continuous Level
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter; or E3
MODULEVEL
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
supplied with switches
or transmitters
CRUDE DESALTING
Application: Salt in the crude stream presents serious corrosion and scaling problems, and must be removed. Salt is
dissolved within the remnant brine of the crude oil.
Desalting removes both salt and the residual free water.
Field desalting is necessary due to pipeline requirements.
Challenges: Level instrumentation is integral to single and
two-stage desalting systems, multiple orifice plate mixers,
and the settler tank of a chemical desalter. Interface level
control keeps free water from hitting the desalter electrodes
and prevents expensive damage. The interface level should
be kept constant, otherwise electrical field changes will disturb electrical coalescence.
INSTRUMENTATION
Two-stage Desalter
Point Level:
Series 3 Floatactuated External
Cage Level Switch;
THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Level Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Transmitter with
Enlarged Coaxial probe;
or E3 MODULEVEL
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
CRUDE DEGASSING
Application: By removing dissolved gases and hydrogen
sulfide, crude stabilization and sweetening processes
diminish safety and corrosion problems. Gases are
removed by a stabilizer. Sweetening employs stabilization
or vaporization processes along with a gas or steam-based
stripping agent.
Challenges: Removing dissolved gases by stabilization
requires level control in the reboiler unit. Sweetening by
stage vaporization and trayed stabilization require level
control in a series of staged separators. Sweetening by
reboiled trayed stabilization requires additional level control
in a reboiler.
INSTRUMENTATION
Reboiler
Point Level:
Cage Level Switch;
or TUFFY II Floatactuated Switch
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer Transmitter; or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA MLIs
can be supplied with
switches or transmitters
WATER PROCESSING
Application: Produced water, wash-down water or
collected rainwater require treatment whether theyre
reused for reservoir flooding or simply disposed of. Water
collected from process operations contains hydrocarbon
concentrations too high for safe discharge. Suspended
hydrocarbon droplets in water also hinders well-injection.
Challenges: Treatment equipment is similar to threephase separators except that water is the main product.
Level control is found on skim tanks, precipitators,
coalescers, flotation units, and collection tanks and
sumps. Interface level measurement is essential for proper
draining of clean water and removal of the residual oil.
INSTRUMENTATION
Water Wash Tank
Point Level:
ECHOTEL Model
961 Ultrasonic
Gap Switch;
Series 3 FloatActuated
External Cage
Level Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705;
or Kotron Model 805
Smart RF Transmitter;
or E3 MODULEVEL
Visual Indication:
ATLAS Magnetic Level
Indicator can be
or transmitters
PROCESS & STORAGE TANKS

Application: Crude oil and water are stored in oil fields.
Unlike midstream tank farms at terminals and refineries,
field storage consists of smaller vessels associated with oil
and water processing. Diesel generator fuel, potable water,
and fire water are also stored.
Challenges: Tank level monitoring can be provided with
overflow control and alarm systems or shutdown pumps
when level falls below the specified low level. Interface controls will sense the beginning of an oil/water interface during
tank dewatering and control the water draw-off.
Storage Tanks
Point Level:
INSTRUMENTATION
API 2350: New recommended practices regarding tank overfill

protection for above-ground storage tanks that receive Class I
(flammable) liquids outline that careful selection and application
of level controls can effectively protect against tank overfills.
Continuous Level:
Model A15 Series

Level Switch with
optional Proof-er
Ground Check; or
TUFFY II FloatActuated Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705 Transmitter

with Flexible Probe; PULSAR
Model RX5 Non-Contacting,
Pulse Burst Radar Transmitters;
or E3 MODULEVEL Displacer
Level Transmitter
VAPOR RECOVERY UNIT
FLASH DRUM
Application: If allowed to escape into the atmosphere,

hydrocarbon vapors diminish income through loss of hydrocarbon volume and create fire hazards and pollution problems. A Vapor Recovery Unit (VRU) collects vapors from
storage and loading facilities, reliquefies the vapors and
returns the liquid hydrocarbons back to storage.
Methods to recover vapors include absorption, condensation, adsorption and simple cooling.
Challenges: A VRU is a simple, economical process unit
that provides EPA compliance and improves operating
economies by capturing up to 95% of fugitive emissions.
Critical to the VRU is the flash drum where vapors are reliquefied. Liquid level control of the flash drum is essential.
INSTRUMENTATION
Field VRU
Point Level:
Cage Level Switch;
or TUFFY II Floatactuated Switch; or
ECHOTEL 961 Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE
Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter;
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
supplied with
switches or
transmitters
Flow Indication:
CONTINUOUS:
THERMATEL
Model TA2
Mass Flow Meter
AN INDUSTRY GUIDE TO LEVEL MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL FROM MAGNETROL

Other industry and special application brochures from MAGNETROL include:
Chemical
Flue Gas Desulfurization
Food & Beverage
Interface Level Measurement
Life Science
Mass Flow Measurement
Modular Skid Systems
Nuclear Power
Petroleum Refining
Power Generation
Pulp & Paper Mills
Renewable Energy
Steam Generation
Tank Bridle Level Measurement
Tank Overfill Prevention
Understanding Safety Integrity Level (SIL)
Water & Wastewater
PLEASE NOTE: The instruments recommended in these brochures are based on field experience with
similar applications and are included as a general guide to level and flow control selection. Because
all applications differ, however, customers should determine suitability for their own purposes.
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
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Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
magnetrol.com info@magnetrol.com
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Magnetrol & Magnetrol logotype, Aurora, Echotel, Eclipse, Jupiter, Kotron, Modulevel,
Proof-er, Pulsar, Thermatel, and Tuffy are registered trademarks of Magnetrol International, Incorporated.
Copyright 2011 Magnetrol International, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Printed in the USA.
Bulletin: 41-186.0 Effective: April 2011
INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS
SERIES
SEPARATION
20 Leading
Petroleum
Refinery
Level Control
Applications
APPLICATION
PAGE
Separation
1. Crude Storage
2. Crude Dewatering
3. Crude Desalting
4. Preflash Drum
5. Distillation Column
6. Reflux Accumulator
7. Column Reboiler
8. Solvent Extraction
Conversion
TREATMENT
9. Catalytic Cracker
10. Catalytic Stripper
11. Hydrocracking
12. Acid Settling Tanks
13. Alkylation Tanks
10
14. Catalytic Reformer 10

15. Coking Operations 11
16. Isomerization
11
Treatment
17. Hydrodesulfurization 12
18. Chemical Storage
12
Blending
19. Blending Unit
13
20. Finished Products
13
See page 14 for information on

refinery flow controls and level
and flow control applications for
refinery power generation,
interface, SIL & wastewater
treatment.
BLENDING
CONVERSION
A n Industry Guide To Level Measurement and Control from Magnetrol
CRUDE STORAGE
Application: Upon arrival at the refinery terminal, crude oil is pumped into above-ground
storage tanks with capacities of thousands to
millions of gallons. Raw crude is stored in floating- or fixed-roof tanks field-built to API standards. Tank level measurement by noncontact
radar has gained share over mechanical float
type and servo gauges due to its accuracy, low
maintenance, no moving parts and fast set-up.
INSTRUMENTATION
Crude Tanks
Point Level:
Model A15
DisplacerActuated Level
Switch
Challenges: Tank level is maintained by valve

actuation. By triggering an emergency cutoff,
level controls prevent overflows and shut down
pumps when level falls below low level. Safetycertified controls may be necessary due to
crudes low flash point.
Continuous Level:
Pulsar Model RX5
Pulse Burst Radar
Transmitter
Continuous Level:
Eclipse Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter with 7X7
Flexible Twin Rod
Probe
CRUDE DEWATERING
Application: All unrefined crude oil stored in
tanks has a percentage of water entrained within
it, and while stored in tanks, separation naturally
occurs with water collecting at the bottom of
the tank beneath the oil. The two fluids are very
distinct except for a "black water" or "rag" interface layer which is an emulsion of mixed oil and
water. To dewater the tank, water is drawn off of
the bottom of the tank and is then sent off to
water treatment.
INSTRUMENTATION
Crude Tanks
Point Level:
Model A15
Switch
Challenges: Level controls designed for interface detection will sense the beginning of the
oil/water interface during dewatering procedures
and provide feedback to a control system which
will terminate water draw-off when appropriate.
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Continuous Level:
E3 Modulevel
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter or Kotron
Model 805 Smart RF
Capacitance
Transmitter
CRUDE DESALTING
Application: Inorganic chlorides, suspended
solids, and trace metals found in untreated crude
must be removed by chemical or electrostatic
desalting. This reduces the risk of acid corrosion,
plugging, fouling and catalyst poisoning in
downstream units. Measurement of the oil/water
interface in the desalter is crucial in separating
the cleansed crude from contaminants.
INSTRUMENTATION
Desalting Tanks
Point Level:
Model A15
Switch
Challenges: Coating and build-up on probes

may create interface measurement errors.
Instruments susceptible to electrostatic grid
interference may require special filters. Interfacededicated level transmitters fitted with quick-disconnect probes provide optimum performance
while reducing cleaning and maintenance time.
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
PREFLASH DRUM
Application: Located in the preheat train of the
distillation column, a preflash drum system separates the vapors generated by preheating
before entering the heater or main column. This
prevents higher heater firing or pressure drops
and reduces vapor loading of the column to
avoid flooding.
INSTRUMENTATION
Preflash Drum
Point Level:
Series 3
Float-Actuated
External Cage
Level Switch
Challenges: Preflash drums create moderate

foam that can affect measurement accuracy of
liquid levels and decrease distillate production
in the atmospheric column. Too low of a preflash drum level will cause pump cavitation of
the flashed crude. Too high of a level will cause
liquid carryover to the distillation column.
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter; or ECLIPSE
Model 705 Guided
Wave Radar Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or Aurora
Magnetic Level Indicators
DISTILLATION COLUMN
Application: Following desalination, crude oil
enters the distillation column where fractional
distillation separates hydrocarbons into separate streams, cuts or fractions. For optimum
operation of the distillation column, level controls must contend with occurances of foaming,
bubbling and moderate-to-high temperatures.
INSTRUMENTATION
Fractional Distillation
Point Level:
Series 3
Float-Actuated
External Cage
Level Switch
Challenges: Sight glasses and displacer systems mounted in external chambers have traditionally provided distillation level measurement.
Today, radar retrofitted in these existing chambers is gaining popularity due to radars less
demanding maintenance schedule and ease of
retrofit. High product temperatures necessitate
temperature-tolerant level sensors.
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA MLIs
REFLUX ACCUMULATOR
Application: A heat exchanger removes vapor
from the upper parts of the fractionator, cools it
to a liquid, and pumps it into an accumulator
(reflux drum). Reflux pumps then draw liquid
from the bottom of the accumulator and pump
part of it back (reflux) where it is reintroduced
at a lower point in the column. This refluxing
process improves separation in the column by
assuring sufficient downward liquid flow meeting the rising vapor.
INSTRUMENTATION
Reflux Accumulator
Point Level:
Series 3
Float-Actuated
External Cage
Level Switch
Challenges: Accurate and reliable level monitoring and control is necessary for the reflux
accumulator to serve as a distribution point for
reflux and distillate, and prevent excessive
reflux from returning back to the tower.
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
COLUMN REBOILER
Application: A heat exchanger positioned near
the bottom of the distillation column re-heats
and vaporizes liquid and reintroduces the vapor
several trays higher. This improves separation
by introducing more heat into the column. For
effective functioning of the reboiling process,
level monitoring of the reboiler is required.
INSTRUMENTATION
Reboiler
Point Level:
Cage Level Switch
or Tuffy II FloatActuated Switch
Challenges: In some steam reboilers, the level

must be controlled so that only a percentage of
tubes are covered. This allows a control scheme
to regulate the heat transfer in the reboiler by
controlling the percentage of the reboiler tubes
covered by liquid. This is a critical control loop
as heat transfer into the liquid is a strong function of the percentage of tubes covered.
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
can be supplied
with switches or
transmitters
SOLVENT EXTRACTION
Application: The heavy fraction remaining
following the distillation of crudes is called
petroleum resids. A variety of solvent-extraction
processes yield deasphalted oil (DAO) from
these resids. These oils serve as downstream
feedstocks for catalytic crackers and hydrocrackers. Depending upon the system configuration, level monitoring of the separator, preflash, stripper and hot oil phases may include
surge and flash drums, separators and strippers.
INSTRUMENTATION
Flash Tank
Point Level:
Cage Level Switch
Challenges: Level control is critical because

interface level control of the separator feeds the
flash drum, whose level feeds the stripper, etc.
Application extremes include high temperatures,
high pressures, and the presence of steam.
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
MLIs can be supplied
with switches or
transmitters
CATALYTIC CRACKER
Application: The Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit
(FCCU) cracks heavy, low-value feedstocks into
high-value, lighter molecular weight hydrocarbons which are blended to finished products. A
cracker can produce a wide variety of yield patterns by operating in either Gasoline, Distillate
or LPG modes.
INSTRUMENTATION
Regenerator
10
Point Level:
Seldom used due
to measurement
difficulties
Challenges: Catalytic crackers utilize a reactor

and a catalyst regenerator with connecting risers where the reactions take place. Level controllers are often positioned on the first stage
regenerator and at the top of the reactor. Level
measurements involve fluidized solids levels at
high temperatures. Conventional measurement
techniques can be subject to plugging.
Continuous Level:
Visual Indication:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
Seldom used due

to measurement
difficulties
CATALYTIC STRIPPER
Application: Variations in cat cracking include
Selective Component Cracking (SCC) for
polypropylene production, a two-vessel and
external-reactor design for processing heavy
residue feeds, and a UOP process for converting
gas oils and resid feedstocks. All crackers
employ a steam stripper to remove hydrocarbons entrained in the spent catalyst.
INSTRUMENTATION
Stripper
Point Level:
Cage Level
Switch or B40
Float-Actuated
Level Switch
Challenges: Stripper level control allows sufficient residence time for stripping steam to displace hydrocarbons for recovery. It also maintains sufficient pressure to keep air in the regenerator from reverse flow into the reaction system,
thereby causing a hazard. A waste heat recovery
steam drum would also require monitoring.
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer
Transmitter or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
with switches or
transmitters
11
HYDROCRACKING
Application: Heavier feedstock difficult to
process by cat cracking or reforming can be
converted by hydrocracking. By combining
catalytic cracking and hydrogenation to crack
feedstock in the presence of hydrogen, hydrocracking produces gasoline and distillate blending
streams. About a dozen different hydro-cracking
process schemes are in current use.
INSTRUMENTATION
Hydrocracking Unit
12
Point Level:
Challenges: Level controls for the catalyst

stripper, separator liquid and flash drum liquid
must contend with severe process conditions to
maintain optimum operation of the hydrocracker.
These conditions include elevated temperatures
and pressures, the presence of steam and high
pressure hydrogen, and aggressive corrosives.
Continuous Level:

Cage Level Switch
or B40 FloatActuated Level
Switch
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
with switches or
transmitters
ACID SETTLING TANKS

Application: Alkylation is a combining process
that creates alkylate, a premium, high-octane
blending stock. A large acid settler tank within
the unit allows for separation of the
acid/hydrocarbon emulsion created in the reactor.
Sight glasses have traditionally measured settler
level, but these are susceptible to plugging and
require diligent flushing at regular intervals.
INSTRUMENTATION
Settling Tank
Point Level:
Model A15
Switch
Challenges: Interface level control of the settler

is required. Product/acid cross-contamination
causes overall efficiency problems and can result
in hazardous conditions. Inaccurate
settler level indication is a frequent cause of
physical acid carryover in the reactor effluent.
Release of acid can cause extreme hazards to
both process and personnel.
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter or ECLIPSE
Model 705 Guided
Wave Radar Transmitter
Visual Indication:
can be supplied
with switches or
transmitters
10
13
ALKYLATION TANKS
Application: Storage and wash vessels in the
alkylation unit include those for fresh and
depleted acid and water, an acid analyzer settling pot, and a number of wash tanks. Caustic
washes neutralize free acid carried over from
the reaction zone and neutralize alkyl sulfates in
the net effluent. Water washes decompose
remaining esters and remove caustic and salt
that might have carried over from the caustic
wash.
INSTRUMENTATION
Wash Tanks
14
Point Level:
Challenges: Interface level control in caustic

and water washes prevents corrosion and fouling of the deisobutanizer and other downstream
units. Levels rising above high set points can
cause carryover of caustic or water, while too
low levels can cause hydrocarbon carryunder.
Continuous Level:
Echotel Models
910, 961 or 962
Ultrasonic Level
Switches or Model
A15 DisplacerActuated Switch
Visual Indication:
E3 MODULEVEL DisplacerActuated Transmitter or

ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter or PULSAR
RX5 Radar Transmitter
Atlas or AURORA
MLIs can be
supplied with
switches or
transmitters
CATALYTIC REFORMER
Application: Catalytic reforming upgrades
low-octane naphthas into high-octane gasoline
blending components called reformates. Using
heat and pressure with platinum catalysts to
rearrange hydrocarbon molecules, this process
converts low-octane gasoline fractions into
petrochemical feedstocks and higher octane
stocks suitable for finished gasoline blending.
Challenges: A hydrogen-rich gas stream is
removed from the separator for recycling. Liquid
product monitored for level at the bottom of the
separator is sent to a stabilizer. Where stabilizer
fouling has occurred due to the formation of
ammonium chloride and iron salts, a monitored
water wash system should also be included.
INSTRUMENTATION
Photo of Catalytic Reformer courtesy of CB&I
Point Level:
Cage Level
Switch
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL DisplacerActuated Transmitter or
ECLIPSE Model 705 Guided
Wave Radar Transmitter or
PULSAR Model RX5 Pulse
Burst Transmitter
Visual Indication:
11
15
COKING OPERATIONS
Application: Coking is the final means of converting the heaviest products of atmospheric
and vacuum distillation. Feed is heated and
cracked into light gases, gasoline blendstocks,
distillates, and gas oil. Level applications for
delayed and continuous (contact or fluid) coking
include the fractionator, light gas oil stripper,
steam, condensate, blowdown and settling
drums, and vent gas knockout drums.
Challenges: Process conditions that level
instrumentation must contend with include high
temperatures, high pressures, foaming, and
steam. An interface level gauge in drums that
are susceptible to foaming will help avoid foamover and increase coke drum output.
INSTRUMENTATION
Coking Unit
16
Point Level:
Continuous Level:

Cage Level Switch
or B40 FloatActuated Level
Switch
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
with switches or
transmitters
ISOMERIZATION
Application: Isomerization in a variety of
process configurations alters the arrangement
of atoms to convert normal butane into isobutane, and normal pentane and hexane into highoctane gasoline components. Isomerization is
similar to catalytic reforming in that the hydrocarbon molecules are rearranged, though isomerization only converts normal paraffins to
isoparaffins.
INSTRUMENTATION
Isomerization Unit
Point Level:
Model A15
Switch
Challenges: Near the end of the process, reactor

effluent is cooled and separated into the liquid
product isomerate and a recycle hydrogen-gas
stream. Isomerate is caustic-washed and waterwashed, acid stripped, and stabilized before
going to storage. Stabilizer bottoms and wash
tanks require level monitoring.
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter; or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
12
17
HYDRODESULFURIZATION
Application: Catalytic Hydrotreating treats
hydrocarbon liquids in the presence of hydrogen. This process removes 90% of the sulfur,
nitrogen, oxygen, and metals from feedstocks.
Hydrotreating can also provide hydrodearomatization (HDAr), heavy diesel hydrocracking
(HDHDC), dewaxing, and performance enhancements of pyrolysis gasoline and diesel.
Challenges: Hydrotreatment will necessitate
level indication of liquid/gas separators and
water wash tanks. Level devices suited for high
temperatures and pressures are essential in
removing contaminants that can have detrimental effects on equipment, catalysts, and the
quality of the finished product.
INSTRUMENTATION
Hydrodesulfurization Unit
18
Point Level:
Cage Level
Switch or B40
Float-Actuated
Level Switch
Continuous Level:
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
with switches or
transmitters
CHEMICAL STORAGE & FEED

Application: From acids to water treatment
additives, a wide array of chemicals are stored
at a refinery in vessels that range in size from
plastic totes to large steel tanks. Chemicals
such as sulfuric and hydrochloric acid, sodium
hydroxide, liquid catalysts, blending additives
and water treatment chemicals are essential to
a refinerys day-to-day operation.
INSTRUMENTATION
Chemical Storage
Point Level:
ECHOTEL Models
910, 961 or 962
Ultrasonic Switches
or TUFFY II FloatActuated Switch
Challenges: Liquid solution storage and day

tanks require stringent level monitoring to
ensure ongoing chemical processing. The nature
of the chemical, the geometry of the holding
vessel, and the presence of mixers or other
hardware will determine the most suitable level
technology for the storage or feed application.
Continuous Level:
Burst Radar or ECLIPSE
Model 705 Guided Wave
Radar Transmitter with
7XF-4 Insulated Single
Rod Probe
Visual Indication:
can be supplied
with switches or
transmitters
13
19
BLENDING OPERATIONS
Application: Mixing finished gasoline requires
level monitoring of blending stocks, in-line
blending, additive storage, dilution systems and
injection systems. Blend stocks are straight-run
gasoline, alkylate, reformate, benzene, toluene
and xylene. Additives include octane boosters,
metal deactivators, anti-oxidant and knock
agents, gum and rust inhibitors, and detergents.
INSTRUMENTATION
Blending Stocks
20
Point Level:
ECHOTEL Models
910, 961 or 962
Ultrasonic Level
Switches
Challenges: Level is normally measured only for

inventory control and, in some cases, custody
transfer. The precision of level indication that is
required varies. If level is used only for internal
inventory control, a less accurate measurement
can be used. If level is used for custody transfer, highly accurate measurements are required.
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter or PULSAR
Model RX5 Pulse
Burst Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
FINISHED PRODUCT STORAGE

Application: Finished refinery products stored
in tanks with capacities that often exceed
100,000 gallons are motor gasoline, jet fuel,
diesel fuel, fuel oils, and LPG. Marketed products also include feedstocks for textiles, tires,
pharmaceuticals and plastics.
INSTRUMENTATION
Finished Storage
Point Level:
Model A15
Switch
Challenges: Tank monitoring uses buoyancy,

pressure, servo-driven, and radar. Tanks may be
provided with automatic overflow control and
alarm systems. Automated tank gauging networks with proprietary protocols are a vital part
of tank farm architecture. Today, thousands of
tanks can be linked in a network offering
enhanced data acquisition, field
calibration and remote diagnostics.
Continuous Level:
PULSAR Model RX5
Pulse Burst Radar
Transmitter or ECLIPSE
Model 705 Guided Wave
Radar Transmitter
Visual Indication:
14
REFINERY FLOW APPLICATIONS

Application: The vast piping systems within
todays refineries transport hydrocarbon
gas/vapor streams, light liquid gas/liquid
streams, heavier liquid streams, water, and
steam throughout the refinery. Certified, reliable
and accurate flow measurement is essential for
a refinerys safe and efficient operation.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Flow alarms and continuous flow

controls monitor product streams, signal no-flow
conditions caused by plugging or valve closure,
and provide a defense against pump cavitation.
Pumps operating in a reduced or no-flow condition can overheat and rupture the pumps seal
and cause a dangerous deviation in process
pressure and temperature.
L Flow Alarm:
L Pump Protection:
Thermatel Model TD2

Thermal Dispersion
Flow Switch
L Continuous Flow:
THERMATEL Model TD2

Thermal Dispersion
Flow Switch
For Continuous Air or Gas

Flow: THERMATEL Models
TA1 and TA2 Thermal
Dispersion Mass Flow
Transmitters
POWER GENERATION & WATER/WASTEWATER

Water Treatment: In most petroleum refineries, oil comes in contact
with water through steam use and water washing. This water is collected
and sent to treatment to remove oil and other contaminants prior to discharge or recycling. Storm water and process water collection systems
also require water treatment.
Because a thorough discussion of wastewater and water treatment applications is beyond the scope of this brochure, we invite you to log onto
www.magnetrol.com/waterbrochure and download the pdf of the
Magnetrol Water and Wastewater Treatment brochure. This 12-page
brochure describes 14 essential water treatment processesmany of
which are applicable to todays refinery operations.
Power Generation: Many petroleum refineries incorporate power generating

plants into their refinery operations. These include power stations with coal-fired
boilers and gas-fired co-generation plants.
Because a thorough discussion of power generation applications is beyond the
scope of this brochure, we invite you to log onto
www.magnetrol.com/powergenbrochure and download the pdf of the
MAGNETROL Power Generation brochure. This 18-page brochure describes
20 essential level control applications in power generationmost of which are
applicable to todays refinery operations.
15
Where Great Fuel

Gets Its Start.
efinery professionals know that great gasoline can

only originate within a great process scheme. And
MAGNETROL also offers a wealth of application engineering know-how and a worldwide service network thats
that especially means process controls that deliver reliable
second to none. And thats the difference between just
service in the most demanding applications. Acquiring level
buying an instrument and partnering with a world-class
and flow controls of this high calibre is why so many instru-
level and flow specialist.
ment professionals turn to MAGNETROL.

Our buoyancy products were introduced to refinery
service in 1932. Later we were among the first to apply
thermal dispersion, ultrasound, capacitance and other elec-
Contact your MAGNETROL sales representative today

to learn how our products can not only help you create
great gasoline, but will actually increase the profitability of
your refinerys operation.
tronic technologies to refinery challenges. More recently we

pioneered ECLIPSE Guided Wave Radar and PULSAR Pulse
Burst Radar to bring customers the leading-edge in level
transmittersthe kind that balance sophisticated sensing
technology with simplified ease-of-installation and operation.
Worldwide Level and Flow Solutions
SM

Chemical
Crude Oil Processing
Food & Beverage
Life Science
Nuclear Power
Power Generation
Pulp & Paper Mills
Renewable Energy
Steam Generation
Water & Wastewater
Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
Phone: 052 45.11.11 Fax: 052 45.09.93
Magnetrol & Magnetrol logotype, Aurora, Echotel, Eclipse, Modulevel,
Pulsar, Thermatel, and Tuffy are registered trademarks of Magnetrol International, Incorporated.
Bulletin: 41-176.2 Effective: November 2008
INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS
SERIES
A Guide to Level Instrumentation for Onshore/Offshore Natural Gas Processing
Level & Flow

Applications for
GAS Stream
Level Applications
NATURAL GAS
Liquid Processing
PROCESSING
Gas

Condensate
Separation
Chemicals
Amine Separation
Level Applications:
Water
PAGE
1. Inlet Separator
3. Amine Separation
4. Sulfur Treatment
5. Gas Dehydration
6. NGL Recovery
7. Vapor Recovery Unit
8. Storage Tanks
9. Water Processing
WATER Stream
Level Applications
APPLICATION
Natural Gas processing is typically

found in crude oil drilling and processing operations. For information on level
applications for crude oil processing,
see our Crude Oil Processing
brochure.
Level and flow controls

in these applications are
crucial for both process
control and safety
shutdown systems.
WELLHEAD
8
9
Sulfur Treatment
12. Compressor Waste
Dehydration
Collection Tanks
Primary Water Treatment
10. Compressor Lubrication 8

11. Compressor Scrubber
Sumps
Skim Tanks
and Vessels
Water Treatment
13. Flare Knock-Out Drum 10
6
Flow Applications:
Coalescers
Acid Gas
NGL Recovery
and Storage
Secondary Treatment
Sulfur Unit
Air and gas flow applications are found

throughout natural gas
operations. For a brief
summary of these
applications, see
page 10.
Coalescers
To Fractionator
Tail Gas
Vapor Recovery
Flotation Units
Tail Gas Treatment

Good Practices:
10
Good practice
recommendations for
major level and flow
instrumentation can be
found on page 11.
11
Compression
To reservoir
To disposal
Offgas
12
Incineration
To Pipeline
13
NOTE: The actual nature and number

of steps in the process of creating
pipeline-quality natural gas depends
upon the source and makeup of the
wellhead production stream. In some
cases, several of the steps shown in
the schematic above may be integrated
into one unit or operation, performed in
a different order or at alternative locations, or not required at all.
INLET SEPARATORS
Application: Separators are large drums designed to
separate wellstreams into their individual components.
They are commonly designed to separate two-phase
(gas/liquid) or three-phase (gas/crude/water) wellstreams.
Separators are also classified according to horizontal or
vertical configuration (see below), operating pressure, turbulent or laminar flow, and test or production separation.
Challenges: Interface level measurement will actuate a
valve to adjust vessel level. An emulsion layer along the
oil/water interface can contaminate the oil with water or
the water with oil. Foaming along the gas/liquid interface,
if entrained, can cause liquid carryover or gas blowby.
Separator
TWO PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SEPARATORS

Vertical (right): Vertical separators can accommodate large surges of liquids. They are well suited for high sediment loadsconical bottoms are
sometimes attached for large sediment deposits. Vertical separators are
preferred when wellstreams have large liquid-to-gas ratios. These separators occupy less floor space than horizontal types and are often found
on offshore platforms where floor space is at a premium.
GAS OUT
NATURAL GAS
INLET STREAM
IN
Horizontal (below): These separators are well-suited for three-phase

separation because of their large interfacial area between the two liquid
phases. Horizontal types are preferred when wellstreams have high gasto-oil ratios, when wellstream flow is more or less constant, and when
liquid surges are insignificant. These separators also have a much
greater gas/liquid interface area, which aids in the release of solution gas
and in the reduction of foaming.
OIL
GAS OUT
EMULSION
INLET STREAM
IN
OIL OUT
NATURAL GAS
WATER
OIL
EMULSION
WATER
WATER OUT
VERTICAL
INSTRUMENTATION
HORIZONTAL
Point Level:
Series 3 Floatactuated External
Cage Level Switch;
or Thermatel Model
TD1/TD2 Switch
WATER
OUT
OIL OUT
Continuous Level and

Interface Level:
Eclipse Model 705;
Jupiter Magnetostrictive
Level Transmitter; or
E3 Modulevel Displacer
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or Aurora
Magnetic Level
Indicators
CHEMICAL INJECTION
Application: Chemical agents employed in natural gas

processing include drilling fluid additives, methanol injection for freeze protection, glycol injection for hydrate inhibition, produced water treatment chemicals, foam and
corrosion inhibitors, de-emulsifiers, desalting chemicals
and drag reduction agents. Chemicals are frequently
administered by way of chemical injection skids.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Level monitoring controls chemical inventory

and determines when the tanks require filling. The careful
selection and application of level controls to chemical injection
systems can effectively protect against tanks running out of
chemicals or overfilling.
Point Level:
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter; or JUPITER
Magnetostrictive Level
Transmitter
Echotel Model 961

Ultrasonic Switch; or
THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Switch
AMINE SEPARATION
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
SOUR GAS TREATMENT
Application: Pipeline specifications require removal of the

harmful acid gases carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen
sulfide (H2S). H2S is highly toxic and corrosive to carbon
steels. CO2 is also corrosive and reduces the BTU value of
natural gas. Gas sweetening processes remove these acid
gases and make natural gas marketable and suitable for
pipeline distribution.
Challenges: Amine treatment removes acid gases through
absorption and chemical reaction. Each of the four common amines (MEA, DEA, DGA and MDEA) offer distinct
advantages in specific applications. Level control applications include reactors, separators, absorbers, scrubbers
and flash tanks.
INSTRUMENTATION
Amine Separation
Point Level:
ECHOTEL Model 961
Ultrasonic Gap Switch;
or THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
SULFUR RECOVERY
Sulfur Recovery Unit
Application: A sulfur recovery unit converts the hydrogen

sulfide in the acid gas into elemental sulfur. Of the processes
available for these conversions, the Claus process is by far
the most well-known for recovering elemental sulfur, whereas
the conventional Contact Process and the WSA Process are
the most used technologies for recovering sulfuric acid. The
residual gas from the Claus process is commonly called tail
gas. Tail gas is subsequently processed in a gas treating unit.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: The sulfur condenser vessel is equipped with a

disengagement section on the outlet end in order to allow
for efficient separation of the liquid sulfur from the process
gas. A collection vessel equipped with continuous level
control is used to store and remove the sulfur product from
the process.
Point Level:
Continuous Level:
ECHOTEL Model 961

Ultrasonic Switch;
or THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705

Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
GAS DEHYDRATION
Gas Dehydration Skid
Application: Natural gas dehydration removes hydrates

which can grow as crystals and plug lines and retard the
flow of gaseous hydrocarbon streams. Dehydration also
reduces corrosion, eliminates foaming, and prevents problems with catalysts downstream. Compressor stations typically contain some type of liquid separator to dehydrate natural gas prior to compression.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: The most common dehydration method is the

absorption of water vapor in the liquid desiccant glycol. The
withdrawal of the water rich glycol from the bottom of the
absorber is facilitated by a level control. High and low level
shut down can be applied to the reboiler, surge tank and
flash separator.
Point Level:
Tuffy II Floatactuated Switch;

ECHOTEL Model 961
Ultrasonic Switch; or
THERMATEL
TD1/TD2 Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Magnetostrictive
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
NGL RECOVERY & STORAGE

NGL Recovery
Application: Separating the hydrocarbons and fluids from

pure natural gas produces pipeline quality dry natural gas.
The two principle techniques for removing Natural Gas
Liquids (NGLs) are the absorption and the cryogenic
expander method. The absorption method is very similar
to that of dehydration except that an absorbing oil is used
instead of glycol. Once NGLs have been removed from
the natural gas stream, they must be separated out, or
fractionated.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Absorption method level control is typically

found on flash drums, separation towers and reflux systems. Cryogenic method level control is applied to the
separator and dehydrator.
Point Level:
Continuous Level:
ECHOTEL Model 961

or THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705

Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter; or E3
MODULEVEL Displacer
Transmitter
VAPOR RECOVERY UNIT
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
FLASH DRUM
Application: A Vapor Recovery Unit (VRU) captures

valuable volatile organic compounds and other rich
gas streams that may otherwise be a significant environmental pollutant. A Vapor Recovery Unit (VRU) collects from storage and loading facilities, reliquefies the
vapors, and returns the liquid hydrocarbons back to
storage. Methods to recover vapors include absorption,
condensation, adsorption and simple cooling.
INSTRUMENTATION
Field VRU
Point Level:
Series 3 External
Cage Level Switch;
TUFFY II Float-actuated Switch; ECHOTEL
Model 961 Ultrasonic
Switch; or THERMATEL
TD1/TD2 Switch
Challenges: A VRU is a simple, economical process

unit that provides EPA compliance and improves operating economies by capturing up to 95% of fugitive
emissions. Critical to the VRU is the flash drum where
vapors are reliquefied. Liquid level control of the flash
drum is essential.
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter; or E3
MODULEVEL Displacer
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
STORAGE TANKS
Storage Tanks
Application: Natural gas, oil, liquid fuel, treatment

chemicals, extracted condensate from separators and
water are stored in gas fields. Unlike midstream tank
farms at terminals and refineries, field storage consists
of smaller vessels. Diesel generator fuel, potable water,
and fire water are also stored in tanks.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Tank level monitoring can be provided

with overflow control and alarm systems or shutdown
pumps when level falls below the specified low level.
Interface controls will sense the beginning of an
oil/water interface during tank dewatering and control
the water draw-off.
Continuous Level:
Point Level:
Model A15 Series
Level Switch with
optional Proofer; or
ECHOTEL Model 961
Ultrasonic Gap
Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705

Transmitter; Pulsar Model
RX5 Radar Transmitter; or
JUPITER Magnetostrictive
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
WATER PROCESSING
Application: Produced water, wash-down water or collected rainwater require treatment whether theyre reused for reservoir flooding or simply disposed of. Water
collected from process operations contains hydrocarbon
concentrations too high for safe discharge. Suspended
hydrocarbon droplets in water also hinders well-injection.
Challenges: Treatment equipment is similar to threephase separators except that water is the main product.
Level control is found on skim tanks, precipitators, coalescers, flotation units, and collection tanks and sumps.
Interface level measurement is essential for proper draining of clean water and removal of the residual oil.
INSTRUMENTATION
Water Wash Tank
Point Level:
ECHOTEL Model 940/941
THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Switch; or Float
or Displacer-actuated
Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model
705 Transmitter;
or E3 MODULEVEL
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
NATURAL GAS COMPRESSION

From natural gas extraction to pipeline tranmission, compressors
are an essential technology employed throughout production and
distribution chains to increase the pressure of natural gas by
reducing its volume. At the wellhead, compression allows a lowpressure well to produce higher volumes of natural gasin some
instances, well production may be entirely dependent upon gas
compression. In natural gas processing plants, intermediate and
end product gases are compressed to
facilitate gathering and processing
operations. In pipeline transport of
purified natural gas, compression
stations ensure the movement of
gas from the production site to the
consumer. Compressors may also
be used in association with above
ground or underground natural gas
Above, a gas compression skid designed for field use. The configuration of a
storage facilities. Three typical level
compressor is determined by its compression capacity, by whether it is a turand flow applications related to gas
bine or reciprocating type, by its power source, and by the environmental or
compression follow below.
sound attenuation requirements that may be required.
10
COMPRESSOR LUBRICATION TANK

Application: Lubrication systems protect compressor components from increased amounts of wear and deposit formation and help the equipment run cooler and more efficiently. A
wide range of engine lubricants formulated with different base
oils are available. Lubricants vary by ISO grade, viscosity,
flash point, and formulation. Lubricating fluids are typically
stored in integral stainless steel and carbon steel tanks and in
remote bulk storage tanks that are monitored for level.
Challenges: Level monitoring of lubricant reservoirs will
ensure the proper functioning of compressors. Temperature
shifts in integral reservoirs affect media density that will
exclude some level technologies, such as pressure transmitters. Because ISO cleanliness levels increase lube
change frequency, controls should be easy to remove.
INSTRUMENTATION
Compressor Unit
Point Level:
ECHOTEL Model 961
Ultrasonic Gap
Switch; THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Switch; or TUFFY II
Float-actuated
Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Magnetostrictive
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
11
COMPRESSOR SCRUBBER
Application: Natural gas can travel through thousands of
miles of pipeline. Compressors placed at key intervals keep
the natural gas moving evenly and reliably. A typical compressor station consists of an inlet scrubber to collect liquids and slugs that may have formed in the gas pipeline.
The scrubber consists of a primary section where liquids
and solid parts are separated from the gas stream and a
secondary section where oil mist is removed.
Scrubbers
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: The liquids collected from the suction scrubber

are typically routed by way of scrubber level control valves to
a low pressure (LP) tank. The vapors produced from the
flashing liquids are vented to the atmosphere or to a flare.
The low pressure condensate is periodically trucked out.
Scrubbers are often equipped with high and low level alarms.
12
Point Level:
Continuous Level:
ECHOTEL Model 961

Ultrasonic Gap
Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705

Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
COMPRESSOR WASTE LIQUID

Application: Compression station scrubbers and filters that
capture liquid waste and unwanted particles route waste liquids to a storage tank. Wastes can be water condensates or
heavier hydrocarbons from the natural gas. The wastes are
collected in one or several tanks depending on the size of
the remote station. As a waste tank fills, tank trucks are
typically scheduled for tank emptying operations. As these
wastes are hazardous materials, the waste holding tanks are
classified as Class 1, Div. 1 areas.
INSTRUMENTATION
Underground Waste Tank
Point Level:
ECHOTEL Model 961
or THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Switch
Challenges: Measurements for both total level and interface

levels between the condensed hydrocarbons and condensed
water are typically made. Tank level monitoring can be provided with overflow control and alarm systems or shutdown
pumps when level falls below the specified low level.
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Magnetostrictive
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
10
13
FLARE KNOCK-OUT DRUM

Application: Liquid in the vent stream can extinguish the
flame or cause irregular combustion and smoking. In addition, flaring liquids can generate a spray of burning chemicalsa rain of firethat create a severe safety hazard. A
knockout drum collects these liquids prior to entering the
flare system. A level gauge and drain connections are built
into the knockout drum.
Challenges: When a large liquid storage vessel is required
and the vapor flow is high, a horizontal drum is usually
more economical. Vertical separators are used when there
is small liquid load, limited plot space, or where ease of
level control is desired. Knockout drums are equipped with
instrumentation to monitor liquid level with pump out or
drain facilities. High and low level alarms are frequently
installed in knockout drums.
Knockout Drum
INSTRUMENTATION
Point Level:
Continuous Level:
ECHOTEL Model
961 Ultrasonic
Gap Switch; or
External Cage
Float Switch
Visual Indication:
ECLIPSE Model 705

Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter; or E3
MODULEVEL
ATLAS or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators
AIR and GAS FLOW MONITORING

Application: From the wellhead to the compression station, monitoring the flow of natural gas is essential. Other
flow monitoring applications found in natural gas settings
may include mass air and compressed air flow, process
and waste gas flow (often required for reporting environmental emissions), and pump protection afforded by the
sensing of reduced or no-flow conditions.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Significant flow variables include pipe diameters, wide flow ranges, varying velocities, and low flow
sensitivity. Flow meters ensure efficient operation at rated
SCUM output and also detect leaks. A flow meter with a
totalizer provides an accurate measurement of air or gas
consumption. A flow switch along a pumps discharge piping will actuate an alarm and shut down the pump when
liquid flow drops below the minimum flow rate.
Flow Alarm:
THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Thermal
Dispersion Flow
Switch
Pump Protection:
THERMATEL Model TD1/TD2
Thermal Dispersion Flow Switch
Continuous Flow:
THERMATEL Model TA2
Thermal Dispersion Mass
Flow Meter
11
Good Practices for Leading Level and Flow Instrumentation

Guided Wave Radar Probe Buildup
Of relevance to:
Natural gas, condensate and crude processing applications have some special requirements that
are not evident from Instrument Data Sheets. Experience has lead to some simple but effective
recommendations to address these field issues not contained in Data Sheets. Natural gas, condensate and crude processing applications can experience paraffin, asphaltenes, grit and grime
buildup. The degree of buildup varies widely. Even in applications where it isnt prevalent, over time
it can happen during cold weather periods or when bringing units up or down due to temperature,
pressure and process material fluctuations. Like distillation columns, chambers/cages/bridles may
require cleaning from time to time. Even direct insertion GWR probes can at times experience
buildup. Below are some good practices that can minimize build up and reduce maintenance time.
Gas Production
Gas Processing Facilities
Platforms
Crude Production
7XD
7XG
7XT
HTHP
Coaxial
Caged
Single Rod
Interface
Coaxial
Use Enlarged Coax GWR Probes with more clearance for buildup to occur.
Consider using the Model 7xG Chamber Probe whenever possible. The 7xG provides the
sensitivity and performance of a coaxial probe with the viscosity immunity of a single rod.
Insulate the probe necks of Overfill Probes to reduce any cooling at the top of the probe
inside the vessel, chamber, cage or bridle.
Chambers should be insulated even in warm weather locations. The temperature
differential between a warm/hot vessel (like a separator) and uninsulated chamber/cages
can be significant resulting in paraffin deposition and/or viscosity increases.
Insulate chamber flanges to reduce any cooling at the top of the probe
Use probes with integral flushing connection to simplify flushing/dissolving puffins or grit.
Flushing connections are an option available on all Magnetrol coaxial GWR probes.
Use probes that have low end dielectric specifications (a 1.4 rating) in the application,
especially for condensates.
Flow Meter Straight Pipe Installation, Upstream and Downstream

The figure below indicates the minimum recommended straight-run distances
required to obtain the desired fully developed flow profile for a THERMATEL Model TA2
Mass Flow Meter. If these straight-run distances are not available, the overall accuracy
of the flow measurement will be affected; however, the repeatability of the measurement
will be maintained. Calibration requires the TA2 sensor to be positioned in a test section;
the test section should have a sufficient upstream and downstream straight run to
ensure the formation of a fully developed flow profile. Calibration should be performed
using the same gas which the unit is calibrated for.
FLOW
FLOW
15 diameters
5
diameters
15 diameters
5
diameters
Reduction
90-Degree Elbow
FLOW
FLOW
20 diameters
5
diameters
15 diameters
Two 90-Degree Elbows in Plane
5
diameters
Expansion
FLOW
FLOW
35 diameters
5
diameters
50 diameters
Two 90-Degree Elbows out of Plane
5
diameters
Control Valve - It is recommended that control

valves be installed downstream of the flow meter.
Probe Installations

Chemical
Food & Beverage
Life Science
Nuclear Power
Petroleum Refining
Power Generation
Pulp & Paper Mills
Renewable Energy
Steam Generation
Water & Wastewater
Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
Phone: 052 45.11.11 Fax: 052 45.09.93
Magnetrol & Magnetrol logotype, Atlas, Aurora, Echotel, Eclipse, Jupiter, Modulevel,
Pulsar, Thermatel and Tuffy are registered trademarks of Magnetrol International, Incorporated.
Bulletin: 41-187.0 Effective: July 2011
THERMATEL MASS FLOW MEASUREMENT
S p e c i a l A p p l i cat i o n S e r i e s
Introducing Thermatel
Magnetrol TA2 thermal mass flow transmitters measure mass flow by detecting heat dissipation from a heated surface.
Thermatel Benefits

Thermal flow meters measure flow rate in units of
mass flow (SCFM or NM3/hr) rather than flow at operating conditions. Because temperature and pressure
variations will influence the gas density, mass flow
measurement provides optimum measurement accuracy
despite temperature and pressure variations.
In addition to greater measurement accuracy, mass
flow is also measured to accommodate an industrys
measurement standards. Chemicals react on the basis
of mass relationships of ingredients. Combustion is
based upon the mass flow rate of the air and fuel. In
addition, a facilitys gas consumption is based upon
mass flow.
Thermatel
Technology
Operating on the
basis of heat transfer,
THERMTATEL TA2
transmitters measure
mass flow by
detecting heat dissipation from a heated surface.
Their sensor probes contain two mass balanced elements with precision matched RTDs. The reference
RTD measures the process temperature (up to +400 F,
+200 C) while the second RTD measures the temperature of the heated sensor.
A brief discussion of the TA2
technology follows on page 4.
For a thorough discussion
of thermal dispersion
technology, download our
32-page Thermatel
Measurement Handbook at
www.MAGNETROL.com.
THERMATEL flow meters offer distinct advantages

over many traditional gas flow measuring methods*:

Direct mass flow measurement does not require

pressure or temperature input for density correction as do many gas flow technologies, such as
differential pressure.
Offers excellent low flow sensitivity: mass velocities of 10 ft/min (0.05 m/s) to 50,000 ft/min
(250 m/s) (gas dependent).
Measures low velocities as well as high flow rates
for a turndown rate of 100:1 or more.
THERMATEL probes create negligible pipe blockage
resulting in very low pressure drops.
THERMATEL measurement functions are accomplished without moving partsresulting in little or
no maintenance and fewer on-line problems.
THERMATEL transmitters have been engineered
for easy installation and fast set-up while providing
rugged, accurate and reliable service.
Calibrated for your application, each instrument is
ready for immediate field installation and operation.
Installed cost of THERMATEL is very competitive
with other gas mass flow measurement technologies.
FM, FMc, ATEX approvals for combustible gases.
Available as insertion or Inline styles.
Flow body designs for pipe sizes as small as

1
2 inch
*These conditions will compromise THERMATEL performance:

(1) a continuous presence of condensed moisture;
(2) an excessive probe buildup; (3) an attempt to measure
media for which the instrument was not calibrated.
3
TA2
Supply Voltage:
SPECIFICATIONS
100 - 264 VAC, 50 - 60 Hz

11.6 - 30 VDC
Temperature Accuracy:
Repeatability:
Flow Range:
Flow Accuracy:
10-50,000 SFPM (0.05-250 Nm/s)

(gas dependent)
Sensor Range:
1% of reading plus 0.5%

of calibration range
Turn Down:
2 F (1 C)
0.5% of reading
-50 to +400 F (-45 to +200 C)

Rated to 1,500 psig (103 bar)
100:1 (application dependent)
TA2 I N D E P T H
Integral or Remote:
All electronics are housed in
a compact, explosion-proof
enclosure mounted on the
probe or at a remote location.
Display: Optional two-line,
16 digits/line, alphanumeric
backlit display module with
four-button keypad for easy
configuration. Displays flow
rate, temperature, totalized flow,
and diagnostic messages.
Insertion (left) or In-Line style (above)

TA2 Electronics Features:
Unit accepts both 11.5 to 30 VDC and 100 264
VAC input power
Rotatable housing for viewing display at virtually
any angle
Active and passive 4-20 mA output of flow
Second mA output for temperature or second
flow range
Pulse output available for external totalizer or PLC
HART and PACTware communications
Real time temperature compensation
Automatic pipe blockage adjustment
Very low heat input
Unit delivered factory calibrated and configured
simplifies startup
Flow profile compensation
Easy. Intuitive software configuration
Software totalizer displays the totalized flow
usage in the users choice of engineering units.
Both resettable and non-resettable totalizer
Complete diagnostics monitor condition of
probe, circuit, wiring and even RTD sensor drift
Process Connections: Selection of

process connections includes threads,
welded flange construction, and use
with a compression fitting.
Probe: All-welded 316 stainless steel;
Hastelloy C-276 optional. Process temperatures to +400 F (+200 C); Pressure rating to
1,500 psig (103 bar); ratings are dependent
upon process connections.
Convenience: Probe is fieldreplaceable; Optional hot tap
Retractable Probe Assembly
(RPA) allows for probe
installation or removal
without a process shutdown. At right, standard
and high pressure RPAs.
Protection: Sensor is
protected within a durable
enclosure to prevent damage
if the probe is inserted too
far into a pipe.
Principle of Operation
TA2 thermal mass flow transmitter technology for measuring mass flow.
The TA2 uses the proven Constant Temperature

Difference Technology for mass flow measurement.
There are two elements in the sensor as shown on
page 2. The RTD in the reference pin measures the
process temperature of the gas where the sensor is
located; a variable amount of power is applied to the
heater in the second pin to maintain a specified
temperature difference. The amount of the temperature
difference is set during the calibration to optimize the
performance for the particular application.
At low mass flow rates there is little heat transfer
and the amount of power required to maintain the
desired temperature difference is low. However, as the
mass flow rate increases, the power requirements
increase. Changes in heat transfer are greatest at low
velocities which provide excellent low flow sensitivity.
As the mass flow increases the power increases in a
non-linear manner as shown in the chart below. The
curve continues permitting flow measurements at high
velocities; this provides very high turndown capabilities.
The units are factory calibrated to establish this
relationship between heat transfer and mass flow.
Calibration is performed by placing the TA2 in a flow
bench and flowing a known amount of gas past the
sensor. The signal is measured at each flow rate.
A minimum of 10 data points are taken over the operating
range of the instrument. Once calibrated this is a
permanent calibration unless something happens to
the sensor. The TA2 provides a simple method which
permits the user to verify calibration in the field.
Power
Flow Calibration Curve
Mass Flow Rate
The TA2 is designed with advance digital electronics

which produce very low amounts of heat input to the
sensor. Testing by FM has demonstrated a maximum of
a 4 C (7.2 F) temperature rise of the heated element
which is much lower than other designs. This permits
the TA2 to measure much higher velocities than other
designs without running out of power.
One of the advantages of the Constant Temperature
Difference Technology is the response time. There is
some thermal mass which needs to heat up or cool
down with changes in flow. The TA2 incorporates an
advance PID control circuit which immediately detects
changes in temperature difference to provide very rapid
response in the flow measurement. Once at constant
flowing conditions, the signal remains extremely stable.
Mass Flow of Air

Applications: The flow of air (78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen and traces of eight other gases) is monitored in
nearly all industrial settings, including applications for
processing; air/gas mixing; cooling; blowing & drying;
combustion; aeration; ventilation; filtration; ingredient
mixing; air sampling, and many others. Significant airflow variables include pipe diameters, wide flow ranges,
varying velocities and low flow sensitivity. Large-duct
flow applications for THERMATEL include combustion
air flow used in determining fuel-to-air mixtures for
industrial boilers, heaters, furnaces and kilns.
TA2 Air Flow Applications:
Aeration Flows
Combustion Air
Test Air Flow
Air Flow Rate
Spray Drying
Remediation
Heat Treating
Drying Air Flow
Reheat Air Flow
Leak Detection
Wastewater Treatment
Boilers, Kilns, Heaters
Pump and Equipment Mfgrs.
Metals Processing and Recovery
Food, Bio-Pharm, Chemical
Agricultural, Environmental
Manufacturing, Metals
Pulp and Paper
PowerGen
All Industries
The combustion efficiency of burners, furnaces and

dryers is enhanced by obtaining repeatable flow measurement of the inlet combustion air. Ducts can vary from
six-inches in diameter to many square feet. Too little air
and combustion is incomplete; too much air and combustion efficiency is greatly reduced.
Application Insights
Measuring Mass Flow in Large Pipes and Ducts.

he larger the diameter of a
pipe, stack or duct, the
greater the likelihood of significant
flow velocity profile distortions. In
these highly skewed flow conditions, a single point flow meter
wont do the job. So, whats the
best measurement solution?
A frequent choice for greater
measurement accuracy is the
multi-point sensor array. Here,
two or more flow sensors are
placed along an extended-length
insertion element. With more sensor points across the interior
expanse of the duct, the more
representative will be the flow
measurement. And, if you install
two of these arrays in crisscross
fashion inside the duct (as diagramed at top right), you have a
sensor array that will provide very
good results. The price you pay
for this set-up, however, is cost;
for the multi-point array is engineering-intensive at the front end,
and maintenance-intensive down
the line.
Option #2 is to insert four TA2s
(or more, as needed) from opposite sides of a duct (bottom right)
and average their output signals.
This approach uses standard
THERMTATEL flow meters for
accurate and reliable mass flow
measurement at a lower installed
cost, and with less maintenance
headaches in the future.
ABOVE: Two, custom-engineered

multi-point arrays. BELOW: Four
standard TA2 flow meters.
Compressed Air Flow

Applications: Air that is compressed and contained
at a pressure greater than atmosphere has become
industrys universal power source. Seventy percent of
all manufacturers operate compressed air (CA).
Process operations dependent upon CA include pneumatic tools; materials handling; painting; oxidation;
fractionation; cryogenics; refrigeration; dehydration;
filtration and aeration. Flow meters help ensure efficient operation at rated SCFM output and are also
used to detect leaks. A Flow Meter with a Totalizer
provides an accurate measurement of CA consumption.
TA2 Compressed Air Flow Applications:
Automation & Process Systems

Pneumatic tools, Painting
Materials Handling Systems
Filling, Capping, Packaging
PET, PE Bottle Blowing
Labs, Pill Coating
Soil Remediation
Drilling, Pipelines
Pressurizing Gas Lines
Food & Drug Processing
Natural gas is one of the major energy sources for

fueling large central power stations as well as smaller
industrial furnaces and boilers. Flow rate measurement and totalization of flow usage are vital to efficient operations.
All Industries
All Industries
All Industries
Bottling, Packaging
Plastic Containers
Pharmaceuticals
Environmental Industry
Oil and Natural Gas
Natural Gas
Foods, Pharmaceuticals
Nitrogen Gas Flow

Applications: Nitrogen gas (N2) is the most widely
used commercial gas. Colorless, odorless, tasteless,
and nonflammable, its inertness makes it an ideal
blanketing gas to protect flammable or explosive
solids and liquids from contact with air. Keeping
This Glycol Regeneration Skid serving a natural gas

field in Holland features three TA2stwo measuring air
flow to an incinerator and one measuring natural gas.
chemicals, pharmaceuticals and foods within a nitrogen atmosphere keeps them protected from oxygen
and moisture degradation. Oil, gas and petrochemical
industries purge tanks and pipes with nitrogen to
replace hazardous or undesirable atmospheres. In
refinery maintenance, nitrogen quickly cools catalyst
temperatures to vastly reduce shutdown time.
TA2 Nitrogen Gas Flow Applications:
Tank Blanketing
Gas Purging
Pressure Transfer
Cooling, Freezing
Forming Control
Heat Treatment
Pill & Tablet coating
Inerting of LNG
Drilling, Processing
Chemicals, Foods, Hydrocarbons

Bio-Pharm, Semi-Conductor
Natural Gas, Refinery Industries
Storage Vessels, All Industries
Refineries, Food Processing
Metal Casting
Shield Gas for Steel and Iron
Pharmaceutical, Nutritional
Tankers, Transport Vessels
Oil and Natural Gas Industries
Nitrogen flow in a two-inch line at a chemical plant.

Point-of-use consumption of compressed air and gases
will permit the user to obtain improved usage rate information for more efficient operations. Some centralized
facilities bill the individual plants for gas usage.
Natural Gas Flow

Applications: Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases, primarily (70-90%) methane (CH4). In its
pure form it is colorless, odorless and combustible.
The cleanest burning fossil fuel, natural gas trails
electricity as the second most used energy source in
industry. Industrial demand accounts for 40 percent
of total natural gas demand, the highest of any sector. With a multitude of industrial uses, natural gas is
consumed primarily in pulp and paper; metals manufacture; power generation; petroleum refining; stone,
clay and glass manufacture; chemicals production;
plastic resin production; and food processing.
TA2 Natural Gas Flow Applications:
Extraction, Production
Waste Treatment, Incineration
Co-Firing Technology
Base Ingredients, Feedstocks
Preheating, IR heating
Processing
Manufacturing
Primary and Backup Fuels
Gas Desiccant Systems
Gas Absorption Systems
Natural Gas Industry

All Industry Sectors
Power Generation
Plastics, Chemicals, Bio-Pharm
Iron and Steel, Powder Coating
Food, Chemicals, Refining, Paper
Stone, Clay and Glass
Industrial Boilers, Furnaces
Plastics, Bio-Pharm, Confections
Heating & Cooling of H2O
Natural gas flow at a gas production plant is

monitored to provide flow measurement from each
individual well. The main custody transfer meter is
positioned downstream from where the flow from
individual lines is combined.
Thermatel: Precisely Calibrated To Your Gas Flow Requirements.

of the 4-20 mA signal, the units of measurement,
very gas has distinct thermal properties that
or installation factors.
affect the convective heat transfer of the
Some competitors flow meters require their
THERMATEL sensor. It is for this reason that each
calibration to include a speciflow meter is calibrated in
fied cable length, and any subthe Magnetrol Calibration
sequent cable changes will
Lab to our customers speaffect the units accuracy.
cific requirements. The
The TA2 cable length is indeinstrument is performance
pendent of their calibration.
tested under conditions of
This allows our customers to
gas composition, flow
provide their own cable, or
rates, velocities, and temchange its length in the field.
peratures. Once installed,
The Magnetrol NIST Traceable
The TA2 probe and circuit
the unit goes directly into
Calibration Facility
boards are also field replaceservice without any need
able. New calibration factors can be
for field set-up, calibration, or adjustment.
entered into the instrument by using
Our customer has total control over field configuration of the TA2. By using a simplified proce- the TA2 keypad or with a HART
dure, they can configure the instrument in order
remote communicator.
to change pipe or duct size, the range and span
TA2
Argon Gas Flow

Applications: Composing slightly less than 1% of the
air, Argon (Ar) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, noncorrosive, nonflammable, and nontoxic gas. It is the
most abundant of the rare gases, those with an
extremely weak tendency to chemically interact with
other materials. Argon is commercially valued in multiindustry applications for its near total inertness and low
cost. Argon is utilized to produce specialty products;
protect and maintain product quality; and lower operating costs in steelmaking. It is essential in metal fabrication; light bulbs; the production of electronic equipment;
and in thermal glass and plastics manufacture.
TA2 Argon Gas Flow Applications:
Degasification
Heat Transfer
Bulb Media
Thermal Media
Argon Lasers
Arc, Tig, Mig Welding
Filler Gas
Gas-plasma Treating
Spectrometry
Cryoablation
The flow of large ducts and stacks, as in this power

generation boiler, can be measured using multiple standard TA2 units to obtain an averaging of the flow rate.
This approach is more economical and easier to maintain
than custom-designed, multiple-point array systems.
Aluminum, Titanium, Stainless Steel

Electronics, Semiconductors
Fluorescent, Incandescent Lighting
Thermopane Window Manufacturing
DNA Sequencing, Electronics, Printing
Manufacturing, Metal Fabrication
Silicone and Germanium Manufacturing
Plastics, Painting and Coating
Anodizing, Plating, Powder Coating
Medical technology
Hydrogen Gas Flow

Applications: Hydrogen (H2), the lightest of gases, is
colorless, odorless, tasteless, flammable and nontoxic
(at atmosphere). It has the highest combustion energy
release per unit of weight of any commonly occurring
material. Hydrogens industrial applications include
chemical processing; metal production; petroleum
refining; electronics; power; pharmaceuticals and
Retractable Probe Assemblies (RPAs) permit installation of the instrument in applications which must remain
in continuous operation. RPA designs with pressure ratings up to 720 psi are available.
foods. With the development of a viable fuel cell technology, new application opportunities in the automotive sector will no doubt surface. Consideration must
be given to Hydrogens volatility and its greater cooling
effect on the sensor compared to other gases.
TA2 Hydrogen Gas Flow Applications:
Treating, Welding, Annealing

Hydrodesulfurization
Catalytic Cracking
Vitamin Manufacturing
Oxidation Preventative
Hydrogenation of Fatty Acids
Carrier Gas
Generator Coolant
Rocket Fuel, Fuel Cells
Making NH3, CH3OH, H2O2
Steel, Stainless Steel, Copper

Oil Refineries
Oil Refineries
Pharmaceuticals, Supplements
Glass Manufacturing
Food and Dairy
Integrated Circuits
Power Generation
Aerospace, Automotive
Chemicals, Polymers, Solvents
Hydrogen gas has many industrial applications. Using

a catalyst and large quantities of hydrogen, hydrotreatment (above) removes 90% of the sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen
and metals from gasoline refinery feedstocks.
Oxygen Gas Flow

Applications: Oxygen (O2) is the second-largest volume industrial gas. Because it forms compounds with
virtually all chemical elements it is most often bound
with other elements in silicates, oxides, and water
compounds. Oxygen is highly oxidizing and reacts vigorously with combustible materials generating heat in
the reaction process. Ozone (O3) is an allotropic form
of oxygen that is more reactive. Oxygen finds numerous uses in steelmaking and metals refining; chemicals
and pharmaceuticals; petroleum processing; glass and
ceramic manufacture; pulp and paper manufacture;
and in municipal and industrial effluent treatment.
TA2 Oxygen Gas Flow Applications:
Furnace Combustion
Metal Processing
Glass Smelters
Raw Material for Oxidation
Coal Gasification
Catalyst Regeneration
Oxy-fuel Furnaces
Pulp Bleaching Agent
Biological Treatment
Water Oxygenators
Steel Making, Haz Mat Industry

Copper, Lead, Zinc Manufacturing
Glass Manufacturing
Chemical Industry
Chemical Feedstock Production
Oil Refineries
Glass Manufacturing, Pulp & Paper
Pulp & Paper
Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Aqua Culture, Water Treatment
The largest industrial user of gaseous oxygen is

the steel industry. Oxygen-enriched air increases
combustion temperatures in open hearth and blast
furnaces.
The Inline Advantages
AGNETROL offers an inline sensor for the

TA2 Mass Flow Meters. The principle reasons
for using an inlineor flow bodyconfiguration for
mass flow measurement are:
The inline configuration measures lower flow
rates within smaller pipe sizes. Flow rates of less than
1 SCFM (1.7 Nm3/h) can be detected in pipe sizes as
small as 12".
As most flow meters are of the in-line type, they
represent a more traditional approach to flow measurement. Also, the flow body can be used to replace
other flow meters of the same dimensions.
The inline style provides optional flow conditioning to obtain a predictable flow profile and remove
swirl at the sensor. This is especially important when
an insufficient straight run of pipe is placed before the
flow meter.
TA2 with Flow Body
10
Carbon Dioxide Gas Flow

Applications: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an odorless,
colorless, non-combustible and slightly toxic gas with a
pungent acidic taste. It constitutes a fraction of our air,
about 0.036%. Carbon dioxide is valued in industry for
its reactivity, inertness and ability to create cold conditions. Large quantities of gaseous CO2 are produced
and consumed in making fertilizers, plastic resins, and
rubber. Other important uses include beverage carbonation; food and pharmaceutical processing; enhancement of oil recovery from oil wells; a raw material for
producing many chemicals; treatment of alkaline water;
and manufacturing CO2 fire extinguishing systems.
TA2 Carbon Dioxide Flow Applications:
MIG/MAG Welding Shield

Casting Mold Hardening
Dry-Ice Feed
Urea, Methanol Production
Oil Extraction Well Priming
Flash Removal
Dry Ice & CO2 Coolant
Beverage Carbonation
Blanketing Agent
Fertilizer Processing
Measuring natural gas flow to a furnace. The use of an

insertion probe permits the TA2 to be installed in lines of
various sizes and with considerable installation flexibility
while also ensuring economical mass flow measurement.
Metal Industries
Metal Industries
Manufacturing, Construction
Chemical Industry
Petroleum Industry
Rubber and Plastics
Food and Beverages
Soft Drinks, Beer, Sparkling Wine
Foods, Pharmaceuticals
Agricultural Chemicals
Exhaust & Waste Gas

Applications: Exhaust gases in a wide variety of compositions range from the ecologically benign to toxic
emissions. Off-gases are vapors emitted from extraction
and treatment systems that are discharged directly to the
atmosphere, captured or destroyed. Hydrocarbon gases
Todays refineries and chemical plants frequently

burn-off waste gases in a flare line. Because both flow
rates and gas compositions vary, the TA2 can be used
to obtain relative flow indication.
from industrial operations are often flared in a hightemperature oxidation process which burns combustible
components of waste. Natural gas, propane, ethylene,
propylene, butadiene and butane constitute over 95 percent of the waste gases flared. Consideration must be
given to changes in gas composition, abruptness of flow
change, low pressures, and a wide range of velocities.
TA2 Exhaust & Waste Gas Applications:
Vent Lines
Waste CO2
SO2 Off-Gas
Flare Stacks, Headers
Flue Gas
Waste-to-Energy Gas
Waste Flow Mixing
Flare Gas Recovery
NC Gas Disposal
All Industries
Petrochemicals, Chemical Production
Metals, Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals
Oil Platforms, Refineries; Chemicals
Power Generation
Landfill, Waste Treatment Plant
Incinerators, All Industries
Electricity, Steam, Hot Water Generation
Pulp and Paper
Due to environmental laws and restrictions, oil and

gas platform operators must monitor and report the
amount of flared gases. The consistent composition, low
flow sensitivity, and high turndown capabilities make the
TA2 an ideal flow meter for this service.
11
LFG, Digester & Bio-Gas

Applications: These gases are typically composed of
65% methane (CH4) and 35% carbon dioxide (CO2).
Landfill gas (LFG) is generated from the degradation
of biodegradable wastes. Digester gas results from the
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in municipal wastewater treatment. Bio-gas is created from
livestock production, agricultural and industrial effluents and sewage treatment. Flaring and venting as
management strategies for these gases is giving way
to energy harvesting technologies with the economic
advantage of creating heat, electricity, fuel or feedstocks while also reducing carbon emissions that
would ordinarily result from flaring operations.
TA2 LFG, Digester & Bio-Gas Applications:
Anaerobic Digestion Gas

Methane Gas for Heat, Power
Digester Gas Recirculation
Bio-Mass to Bio-Gas
LFG Monitoring, Harvesting
Sewer Gas Processing
Displacement Digester
Gas Venting and Flaring
Bio-Engine and Motor Fuel
Municipal Wastewater Treatment

Boilers, Power Co-Generation
Wastewater Treatment
Wood Scrub-to-Gas Conversion
Municipal Landfills
Municipal Treatment Systems
Manure to Bio-gas Conversion
Landfills and General Industry
Generator, Engine Manufacturers
Bio-gas, a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide,

results from the decomposition of organic materials and
can be harvested as a fuel source. Due to its low flow
sensitivity and low pressure drop, the TA2 is an excellent
flow meter for measuring bio-gases.
Temperature Compensation of the Mass Flow Measurement

hermal Mass Flow Transmitters measure
heat transfer and infer the mass flow based
upon calibration information. The gas properties
that effect convective heat transfer, however, are
affected by changing temperatures.
After extensive testing and analysis on the
effect of changes in flow at different temperatures, MAGNETROL has developed a proprietary
method of providing temperature compensation
over the entire operating range of the instrument.
THERMATEL Flow Meters measure the temperature and then apply a correction in the flow measurement based upon the operating temperature.
The charts below show data from the TA2
with and without temperature compensation.
These graphs demonstrate the effectiveness of
MAGNETROL temperature compensation of the
mass flow measurement based upon varying
gas properties.
PLEASE NOTE: The instruments recommended in this guide are based on
field experience with similar applications and are included as a general guide
to flow control selection. However, because all applications differ, customers
should determine suitability for their own purposes.
Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
Phone: 052 45.11.11 Fax: 052 45.09.93
Magnetrol & Magnetrol logotype and Thermatel are registered trademarks of Magnetrol International, Incorporated.
HART is a registered trademark of the HART Communication Foundation.
Hastelloy is a registered trademark of Haynes International, Inc.
Modbus is a registered trademark of Gould, Inc.
Bulletin: 54-210.3 Effective: January 2011
UNDERSTANDING SAFETY INTEGRITY LEVEL
THE NEW STANDARDS IN SAFETY

On the morning of 12/11/05, the largest detonation since
the end of WWII rocked the Buncefield Petrol Depot north of
London. 72 million gallons of fuel ignited causing a shock
that registered 2.4 on the Richter scale. Catastrophic events
like Buncefield, Texas City and Bhopal are what the information in this brochure is meant to prevent.
The New Standards in Safety

Protecting
People
Profitability
Productivity
and the Environment
Buncefield
Petrol Depot Explosion
I
M I L E S T O N E
TUV (Bavaria) Microcomputers in
Safety-Related Systems (1984)
Health & Safety Executive (UK):
Programmable Electronic Systems in
Safety Related Applications (1987)
OSHA (29 CFR 1910.119) (1992):
Process Safety Management of
Highly Hazardous Chemicals
Instrument Society of America
ANSI/ISA 84 (2004):
Safety Instrumented Systems for
the Process Industries
International Electrotechnical
Commission (1998-2003)
IEC 61508 (2000): A general
approach to Functional Safety Systems
IEC 61511 (2003): Process sector
implementation of IEC 61508
ndustrial safety in pre-digital eras centered mainly around safe work

practices, hazardous materials control, and the protective armoring
of personnel and equipment. Today, safety penetrates far deeper into
more complex manufacturing infrastructures, extending its protective
influence all the way to a companys bottom line. Contemporary safety
systems reduce risk with operational advancements that frequently
improve reliability, productivity and profitability as well.
Nothing is more important than safety to the process control industries.

High temperature and pressure, flammable and toxic materials are just
some of the issues faced on a daily basis. Reliability is a key component
of safety; the more reliable the device, the safer the critical process. After
years of work by the ISA SP84 committee, IEC 61508 and IEC 61511
have recently come together to yield a safety standard that the world is
embracing. IEC 61511 is particularly important as it is written specifically for the Process Industries. This standard quantifies safety issues as
never before. Although the safety issues addressed are critical to users
with installations like Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD), the reliability
defined in this specification is being used by all users to separate great
products from good ones. SIL (Safety Integrity Level) and SFF (Safe
Failure Fraction) are two of the key values that customers can use as an
objective comparison of instrument reliability from various suppliers.
Reliability. Although this brochure targets safety applications and installations like Emergency Shutdown Systems, more than 90% of all applications are not safety-related. Those people are now using the SIL data as
an indicator for reliability, i.e., the better the numbers, the more reliable
the instrument.
Understanding Risk. All safety standards exist to reduce risk,

which is inherent wherever manufacturing or processing occurs.
The goal of eliminating risk and bringing about a state of absolute
safety is not attainable. More realistically, risk can be categorized as
being either negligible, tolerable or unacceptable. The foundation
for any modern safety system, then, is to reduce risk to an acceptable or tolerable level. In this context, safety can be defined as
freedom from unacceptable risk.
Figure A
Layers of Protection*
The formula for risk is:

RISK = HAZARD FREQUENCY x HAZARD CONSEQUENCE
Risk can be minimized initially by inherently safe process design, by
the Basic Process Control System (BPCS), and finally by a safety
shutdown system.
Layered Protection. Much evaluation work, including a hazard
and risk assessment, has to be performed by the customer to identify the overall risk reduction requirements and to allocate these to
independent protection layers (IPL). No single safety measure can
eliminate risk and protect a plant and its personnel against harm or
mitigate the spread of harm if a hazardous incident occurs. For this
reason, safety exists in protective layers: a sequence of mechanical
devices, process controls, shutdown systems and external response
measures which prevent or mitigate a hazardous event. If one protection layer fails, successive layers will be available to take the
process to a safe state. If one of the protection layers is a safety
instrumented function (SIF), the risk reduction allocated to it determines its safety integrity level (SIL). As the number of protection
layers and their reliabilities increase, the safety of the process
increases. Figure A shows the succession of safety layers in order of
their activation.
Hazards Analysis. The levels of protective layers required is determined by conducting an analysis of a processs hazards and risks
known as a Process Hazards Analysis (PHA). Depending upon
the complexity of the process operations and the severity of its
inherent risks, such an analysis may range from a simplified screening to a rigorous Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) engineering
study, including reviewing process, electrical, mechanical, safety,
instrumental and managerial factors. Once risks and hazards have
been assessed, it can be determined whether they are below acceptable levels. If the study concludes that existing protection is insufficient, a Safety Instrumented System (SIS) will be required.
PREVENTION LAYERS
In-plant response layers
Prevent hazardous occurrences.
MITIGATION LAYERS
External response layers
Mitigate hazardous occurrences.
*The above chart is based upon

a Layers Of Protection Analysis
(LOPA) as described in IEC
61511 part 3 Annex F.
Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS)

The Safety Instrumented System (SIS) plays a vital role in providing a
protective layer around industrial process systems. Whether called an SIS,
emergency or safety shutdown system, or a safety interlock, its purpose is
to take process to a safe state when pre-determined set points have been exceeded or when safe
operating conditions have been transgressed. A SIS
is comprised of safety functions (see SIF below)
with sensors, logic solvers and actuators. Figure B
shows its basic components:
Sensors for signal input and power
Input signal interfacing and processing
Logic solver with power and communications
Output signal processing, interfacing and power
Actuators (valves, switching devices) for final
control function
Figure B
Process schematic showing
functional separation of SIS
(red) and BPCS (blue).
SIS SIF SIL

R E L AT I O N S H I P
SIS
SIF 1
SIL 2
SIF 2
SIL 2
SIF 3
SIL 2
Figure C
Every SIS has one or more safety
functions (SIFs) and each affords
a measure of risk reduction indicated by its safety integrity level
(SIL). The SIS and the equipment do NOT have an assigned
SIL. Process controls
are suitable for use within a
given SIL environment.
SIF: Safety Instrumented Functions. A Safety Instrumented

Function (SIF) is a safety function with a specified Safety Integrity Level
which is implemented by a SIS in order to achieve or maintain a safe
state. A SIFs sensors, logic solver, and final elements act in concert to
detect a hazard and bring the process to a safe state. Heres an example
of a SIF: A process vessel sustains a buildup of pressure which opens a
vent valve. The specific safety hazard is overpressure of the vessel. When
pressure rises above the normal set points a pressure-sensing instrument
detects the increase. Logic (PLC, relay, hard-wired, etc.) then opens a vent
valve to return the system to a safe state. In fact, the increased availability
and use of this reliability data has allowed the traditional example above
to be improved using HIPPS (High Integrity Process Pressure System) to
eliminate even the risk of venting to the environment. When HIPPS is
implemented, the system controls are so thorough and reliable that there
is no need to vent, or use a relief valve.
Like the safety features on an automobile, a SIF may operate continuously like a cars steering, or intermittently like a cars air bag. A safety function operating in the demand mode is only performed when required in
order to transfer the Equipment Under Control (EUC) into a specified
state. A safety function operating in continuous mode operates to retain
the EUC within its safe state. Figure C shows the relationship between
SIS, the Safety Instrumented Functions it implements, and the Safety
Integrity Level thats assigned to each Safety Instrumented Function.
Safety Life Cycle. Earlier we mentioned how a Hazard and Risk

Assessment study will determine the need for an SIS. This assessment is
one part of a safety life cycle which all major safety standards have specified. The safety life cycle shows a systematic approach for the development of a SIS. A simplified version is shown in Figure D.
Figure D
The Safety Life Cycle is a sequential
approach to developing a Safety
Instrumented System (SIS).
References to a Safety Life Cycle can
be found in ANSI/ISA 84.00.01 Parts
13; IEC 61508 Part 1; and IEC
61511 Parts 13.
Safety Integrity Level (SIL)

To what extent can a process be expected to perform safely? And, in the
event of a failure, to what extent can the process be expected to fail safely? These questions are answered through the assignment of a target
Safety Integrity Level (SIL). SILs are measures of the safety risk of a
given process.
IMPORTANT: It is incorrect to call a particular device SIL 1 or SIL 2.
For example, it is common to call the Eclipse 705 (51A) a SIL 2 device.
This is inaccurate because the entire control loop must be taken into
account. Technically, it is accurate to say a device is suitable for use
within a given SIL environment. For example, the Eclipse 705 (51A) is
now certified as suitable for use in a SIL 3 environment.
Four Levels of Integrity. Historically, safety thinking categorized a
process as being either safe or unsafe. For the new standards, however,
safety isnt considered a binary attribute; rather, it is stratified into four
discrete levels of safety. Each level represents an order of magnitude of
risk reduction. The higher the SIL level, the greater the impact of a failure
and the lower the failure rate that is acceptable.
Safety Integrity Level is a way to indicate the tolerable failure rate of a
particular safety function. Standards require the assignment of a target SIL
for any new or retrofitted SIF within the SIS. The assignment of the target
SIL is a decision requiring the extension of the Hazards Analysis. The SIL
assignment is based on the amount of risk reduction that is necessary to
maintain the risk at an acceptable level. All of the SIS design, operation
and maintenance choices must then be verified against the target SIL.
This ensures that the SIS can mitigate the assigned process risk.
Hardware Fault Tolerance. IEC61508-4 defines fault tolerance as the
ability of a functional unit to continue to perform a required function
in the presence of faults or errors. Therefore, hardware fault tolerance
is the ability of the hardware (complete hardware and software of the
transmitter) to continue to perform a required function in the presence
of faults or errors. A hardware fault tolerance of 0 means that if there
is one fault, the transmitter will not be able to perform its function
(for example, measure level). A hardware fault tolerance of N means
that N+1 faults could cause a loss of the safety function. When an
FMEDA is performed on a device, the resultant SFF has an associated
hardware fault tolerance of 0.
Type B
(complex devices)
Table 3 from IEC-61508
Safe Failure
Fraction
Hardware Fault Tolerance
<60%
Not
SIL 1
SIL 2
60% to <90%
SIL 1
SIL 2
SIL 3
90% to <99%
SIL 2
SIL 3
SIL 4
SIL 3
SIL 4
SIL 4
99%
Figure E SIL and Related Measures*

SIL
Availability
PFDavg
>99.99%
Risk Reduction
10 to <10
100,000 to 10,000
99.9%
10-4 to <10-3
10,000 to 1,000
99 to 99.9%
10-3 to <10-2
1,000 to 100
90 to 99%
10 to <10
100 to 10
-5
-2
-4
-1
SIL: Safety Integrity Level.

AVAILABILITY: The probability that equipment will perform
its task.
PFDavg: The average PFD used in calculating safety system
reliability. (PFD: Probability of Failure on Demand is the
probability of a system failing to respond to a demand for
action arising from a potentially hazardous condition.)
PFDAVG (t) Eclipse Enhanced Model 705

9.00E-03
8.00E-03
Probability
7.00E-03
6.00E-03
5.00E-03
4.00E-03
3.00E-03
570
0*
51
*
**
***
A*1
5
705
Qualitative Consequence
Potential for fatalities in the community
Potential for multiple on-site fatalities
Potential for major on-site injuries or a fatality
Potential for minor on-site injuries
* Both IEC and ANSI/ISA standards utilize similar tables

covering the same range of PFD values. ANSI/ISA,
however, does not show a SIL 4. No standard process
controls have yet been defined and tested for SIL 4.
Determining SIL Levels Process When a Process Hazards Analysis

(PHA) determines that a SIS is required, the level of risk reduction afforded by the SIS and the target SIL have to be assigned. The effectiveness of
a SIS is described in terms of the probability it will fail to perform its
required function when it is called upon to do so. This is its
Probability of Failure on Demand (PFD). The average PFD (PFDavg) is
used for SIL evaluation. Figure E shows the relationship between PFDavg,
availability of the safety system, risk reduction and the SIL level values.
Various methodologies are used for assignment of target SILs. The determination must involve people with the relevant expertise and experience.
1.00E-03
Methodologies used for determining SILs includebut are not limited
0.00E+00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 toSimplified Calculations, Fault Tree Analysis, Layer of Protection
Analysis (LOPA) and Markov Analysis.
Years
2.00E-03
Determining SIL Levels Instrumentation

SIL levels for field instruments are established by one of two methods:
FMEDA (Failures Modes, Effects and Diagnostic Analysis) is best when
reviewed or certified by a third party like exida or TUV although selfdeclarations can be done by the manufacturer. A systematic analysis
technique is necessary to determine failure rates, failure modes and
the diagnostic capability as defined by IEC 61508/651511.
Proven In Use (also called Prior Use) is typically used by a customer
with a mature instrument in known processes. This approach requires
sufficient product operational hours, revision history, fault reporting
systems and field failure data to determine if there is evidence of
systematic design faults in a product. IEC 61508 provides levels of
operational history required for each SIL. It is generally considered of
more value when done by users in their facility when comparing like
data. It is considered less reliable when done by a device manufacturer
whose data may be less relevant to the end users application.
7
If you are using Manufacturers prior use data because a selected product
does not reach the required level under FMEDA analysis, be aware that
there are significant requirements on the end user. A mature product
must generally be used to have the required field experience, and the
design and assembly must be frozen in time in such a way that no
upgrades, modifications or even configuration changes may be allowed
that may render the Proven In Use data useless.
A key result of the analyses is establishing a Safe Failure Fraction (SFF)
for a product. Figure F below shows the relationship of SFF values, SIL
ratings and the effects of redundancy.
Figure F
Safe Failure Fraction (SFF)
(for Type B, microprocessor-based devices)
<60%
No
Single
Double
Redundancy Redundancy Redundancy
Not Allowed
SIL 1
SIL 2
60%<90%
(typical competitor)
SIL 1
SIL 2
SIL 3
90%<99%
(ECLIPSE, JUPITER, E3)
SIL 2
SIL 3
SIL 4
SIL 3
SIL 4
SIL 4
>99%
While two SIL 1 devices can be used together to achieve SIL 2 and two
SIL 2 devices may be used to achieve SIL 3 (as suggested by the chart
above), it is not automatic. Using redundancy to attain a higher SIL rating
has additional requirements beyond hardware. It has an additional
requirement of systematic safety which includes software integrity.
It is important to note that the most conservative approach to redundancy
is to use dissimilar technologies. This reduces failures due to application
issues.
Within the SFF determination is an understanding of types of failures and
the ability of the instrument to diagnose them. Figure G shows the basic
relationship.
Figure G Failure Designation
Detected
Undetected
Safe
Nuisance
Nuisance
Dangerous
Important
but accepted
since they are
detected
It should be obvious that the most critical category of failures is called

Dangerous Undetected (DU). For example, the certified ECLIPSE 705 (51A)
has a high trip SFF of 91.9% with 130 Dangerous Undetected failures; this
means that 91.9% of all failures are detected or safe (nuisance). Conversely,
130 represents the remaining 8.1% that are dangerous and undetected
(see Pages 10 & 11). The lower the number of Dangerous undetected
failures the better. This number is key in reliability evaluation, even for
non safety-related applications.
IEC 61508/61511
Tying It All Together

Understanding how safety is quantified in IEC 61508/61511 can be
difficult for anyone new to the concept. It is a daunting task to
immediately grasp how all the various aspects of analysis fit together.
Following is one perspective which yields a sound, basic understanding of the key terms that have been discussed throughout this
brochure. It is meant to be a quick-reference for the safety novice.
PHA (Process Hazards Analysis): This is where it starts. It is an
analysis of the process that may range from a simplified screening to
a rigorous Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) engineering study. PHA
will determine the need for a SIS.
SIS (Safety Instrumented System): Its purpose is to take process
to a safe state when pre-determined set points have been exceeded
or when safe operating conditions have been transgressed. It does so
by utilizing SIFs.
SIF (Safety Instrumented Function): One loop within the SIS
which is designed to achieve or maintain a safe state. A SIFs sensors,
logic solver, and final control elements act in concert to detect a
hazard and bring the process to a safe state. What devices are used
in the SIF are based on their required SIL.
SIL (Safety Integrity Level): A way to indicate the tolerable failure
rate of a particular safety function. It is defined as four discrete levels
of safety (1-4). Each level represents an order of magnitude of risk
reduction. The higher the SIL level, the greater the impact of a failure
and the lower the failure rate that is acceptable. SIL values are related
to PFD and SFF. The claimed SIL is limited by the calculated PFD and
SFF.
PFD (Probability of Failure on Demand): the probability a device
will fail to perform its required function when it is called upon to do
so. The average PFD (PFDavg- failure rate of all elements within a
Safety Instrumented Function) is used for SIL evaluation.
SFF (Safe Failure Fraction): A number that shows the percentage of
possible failures that are self-identified by the device or are safe and
have no effect. The key number in this calculation is Dangerous
Undetected failuresthose that are not identified and do have an
effect.
FMEDA Device Data

Assessing SIL-Suitable Controls A Failure Modes, Effects and
Diagnostic Analysis (FMEDA) is a detailed performance evaluation that
estimates the failure rates, failure modes, and diagnostic capability of a
device. The following pages show data for specific devices.
The following explanations of key FMEDA data for SIL-suitable Magnetrol
controls can be used as reference:
FAIL DANGEROUS DETECTED (dd) Dangerous failures detected by
internal diagnostics or a connected logic solver.

FAIL DANGEROUS UNDETECTED (du) Dangerous failures that are
not detected by the device.

FAIL SAFE (sd & su) Safe Failures (detected & undetected) that cause
system to enter the fail-safe state without a demand from the process.
FITs Column one shows failure rates are shown as Failures in Time
(FITs) where 1 FIT = 1 10-9 failures per hour. A second failure rate
column has been added showing Annual data as it is also a commonly
used value.
INSTRUMENT TYPE Type A units are devices without a complex
microprocessor on board, and all possible failures on each component can be defined. Type B units have a microprocessor on board
and the failure mode of a component is not well defined.
MTBF Mean Time Between Failure is calculated from FMEDA FITs
1
data using the formula:
(dd + du + sd + su) * (1E-9) * 8760
SERIES The brand and model designation of the control (e.g.,
ECLIPSE Model 705).

SFF Safe Failure Fraction is a percentage of Safe failures as compared to all failures: SFF = 1 - du / total
A SFF of 91.9% for the ECLIPSE 705-51A, for example, means that
91.9% of the possible failures are self-identified by the device or are
safe and have no effect.
SIL A devices Safety Integrity Level per IEC 61511. The safety integrity
PFDavg Average probability of failure on demand. It represents
the probability a safety-related function will fail to respond when a

demand occurs (in occurrence of a potential dangerous situation,
the safety-related function is supposed to detect). It corresponds to
a measure of its inability to perform the intended function in a safe
time frame.
PROOF TEST INTERVAL The frequency of manual testing to detect
any failures not detected by automatic, on-line diagnostics.
705-510*-***
705-51A*-***
9.00E-03
8.00E-03
7.00E-03
Probability
level corresponds to the range of safety integrity values (SIL 1, 2, 3

or 4), measured in terms of average probability of failure to perform
a safety function on demand and in terms of the safe failure fraction.
Redundant sensors can increase the SIL, it is often stated as 1 as
1oo1 /2 as 1oo2, meaning: SIL 1 if the device is one-out-of-one
device used; SIL 2 if it is one-out-of-two devices used.
PFDAVG(t) Eclipse Enhanced Model 705
6.00E-03
5.00E-03
4.00E-03
3.00E-03
2.00E-03
1.00E-03
0.00E+00
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Proof Test Interval (Years)
10
10
The SIL indicated below is per IEC 61508/61511.

Failure rates expressed in FITS and Annual.
PFDavg is calculated according to a proof test interval of one year, though other proof test intervals
can be applied.
Transmitter failure rates assume the logic solver can detect both over-scale and under-scale currents.
Contact MAGNETROL for complete FMEDA reports.
SIL-Suitable
Controls
Series and Description
Model
TRANSMITTERS
Eclipse Guided Wave Radar Level Transmitter (*Certified SIL 3 Capable)

The Model 705 is a 24 VDC loop-powered transmitter that utilizes a variety of Coaxial,
Twin, and Single rod probes. The performance of the Model 705 is not process dependent, and it is capable of measuring low dielectric liquids or solids.
Pulsar Thru-Air Radar Level Transmitter
Pulsar is the latest loop-powered, 24 VDC, thru-air radar transmitter. It offers faster
response time, easy operation and is not process dependent. 5.8/6.3 GHz offers superior
performance in applications of turbulence, vapor, buildup and some foam.
Modulevel Displacer Level Transmitter
E3 takes displacer transmitters to the next level. Set up in as few as two steps without
level movement. Microprocessor-based, HART, AMS and PACTware compatible, E3
offers stable, reliable 4-20 mA output in most applications, including interface.
Aurora Magnetic Level Indicator
Aurora is a patented, redundant, Magnetic level Indicator combined with an Eclipse
Guided Wave Radar Transmitter. In the event of float failure, the Eclipse radar transmitter
will continue to provide an accurate 4-20 mA output signal.
Jupiter Magnetostrictive Level Transmitter
A loop-powered level transmitter with HART communications, PACTware DTM interface,
LCD display and push buttons for simple configuration. It may be externally mounted to a
MLI or directly into a vessel.
TA2 Thermal Mass Flow Meter
TA2 thermal mass flow meter provides reliable flow measurement of air and gases.
Provides excellent low flow sensitivity, high turndown and low pressure drop. Pre-calibrated
and configured for the users application. Integral or remote electronics.
Echotel Compact Ultrasonic Level Switches
Echotel Models 940/941 switches are economical and compact integral mount units.
These switches utilize pulsed signal technology for superior performance in difficult
process conditions.
Echotel Single Point Ultrasonic Level Switches
Echotel Model 961 switches feature advanced self-testing that continuously monitors the
electronics, transducer and piezoelectric crystals. An adjustable time delay is provided for
reliable measurement in turbulent processes.
SWITCHES
Echotel Dual Point Ultrasonic Level Switches

Echotel Model 962 switches are designed for dual point level measurement or pump control. A tip sensitive lower gap allows measurement to within " of the vessel bottom. The
flow-through upper gap allows up to a 125" (318 cm) separation between switch points.
705 (510)
*705 (51A)
RX5
E3 (HART)
705 (510)
705 (51A)
20X/22X/24X
26X
TA2 (HART)
940
Relay
941
Current Shift
961-5
Current Shift
961-2/7
Relay
962-5
Current Shift
962-2/7
Relay
Single-stage External Cage Float Level Switches

These field-proven switches are self-contained units designed for external mounting on
the side of a vessel, tank or bridle. Over 30 models of mechanical switches have proven
their reliability and repeatability for decades in numerous applications.
Low Level
(SPDT)
Single-stage Displacer Level Switches

Models A10, A15 and External Caged Displacer Switches offer reliable and repeatable
operation in sumps, storage and process vessels. Displacer switches offer flexibility in
application and are not affected by dirty liquids, coating, foam, turbulence or agitation.
Low Level
(DPDT)
Thermatel TD Series Flow, Level Interface Switches

With continuous self diagnostics these switches provide reliable operation for flow, level,
or interface detection. Temperature compensation provides repeatable switch operation
with varying process temperature. Gas or liquid flow applications.
Thermatel TG Series Flow, Level Interface Switches
Providing a two-wire intrinsically safe circuit between the probe and remote DIN rail enclosure these switches are suitable for liquid or gas flow, level, or interface detection. 24 VDC
input power, relay plus mA signal for flow trending/indication.
Low Level
(DPDT)
High Level
(DPDT)
TD1
TD2
TG1/TG2
11
SIL
(1oo1)
Instrument
Type
SFF
PFDavg
Fail Dangerous
Undetected
FITs
ANNUAL
Fail Dangerous
Detected
FITs
ANNUAL
Fail Safe
All
FITS
ANNUAL
84.5%
8.06E-04
183
1.60E-03
567
4.97E-03
431
3.78E-03
91.9%
1.06E-03
130
1.14E-03
847
7.42E-03
624
5.47E-03
73.7%
9.72E-04
222
1.94 E-03
308
2.70 E-03
314
2.75E-03
92.3%
2.95E-04
59
5.17 E-04
540
4.73 E-03
170
1.49E-03
84.5%
8.06E-04
183
1.60E-03
567
4.97E-03
431
3.78E-03
91.0%
4.69E-04
106
9.29E-04
650
5.69E-03
424
3.71E-03
83.7%
9.60E-04
218
1.91E-03
698
6.11E-03
421
3.69E-03
90.7%
5.45E-04
123
1.08E-03
793
6.95E-03
413
3.62E-03
88.4%
1.06E-03
218
1.91E-03
865
7.58E-03
800
7.01E-03
92.8%
1.07E-04
24
2.10E-04
220
1.93E-03
91
7.97E-04
86.7%
1.90E-04
43
3.77E-04
191
1.67E-03
91
7.97E-04
91.4%
1.61E-04
36
3.15E-04
288
2.52E-03
96
8.41E-04
92.0%
1.77E-04
40
3.50E-04
351
3.07E-03
106
9.29E-04
91.8%
1.87E-04
42
3.68E-04
362
3.17E-03
110
9.64E-04
91.5%
2.31E-04
52
4.56E-04
427
3.74E-03
130
1.14E-03
76.1%
4.82E-05
11
9.64E-05
0.00E+00
35
3.07E-04
82.6%
3.50E-05
7.01E-05
0.00E+00
38
3.33E-04
68.2%
1.76E-04
40
3.50E-04
71
6.22E-04
15
1.31E-04
77.7%
1.23E-04
28
2.45E-04
98
8.58E-04
000E-00
69.3%
6.13E-04
140
1.23E-03
252
2.21E-03
65
4.69E-04
73.0%
7.05E-04
161
1.41E-03
390
3.42E-03
46
4.03E-04
79.4%
5.04E-04
115
1.01E-03
188
165E-03
255
2.23E-03
Visit magnetrol.com for more information on SIL-suitable MAGNETROL controls including complete
FMEDA reports. For further information regarding SIS, SIL and general process safety we recommend
these online resources:
Subject:
www:
IEC standards & bookstore...........................................................................iec.ch/home
ISA standards & bookstore ...........................................................................isa.org
exida engineering guides ..............................................................................exida.com
TUV functional safety services......................................................................tuv-global.com
UK Health & Safety Executive ......................................................................hse.gov.uk
Institution of Chemical Engineers .................................................................icheme.org
IHS/Global engineering documents..............................................................global.ihs.com
Factory Mutual process safety .....................................................................fm global.com
OSHA process safety standards...................................................................osha.gov
Center for Chemical Process Safety ............................................................aiche.org
Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
Phone: 052 45.11.11 Fax: 052 45.09.93
Magnetrol & Magnetrol logotype, Echotel, Eclipse, Modulevel, Pulsar, Thermatel,
Aurora and Jupiter are trademarks of Magnetrol International, Incorporated.
PACTware is trademark of PACTware Consortium.
Bulletin: 41-299.4 Effective: January 2012
TANK BRIDLE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
bridle (or cage, isolating column, bypass pipe,

external chamber, etc.) is a vertical pipe connected to the side of a storage tank or process vessel
typically with side/side or side/bottom connections.
Because the fluid inside the bridle will rise and fall
equally with the level of fluid inside the tank or vessel,
the bridle has been adapted for level measurement on
a broad scale.
The Magnetrol use of the term bridle refers to a
bypass chamber on a larger process vessel on which
the level instrumentation for that vessel is mounted.
Bridles usually do not have level equipment extending
into the bridle itself. Level equipment is typically
placed in its own cage or nozzle attached to the bridle.
Bridle Advantages
Bridle level measurement has provided industrial users
with distinct advantages:
Isolation: Because a level instrument mounted in
a bridle is isolated from the process it can be calibrated
or maintained without disturbing the process.
Fewer Connections: A bridle reduces the number

of connections necessary on the process vessel. This
is especially important on boiler code vessels that
require qualified welders and procedures.
Prudent Design: Level instrumentation is often the
last consideration on a project. Mounting the instrumentation on a bridle eliminates the need for planning
multiple instrumentation connections on the vessel.
Saves Time: Because instrumentation is typically
left until the end, ordering a bridle with all the level
instrumentation cuts down on the time necessary to
add connections and install the instrumentation at
the project deadline.
Avoids Obstructions: When a tank has mixers,
agitators, aerators, ladders, or structural bracing, a
bridle avoids any interference between these objects
and the level controls.
Reduces Turbulence, Foam: In a highly agitated
vessel, a bridle calms the surface to be measured and
reduces foam to improve measurement accuracy.
B R I D L E A N AT O M Y
A bridle is connected to the side
of a tank or vessel. Level equipment
is typically placed in its own cage
that is attached to the bridle.
A Magnetic Level Indicator (MLI) can

provide both local and remote level
indication as well as redundant level
control for optimum reliability. The
transmitter is shown with a local
remote extension which offers more
convenient access to the transmitter.
A caged switch (float-type shown) is
a practical solution for narrow level

differential applications such as high
and low level alarms.
A nozzle-mounted point switch

(ultrasonic-type shown) provides
low-low level indication.
A cage-mounted Guided Wave Radar

transmitter is an ideal solution for many
new and retrofit bridle applications.
Isolation valves are often located

between the instrument cage and the
bridle so that the instrument can be
isolated from the process for maintenance or repair.
Bridle Instrumentation
Shown below are the most common level instrument
technologies used for bridle measurement.
Guided Wave Radar GWR mounted in a cage is well
suited for bridle measurement.
Configuration is fast, no calibration is
required, and accuracy isnt affected
by changing densities, dielectrics,
high temperatures or high pressures.
MAGNETROL Eclipse and Horizon
transmitters are available with a wide
range of probes, materials and options.
Magnetic Level Indicators Developed for the most
demanding industrial applications, MLIs
provide local visual indication and
remote indication when combined with
a transmitter. Highly visible flags
magnetically coupled to the moving
float provide local level indication.
Aurora (float and GWR transmitter
redundancy), Atlas (float-based MLI),
and Jupiter (magnetostrictive transmitter) can be customized for unique
application solutions.
External Cage Float Switches A wide range of float
switches suitable for bridle applications
with flanged and sealed cage designs
include ASME B31.1 construction for
boiler and power plant use and B31.3
construction for petrochemical use. HP
and HT versions and a selection of
switch styles and material options are
available.
Displacer Controllers Displacer Controllers utilize
simple buoyancy principles to detect
and convert liquid level changes into a
stable output signal. Modern Displacer
Controllers serve most liquid level
measurement and control applications
including those with varying dielectric,
vapors, turbulence, foam, buildup,
bubbling or boiling and high fill/empty
rates. The MAGNETROL Digital E3
Modulevel is an advanced, intrinsically
safe, two-wire controller that comes in a variety of configurations and pressure ratings for varied applications.
Ultrasonic Contact Point Sensors Nozzle-mounted

Ultrasonic Switches are mounted horizontally on bridles for high or low level alarm
applications. The MAGNETROL Echotel
Model 961 Level Switch offers advanced
transducer designs, extensive hazardous
location approvals, and self-test technology.
Pulsed signal technology for superior performance in difficult conditions, and excellent immunity
from electrical noise interference are also featured.
Thermal Dispersion Point Sensors Nozzle-mounted
Thermal Dispersion Switches provide a
high level of performance for level and interface applications on bridles. MAGNETROL
Thermatel Model TD1/TD2 switches feature continuous diagnostics with fault indication, temperature compensation, narrow
hysteresis, and fast response time.
Capacitance Point Sensors Nozzle- or chambermounted Capacitance Switches offer choices
in alarm and control configurations. The
MAGNETROL Kotron Model 80/81 offers
basic alarm or pump control. KOTRON
Model 810 features a guarded probe and
intrinsically safe probe circuit. The alarm
point is tip-sensitive in conductive media.
Bridle Specification
Below are basic options for MAGNETROL bridles.
Consult MAGNETROL for additional information.
Materials of Construction:
Carbon steel Stainless steel Hastelloy
Monel
Special materials
Quality Assurance / Codes of Construction:
ASME B31.1 ASME B31.3
NDE
CMTRs
NACE MR0175 and MR0103
Accessories:
Valves
Insulation
Pressures:
Up to 2500# ANSI
Heat tracing
Torque Tube Replacement

Frequently mounted in a bridle arrangement,
torque tubes and torque tube displacer transmitters
have maintained a strong foothold for many
decades despite their shortcomings. They are
bulky, mechanically complex, and their measurement accuracy can be degraded by density
changes. Thick, abrasive or boiling liquids are also
unsuitable.
ECLIPSE Guided Wave Radar is the ideal
choice for replacement of antiquated and troublesome torque tubes. Replacement is made easier
when the new transmitter can reside in the same
chamber vacated by the old technology.
The first part of the replacement process is the
removal of the upper head from the existing caged
unit where the flange connects to the lower cage.
This portion is discarded along with the displacer and

other internals. Next, the mating flange, the application-specific GWR probe, and the two-wire powered
electronics are inserted. Replacement flanges or
custom cages are available from MAGNETROL. I
PLEASE NOTE: The instruments recommended in this guide are based on field experience with similar applications
and are included as a general guide to instrument selection. However, because all applications differ, customers
Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
Phone: 052 45.11.11 Fax: 052 45.09.93
Magnetrol & Magnetrol logotype, Aurora, Echotel, Eclipse, Jupiter, Kotron, Modulevel and Thermatel are registered trademarks of Magnetrol International, Incorporated.
Monel is a registered trademark of Special Metals Corporation. Hastelloy is a registered trademark of Haynes International, Inc.
Bulletin: 41-182.0 Effective: May 2009
TRACKING NATURAL GAS WITH FLOWMETERS
1-27044838.indd 1
12/1/09 3:33 PM
October
2009
www.che.com
Feature Report
ENERGY EFFICIENCY:
Tracking Natural Gas

With Flowmeters
Thermal mass flowmeters provide advantages over other options
for metering the consumption of natural gas by individual
combustion units throughout the facility
Wayne Shannon, Magnetrol International
ith todays increased emphasis on strategic energy management, many throughout

the chemical process industries (CPI) and elsewhere are attempting to obtain better information on the
natural gas consumption in their facilities. While custody-transfer flowmeters
are typically in place at the property
line (to track total gas consumption
throughout the facility), the flow to
individual combustion sources, such
as heaters, furnaces, boilers and so on,
generally remains unknown. When
armed with better information on actual natural gas utilization, users can
optimize the combustion performance
by operating combustion processes at
peak efficiency.
Similarly, when users measure actual natural gas flow, they are able to
determine which of their units is the
most efficient. The operating efficiency
of furnaces or dryers will vary. Knowing
which process unit is the most efficient
can result in significant cost savings.
For instance, if more than one furnace,
2
1-27044838.indd 2
dryer or other type of gas-consuming

unit is available, the user will be able
to choose the combustion unit that provides the highest efficiency.
The first step to energy management and reducing the energy usage
is to obtain good measurements of the
flowrates of each individual combustion source. In addition to providing
tools for improving energy management, the measurement of the natural
gas utilized by individual combustion
sources may also permit users to meet
the regulatory requirements for determining emissions by reporting actual
(rather than estimated) natural gas
usage for each individual combustion
source within the facility.
In general, the pipe size for natural gas flow to individual combustion
sources typically ranges from 1 to 6
inches (25 to 150 mm). The temperature
of natural gas is typically at ambient
conditions; rarely will you find natural
gas at elevated temperatures.
However, the pressure varies with
the application. Because of this, flow-
FIGURE 1.
Insertion-style
thermal mass
flowmeters can
easily be used in
pipe with diameters from 1.5 in.
and larger. The
probe is used
with a compression fitting, which
provides easy
installation and
ensures a tight
seal in the pipe
meters are generally located downstream of a pressure regulator. Line

pressures typically range from 5 to 10
psig, and occasionally are as low as 1
to 2 psig. Even though the flowmeter
is downstream of a pressure regulator, the actual pressure of the natural
gas in the pipe may vary depending
on the gas consumption. As the consumption increases, the line pressure
may decrease.
Flowmeter options
There are many different ways to measure the flow of gases. A brief description of the leading options follows (see
also Evaluating Industrial Flowmeters
and Advances in Industrial Flowmetering, CE, April 2007, pp. 5464). The difficulty in obtaining good, gas-flow measurements is the simple fact that gases
are compressible, and thus the volume
of the gas is dependent upon the pressure and temperature at the point of
measurement. Chemical engineers will
recall the basic concepts of the Ideal
Gas Law, whereby gas volume is propor-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2009
11/19/09 9:14:36 AM
100
90
Pressure drop
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
4
6
Flowrate
10
FIGURE 2. In this thermal mass

flowmeter, the sensors are an
integral part of the body construction. This design can be used
in pipe sizes from 0.5 to 4 in., and
may be used with an optional, built-in
flow-conditioning element
FIGURE 3. Shown here is a typical

curve showing the square root relationship between pressure drop and flow for
differential-pressure-type flowmeters. At
very low flowrates, there is little signal,
which limits the ability to accurately measure low flowrates. Similarly, pressure
drop increases with the square of the
flowrate, and this may limit the turndown
or range of this particular type of flowmeter for certain applications
tional to the temperature and inversely

proportional to the pressure. This complicates gas flow measurement because,
with the exception of thermal mass and
Coriolis flowmeters, many gas-flowmeasurement technologies measure
the flow at the actual operating pressure and temperature. These units of
measurement are typically expressed
as either actual cubic feet per minute
(acfm) or cubic meters per hour (m3/h).
When comparing natural gas usage
at various combustion sources for
energy-management systems, on the
other hand, the desired goal is to measure the flow relative to a defined pressure and temperature at standard
conditions (standard temperature and
pressure; STP). While the definition
of standard conditions will vary with
different industries and in different
geographic areas, when the flow is
referenced to standard conditions, a
mass flow measurement is obtained
with units of measurement that are
expressed as standard cubic feet per
minute (scfm), standard cubic feet per
hour (scfh), or normal cubic meters per
hour (Nm3/h).
Flow measurement via orifice
plate.This is the traditional method
of flow measurement for both gas and
liquids. In simplest terms, an orifice is
a plate with a hole that is smaller in
diameter than the pipe diameter. The
orifice plate is positioned between
two flanges. As the gas is accelerated
through the smaller orifice, the pressure decreases, creating a lower pressure on the downstream side of the orifice plate. The flowrate is proportional
to the square root of the pressure drop.
Flow is therefore determined by measuring the pressure drop across the

orifice plate.
The important thing to consider is
that the pressure drop is based on the
flowrate at the gas density at the actual operating conditions. In order to
get a mass flow measurement whereby
the temperature and pressure are referenced to standard conditions, it is
necessary to also have a temperature
transmitter, a pressure transmitter,
and a flow computer or multi-variable
transmitter. As a result, while the cost
of the orifice plate itself is relatively
inexpensive, the installed price of the
complete system becomes substantially more expensive when one considers the additional instrumentation
that is required to obtain an accurate
mass flow measurement.
Another factor with orifice plates is
their range and turndown. With the
orifice plate or any flow measurement
based on differential pressure, the signal (pressure drop) is at zero at no flow
and then increases with the square of
the flow as shown in Figure 3. Thus, if
the user has an application requiring a
5-to-1 turndown in flow, a differential
pressure transmitter with a turndown
of 25-to-1 is required. This issue of
turndown can create limitations with
the application of orifice flowmeters.
Similarly, when sizing an orifice to
handle the maximum flowrate, it may
not be possible to also measure the
flow at the lower end of the range, due
to loss of signal.
The pressure drop across a flow element may be a consideration when
looking at competing flow-measure-
ment devices for natural gas. Generally, the flowmeter is installed downstream of the pressure regulator with
line pressures potentially as low as 1
psig. Under these situations there may
not be adequate pressure in the pipe
to provide sufficient pressure drop to
ensure accurate flow measurement.
Vortex flowmeters. In a vortex flowmeter, a bluff object or shedder bar is
placed in the flow path. As gas flows
around this shedder bar, vortices are
cyclically generated from opposite sides
of the bar. This principle is seen every
day when looking at a flag fluttering
in a breeze. The flag pole is the bluff
object and the fluttering of the flag is a
visual indication of the vortices as they
move across the surface of the flag.
The frequency of vortex generation
is a function of the gas velocity. Various
methods, frequently relying on piezoelectric crystals, are used to detect and
count the number of vortices.
The relationship between the number of vortices shed from the bluff object with the flow is considered to be
linear after some minimum flowrate
has been reached, as determined by the
Reynolds number. It is also important
to realize that the measured flow is
based on the actual gas density at the
operating pressure and temperature.
Thus, to convert the flowrate measured by a vortex meter to mass flow,
the pressure and temperature must
be measured (to adjust for changing
gas density).
When applying vortex flowmeters to
applications involving natural gas flow,
it is important to get complete process
information including the minimum
and maximum flowrate, the gas pressure and gas temperature. Because of
the Reynolds number influence, when
sizing a vortex meter to measure the
minimum flowrate, it is often necessary to reduce the pipe size in order
to increase the velocity to a range that
ensures that vortices will be generated. This may complicate the installation of a vortex flowmeter in existing
installations and may also increase the
pressure drop.
Turbine flowmeters. Turbine flowmeters have wide application for natural
gas flow measurement. The operation
of a turbine is based on a free-spinning rotor. As the fluid flows past the
rotor, the rotor is turned with each
revolution that corresponds to a given
quantity of gas. There is a magnet in
the rotor. The number of rotations are
1-27044838.indd 3
11/19/09 9:14:37 AM
Feature Report
counted using an external pickup that
provides a series of electronic pulses
with each pulse equivalent to one
rotation. The pulses are then sent to
the transmitter.
The manufacturer provides a K factor to relate each rotation to a given
gas volume. The number of pulses that
are counted over a given time period
provide both the flowrate and the totalized flow.
Turbine meters have relatively high
turndown capabilities with corresponding high measurement accuracy.
Like the previously mentioned flowmeter types, the turbine flowmeter is
a volumetric device that measures the
actual flow at the operating conditions
and thus requires pressure and temperature correction to obtain accurate
mass flow. Considerations when applying turbine meters include the cleanliness of the gas and the fact that there
are moving parts in the gas stream.
Ultrasonic flowmeters. This technology measures the difference in transit
time of pulses that travel from a downstream transducer to the upstream
transducer, compared to the time from
the upstream transducer back to the
downstream transducer. While this
technology is accurate and accepted
by AGA (American Gas Assn.) for the
custody transfer of natural gas, the
suitability of this technology for measuring the flow of natural gas to individual combustion sources within a
facility becomes questionable, considering the relatively low velocities, and
more importantly, the high cost of this
device compared to other technology
options. (Note that AGA also accepts
orifice plate, turbine and Coriolis flowmeters.) Flowrate is measured at the
actual operating conditions, requiring
pressure and temperature to obtain
mass flow. Some ultrasonic flowmeters
will require a higher pressure (for instance, some units require a minimum
of 150 psi operating pressure).
Coriolis mass flowmeters. Coriolis
flowmeters provide a direct mass -flow
measurement by measuring the deflection of a vibrating tube. This is a true
mass flowmeter, as it is insensitive to
changes in pressure, temperature, density or gas composition. The Coriolis
flowmeter is very accurate, with high
turndown capabilities.
Coriolis flowmeters often require the
pipe size to be reduced in order to obtain the desired range measurement.
While suitable for measuring flow to
4
1-27044838.indd 4
FIGURE 4 (top). In this

installation of a thermal
mass flowmeter in a 6-in.
pipe, the device measures
and totalizes the flow of
natural gas to a combustion source such as a
boiler, heater, furnace or
other combustion unit
FIGURE 5 (bottom). Thermal mass flowmeters include a sensor such as the one
shown here. It consists of two pins. Each has an RTD. One
has a heater and the other has a mass-balancing element
to ensure equal thermal mass between the two pins. A
small temperature difference is maintained between the
two RTDs. The amount of power applied to the heater to
maintain this temperature difference is then used to obtain
a mass flow measurement
individual combustion sources, this approach becomes rather expensive and

is rarely used for the in-plant measurement of natural gas.
Thermal mass flowmeters. Thermal
mass flowmeters (Figures 1, 2 and 4)
provide an inferred measurement of
the mass flow of the gases passing
through them. Specifically, thermal
mass flowmeters measure heat transfer that is caused as the molecules
(hence, the mass) of gas flow past a
heated surface. The relationship between heat transfer and mass flow
is obtained during the calibration of
the instrument.
In addition to providing a mass flow
measurement without the need for additional devices to correct for pressure
and temperature (as is required with
the other flowmeters, with exception of
Coriolis devices), thermal flowmeters
also provide the following advantages:
Lower flow sensitivity. A thermal
mass flowmeter will easily measure
flowrates that are much lower than
those that can be measured using
orifice plates or vortex flowmeters.
This permits a thermal flowmeter to
be retrofitted into existing natural
gas pipes using a simple NPT (national pipe thread) thread or flange
connection on the pipe. This simplifies installation compared to other
flowmeters, which may require a reduction in the pipe size in order to
obtain the desired rangeability
Higher turndown capabilities. A
range of 100-to-1 is easily obtained
with a thermal mass flowmeter.
Some combustion systems may have
a high natural-gas firing rate during
initial warm-up operation and then,
once the desired temperature has
RTD
Heater
Massbalancing
element
been obtained, the flowrate of the

gas is typically reduced to maintain
the desired operating temperature.
A thermal mass flowmeter can easily
handle this range, which may be difficult to obtain with other technologies
Simplified installation. An insertion
device permits simplicity of installing
the flowmeter using NPT connection,
flange, compression fitting or even a
complete retractable probe assembly.
Using a hot tap permits the user to
install the flowmeter without having
to shut down the operation. The insertion design also permits the use
of the same instrument in different
pipe sizes. Some use the insertion
probe as a semi-portable instrument
and reconfigure the transmitter for
the different pipe sizes
Lower pressure drop. There is virtually no pressure drop when using a
thermal mass flowmeter. This is advantageous in low-pressure applications where other technologies would
consume operating pressure
Today, thermal mass flowmeters from
different manufacturers rely on different methods of operation and sensor
designs. All methods accomplish the
same thing, which is to provide a mass
flow measurement.
A cutaway of a typical sensor is
shown in Figure 5. The sensor consists
of two elements, one providing a temperature measurement of the gas, with
the other element heated to maintain
a desired temperature difference between the two RTDs (resistance temperature detectors). Some manufacturers use self-heated RTDs, while others
use a separate heater.
Because there is a heated element in
11/19/09 9:14:38 AM
Power, mW
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
10,000
20,000
000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
FIGURE 7 (bottom right). This figure shows a fully

developed flow profile in a pipe. It also shows the
use of a compression fitting for positioning the
probe in the pipe. This installation provides
considerable flexibility and easy installation
Flowrate, scfh
FIGURE 6 (top left).

This curve shows the
relationship between
the power and the
mass flowrate for a
thermal mass flowmeter in a 4-in. pipe. Such
a curve is developed
during the calibration
of the instrument
contact with the natural gas, the user

should ensure that the temperature
rise of the sensor is less than the autoignition temperature of natural gas, and
that the instrument has all appropriate agency approvals for use in hazardous areas.
With this design, the electronics
maintain a desired temperature difference between the two pins. At no flow,
there is little heat loss and it takes
little energy to maintain the desired
temperature difference.
As flow increases, heat is transferred
from the heated sensor into the gas
stream, the electronics detect the reduction in the temperature difference
and apply more power to the heater
to maintain the desired temperature
difference. The typical relationship between mass flow and power is shown
in Figure 6.
The shape of this curve is very different from the comparable curve
that was previously discussed for an
orifice plate flowmeter (Figure 3). For
instance, with a thermal mass flowmeter, there is a signal at low flow,
and that signal increases rapidly, providing a great deal of sensitivity at
low flowrates. This is why the thermal mass flowmeter is able to reliably measure much lower flowrates
compared to competing flow-measurement technologies.
Meanwhile, as the flowrate continues to increase, the amount of power
required to maintain the desired temperature difference continues to increase but not as rapidly thus
providing the higher turndown capabilities mentioned earlier. However,
as the flowrate continues to increase,
the sensor will eventually reach a
state where it becomes saturated and
unable to transfer any more heat into
the gas.
Calibration of the thermal mass

flowmeter is required to establish this
relationship between mass flow and
heat transfer. Calibration involves
placing the flowmeter in a test bench,
flowing a known amount of gas past
the sensor, measuring the signal, and
repeating the process at different flowrates. At least ten calibration points
should be obtained over the calibration range of the instrument for best
results. These data are analyzed and
the calibration data are then loaded
into the instrument. After calibration, the flowmeter will provide a
linear output signal over the calibration range.
Because of the heat-transfer characteristics of the sensors, each individual
sensor must be calibrated. Once calibrated, the user can reconfigure the instrument for a lower flow range to accommodate those situations where the
initial flow may be low, and then increase
over time as production in the
facility increases.
We have previously shown that thermal mass flowmeters provide a mass
flow measurement based on the thermal properties of the gas, and thus,
temperature correction for density
adjustments are not required when
going from actual operating conditions
to standard conditions. However, it is
recognized that the thermal properties of the gas will change with gas
temperature. Thus it is important
that the thermal flowmeter have realtime temperature compensation, to
continually adjust the flow measurement for variations in the process
gas temperature.
Various manufacturers deal with
the issue of temperature compensation
differently, with some manufacturers
providing temperature compensation
as a standard offering; with these de-
signs, the instrument also measures

the gas temperature and adjusts the
flow measurement for variations in
the thermal properties of the gas with
temperature.
Thermal flowmeters will provide a
420-mA output signal that is linear
with the flowrate. A built-in software
totalizer is also available, with the totalized flow shown on the display for
those users who want to obtain the
total consumption of the natural gas
over a given time period. Those designs
that also measure the gas temperature
as part of the realtime temperature
compensation also have the ability
show the temperature on display of the
flowmeter. Units with HART communication have the ability to transmit
the mass flow, temperature and totalized flow as part of the HART data
stream. Other units may also provide a
pulse output and a milliamp signal of
the temperature.
Changing gas composition will affect the heat transfer characteristics of
the gas and potentially create an error
in flow measurement. This is most
prevalent when a significant change is
made in the type of gas that is flowing
through the unit for instance, using
a thermal mass flowmeter that was
originally calibrated for air in natural
gas service.
Fortunately, minor changes in the
composition of natural gas, such as a
reduction of methane content with a
corresponding increase in the ethane
content, will have very minor changes
on the overall flow measurement that
is produced by a thermal mass flowmeter. Using this example, the density of
methane and ethane are considerably
different, which will have a significant
effect on other flowmeter technologies
(such as those based on the measurement of differential pressure) where
the gas density is directly used in the
flow measurement.
With thermal mass flowmeters, the
gas density is only one of the factors
that affect convective heat transfer.
Variations in methane and ethane
content of the natural gas can create a
change in the heat transfer characteristics of the natural gas (and slightly
affect the flow measurement). However,
1-27044838.indd 5
11/19/09 9:14:38 AM
Feature Report
the relative change in heat transfer
ansfer is
hange in
comparatively less than the change
gas density, which is directly used by
other flowmeters.
Installation
considerations
Nearly all flowmeters require
ire
ad
some straight run of pipe ahead
ass
of the flow sensor. Thermal mass
asic
flowmeters follow the same basic
tions
guidelines. The flow calculations
owmeused with an insertion-type flowmeter assume the presence of thiss fully delacement
veloped flow profile and the placement
ne of the
of the sensor on the centerline
pipe as shown in Figure 7. Theoretically
the velocity at the wall is zero and the
velocity on the centerline of the pipe is
20% higher than the average velocity.
This illustration also shows the use
of a compression fitting that is commonly used for inserting the probe into
the pipe. Because the flow profile at
the centerline is relatively flat, minor
variations in the insertion depth of the
sensor will not have any impact on the
flow measurement.
Theoretically, this desired flow profile occurs with a straight run of pipe
whose length is the equivalent of approximately 20 pipe diameters. This is
the general guideline for the amount of
straight run following a single elbow,
while longer lengths are required following a double elbow.
In many cases, this amount of
straight run may not be available.
When this is the case, options that
are available include the use of a flow
body with a flow conditioner as shown
in Figure 8. This design ensures that
the desired flow profile at the sensor
is obtained. The use of a flow conditioner reduces the straight-run requirements. Or, the user may accept
a reduction in the absolute accuracy
due to the presence of the non-uniform flow profile, realizing that the
flow measurement will continue to
be repeatable.
If using an insertion probe, another
installation effect that is not frequently
realized is the correctness in pipe size.
The inner diameter (ID) of the pipe or
the pipe area is entered into the transmitter. Users will frequently specify
pipe size such as 4-in. Schedule 40 in
which case the manufacturer utilizes
the pipe dimensions from the standard
pipe tables. What many users may not
realize is that the dimensions in the
pipe tables are nominal dimensions,
6
1-27044838.indd 6
FIGURE 8. This photo of a

thermal mass flowmeter shows a
flow-conditioning
plate. The flow sensor becomes an integral part of the flow
body. This design can
be used in pipes as small as 0.5 in.
and up to 4 in.
in The optional fl
flow
ow
conditioning is used for those applications where there is
insufficient straight run
to obtain the expected flow profile
and in reality, the wall thickness of

the pipes may vary, resulting in corresponding variations in the pipe ID.
Since the pipe area is a critical factor
in calculating the mass flow, any deviation between actual pipe size and the
nominal dimensions will cause errors
in the flow measurement.
It is generally possible to enter correction factors in the transmitter to
adjust for non-uniformity of the flow
profile, pipe size or other installation
effects. However, this requires that the
user have a valid basis for comparing
the measured mass flow with the expected flow.
Biogas measurement
Considerations related to the measurement of biogas using thermal mass
flowmeters are very similar to those
for natural-gas flow measurement.
The primary difference is that biogas
composition is typically a mixture of
methane and carbon dioxide, with the
potential trace concentration of other
gases depending upon the application.
Typically, this ratio is 65% methane
and 35% carbon dioxide. Biogas can
come from a number of sources including anaerobic digesters, landfill operations, and organic-industrial-waste
processing. Other distinguishing issues
with biogas is that the gas is often wet
and may also be dirty.
Biogas measurement systems frequently operate at relatively low pressures and low flowrates. The combination of low flow, low pressure, and a
wet and dirty gas rules out most other
technologies, due to lack of sensitivity
at low flowrates and difficulties with
FIGURE 9. A thermal mass flowmeter

with remote electronics is used to measure the biogas flow from an anaerobic
digester. The probe is located roughly
3 ft from the floor, and the remote head
permits the operator to view the display.
A retractable probe assembly is used to
permit the removal of the probe from the
pipe to ease maintenance while minimizing leakage of a combustible gas
the potential buildup of particulate

matter on the flow element. By comparison, thermal mass flowmeters (Figure 9) are particularly well-suited for
biogas/digester gas-flow measurement,
due to the low flow sensitivity and low
pressure drops. The use of an insertion
probe with a retractable probe assembly eases the periodic removal of the
probe for cleaning.
There are many flow-measurement
technologies that can be used for the
measurement of natural gas and biogas. However, thermal mass flowmeters provide certain advantages
in terms of mass flow measurement,
turndown, flow sensitivity, low pressure drop and ease in installation. In
fact, thermal mass flowmeters tend to
allow for very economical installations,
thereby providing the lowest installed
cost compared to other technologies
that require pressure and temperature
compensation.
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Author
Wayne Shannon is the
thermal dispersion product
manager at Magnetrol International Inc. (5300 Belmont Rd., Downers Grove, IL
60515; Phone: 630-969-4000,
ext. 357; Email: wshannon@
magnetrol.com). He has been
involved with recommending and applying thermal
mass flowmeters for the past
20 years, and has been with
Magnetrol for the past 16 years. Shannon is actively involved with new product development,
product releases, training, customer support and
technical support for Magnetrols line of thermal dispersion mass flowmeters and thermal
dispersion flow and level switches. He holds a
B.S.Ch.E. from the University of New Mexico,
and a Masters degree in marketing from Golden
Gate University in San Francisco.
11/19/09 9:14:39 AM
October
2009
www.che.com
1-27044838.indd 7
FLOWMETERS
11/19/09 9:14:43 AM
54-211.0 Chem Eng Article:Layout 1
12/1/09
2:58 PM
Page 2
Instrumentation from Magnetrol
Guided Wave Radar
Thru-Air Radar
Eclipse and Horizon transmitters are

two-wire, loop-powered, 24 VDC level
transmitters based on Guided Wave Radar
(GWR) technology. Available in coaxial,
twin rod and single rod probes, these
leading-edge transmitters provide measurement performance well beyond that of
many traditional technologies. Available
with HART, FOUNDATION fieldbus and
PROFIBUS outputs.
Pulsar Pulse Burst Radar level

transmitters are the latest generation
of loop-powered, 24 VDC, liquid level
transmitters. They offer lower power
consumption, faster response time
and are easier to use than most looppowered radar transmitters. Pulsar is
available in a dielectric rod or horn
antenna style.
Float & Displacer
Ultrasound
Float-actuated switches are available in

top-mount and side-mount styles for
high or low level alarm, interface, and
pump control applications.Top-mounting
displacer type level switches offer the
industrial user a wide choice of alarm
and control configurations. Displacer
based electronic and pneumatic transmitters offer 4-20 mA or HART output.
Echotel contact and non-contact

ultrasonic level transmitters and
switches are available in a range of
models to provide users with the
features and options suitable for their
specific application. The Models 961
single point and 962 dual point switches
are available with relay or current shift
electronics.
Thermal Dispersion
Visual Indication
Thermatel Model TA2 Thermal Mass Flow

Transmitter provides reliable mass measurement for air and gas flow applications.
Thermatel switches provide a high level of
performance in flow, level and interface applications for air, gas and liquids. A hygienic
version of the TD2 switch is available
for sterile, Clean-In-Place applications.
Atlas, Aurora and Gemini are magnetically

coupled liquid level indicators precision
engineered and manufactured to provide
accurate, reliable, and continuous visual
level indication. Aurora provides redundant
control with both a float and an Eclipse
Guided Wave Radar transmitter.
RF Capacitance
Vibrating Rod
Magnetostriction
Kotron RF Capacitance level

switches and transmitters are
available in nine different
models to provide a wide
range of features to suit a
large array of applications
and process media.
Solitel Vibrating Rod Level

Switches provide reliable level
detection of powders and
bulk solids. This compact,
integral switch is suitable for
high or low level detection in
hoppers or silos.
The Enhanced Jupiter magnetostrictive transmitter provides

a 4-20 mA output proportional
to the level being measured or
Foundation fieldbus output.
May be externally mounted to a
MLI or inserted directly into the
process vessel.
PLEASE NOTE: The instruments recommended in this bulletin are based on field experience with similar applications and are included as a
general guide to flow control selection. However, because all applications differ, customers should determine suitability for their own purposes.
Worldwide Level and Flow Solutions
SM
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS:
5300 Belmont Road Downers Grove, Illinois 60515-4499 USA Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
BELGIUM: Heikensstraat 6 9240 Zele, Belgium Phone: 052 45.11.11 Fax: 052 45.09.93
info@magnetrol.com www.magnetrol.com
Atlas, Aurora, Echotel, Eclipse, Horizon, Kotron, Jupiter, Modulevel, Pulsar, Solitel, and Thermatel are trademarks of Magnetrol International.
FOUNDATION fieldbus is a trademark of the Fieldbus Foundation. HART is a registered trademark of the HART Communication Foundation.
PROFIBUS is a registered trademark of PROFIBUS International. PACTware is a trademark of the PACTware Consortium.
Copyright 2009 Magnetrol International. All rights reserved. Printed in the USA.
INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS
SERIES
A Guide to Level and Flow Controls for the Chemical Industry
CONDENSER
REFLUX DRUM
3
CONDENSER
Leading Level and Flow

Chemical Applications
REBOILER
TOWER
Liquid Level Applications:
TO STORAGE
The following level applications utilize level

instruments for process control. A separate
alarm using a different technology often
serves as a back-up for spill detection.
1-4: Distillation
LIGHT PHASE
1. Distillation Tower
2. Reboiler
3. Condenser
4. Reflux Drum
5. Liquid Extraction
6. Vapor/Liquid Separation
7. Scrubber Vessel
8. Mixing & Blending
9. Chemical Reactor
10. Fermentation Vessel
11. Steam Drum
12. Surge Drum
13. Catalysis Vessel
14. Chlor-Alkali Process
16. Deionization Tank
17. Waste Sump
18. Neutralization
19. Liquids Storage
20. Liquefied Gas Storage
MIXING
SETTLING
HEAVY PHASE
5: Liquid Extraction
VAPOR OUT
FEED
LIQUID OUT
6: Vapor/Liquid Separation
CLEAN AIR OUT
9
SCRUBBER
WATER IN
Flow Applications:
DIRTY
AIR IN
21.
22.
23.
24.
Mass Air & Compressed Air

Process & Waste Gases
Tank Blanketing
Pump Protection
SCRUBBER
WATER OUT
7: Scrubber Vessel
GAS OUT
EFFLUENT
INFLUENT
IN
IN
17
8
PRODUCT
CATALYST
8: Mixing Vessel
17: Waste Sump
13
SOLVENT, RAW MATERIAL

OR REACTANT
PRODUCT
WASTEWATER
GAS FEED
HEAT
STEAM
ACID & CAUSTIC FEED
13: Catalysis Vessel
18
TREATED
WATER
COOLANT
NaCl
PRODUCT
9: Chemical Reactor
HYDROGEN
GAS
CHLORINE GAS
18: Neutralization
OFF-GAS
STERILIZATION
STEAM
19
20
14
10
CAUSTIC
PRODUCT
14: Chlor-Alkali
19-20: Storage Tanks
STERILE AIR
10: Fermentation Vessel

15
STEAM
11
FEED
WATER
AIR/COMPRESSED AIR
22
PROCESS/WASTE GAS
23
TANK BLANKETING
24
PUMP PROTECTION
15: Chemical Injection
11: Steam Drum

INLET
21
VENT
12
UNTREATED
WATER
16
12
OUTLET
12: Surge Drum
TREATED
WATER
16: Deionization
21-24: Flow Applications
DISTILLATION TOWER
Distillation and Extraction Towers
Application: Selecting a separation technology from

among 20 leading varieties depends upon a chemicals nature, the number of phases, and the capacity,
speed and efficiency required. Distillationseparating
substances based on differences in volatilitiesis the
most widely used separation and purification method.
Today, approximately 40,000 distillation towers are
operating in U.S. chemical plants.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Level measurement at the bottom of a

distillation tower controls the bottoms product rate.
Poor level control could allow liquid to back up over
the stripping trays causing damage and reduced
yields. Too low level may cause pump cavitation. In
related extraction towers, interface level control provides optimal separation from associated substances.
Point Level:
External Cage
Level Switch
Continuous Level:
Eclipse Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
or E3 Modulevel
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or Aurora
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
REBOILER
Reboiler
Application: Reboilers, or vaporizers, are heat

exchangers that provide heat to the bottom of a
distillation tower. They boil the bottom liquid to
generate vapors which are returned to the tower
to drive the distillation separation process. The
reboiler may partially or completely vaporize the
stream it receives from the bottom of the tower.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Excess reboiler liquids (bottoms

or blow-down) overflow a baffle where level is
controlled by means of a level controller. If the
reboiler level becomes too low, it will affect the
maximum flow rate of bottoms product that can
be drawn off. Inaccurate reboiler level can also
degrade composition control for material balance
control configurations.
Point Level:
Cage Level Switch
or Tuffy II FloatActuated Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
or E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
CONDENSER
Application: A heat transfer process that changes a
gas or vapor to a liquid, condensation is employed in
the reflux process to improve the efficiency of distillation. Condensation can also be employed for producing saturated liquid products, for sub-cooling, or to
serve an environmental or vapor recovery function.
Condensation is carried out in a variety of configurations.
Challenges: In the distillation process, tower vapors
are condensed prior to entering an accumulator.
The condensers level can be used to control tower
pressure where the liquid level set point serves as the
manipulated variable (MV) for the pressure controller.
Adjusting liquid level in the condenser changes the
effective heat-transfer area.
INSTRUMENTATION
Glycol Regeneration with Condensers
Point Level:
Continuous Level:
External Cage
Level Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705

Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
REFLUX DRUM
Application: Large-scale distillation towers use a
reflux system to achieve a more complete product
separation. Reflux is that portion of a towers condensed overhead liquid product that is cycled back
to the top of the tower where it flows downward to
provide cooling and condensation of the upflowing
vapors.
Challenges: The reflux drum, or accumulator,
serves as a distribution point for reflux and distillate.
Condensed liquid leaves the reflux drum under level
control. Drum level control is critical to ensure that the
proper amount of reflux will return to the distillation
tower. Poor liquid level indication can cause expensive
operating problems and product degradation.
INSTRUMENTATION
Reflux Drum
Point Level:
External Cage
Level Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter or E3
MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
LIQUID EXTRACTION
Application: Liquid-liquid extraction (LLX), or solvent
extraction or partitioning, is a selective separation
procedure for isolating and concentrating a valuable
substance from an aqueous solution by using an
organic solvent. LLX can serve as an alternative when
distillation is ineffective. LLX is used in pharmaceutical, food and agricultural processing, organic and
inorganic chemistry, hydrometallurgy and fragrances.
INSTRUMENTATION
Extraction
Point Level: Series
Challenges: In mixer-settler type extraction, feed

and solvent tanks are monitored for level. The feed
and solvent are thoroughly blended in a mixer-settler
chamber and the mixture overflows into a separation
chamber where it settles into light and heavy phases.
The separate phases are monitored and removed on
interfacial level control.
Continuous Level:
3 Float-Actuated
External Cage
Level Switch or
Thermatel Model
TD1/TD2 Thermal
Dispersion Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705

Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter or E3
MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
VAPOR/LIQUID SEPARATION
Flare K/O Drum
Application: Where the separation of vapors and

liquids is required, a separator drum, or knockout pot,
flash drum, or compressor suction drum, is integrated
into the process unit. The separation vessel receives
the flashing liquid mixture where the liquid is subsequently gravity separated and falls to the bottom as
the vapor exits at the top.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Typically, a collection tank located

beneath the separation chamber collects the liquid by
gravity flow and utilizes a liquid level control for liquid
withdrawal. The control also maintains a vapor barrier
while discharging the collected liquid at the same rate
of accumulation. In some separators, such as flash
drums, liquid level must be kept within an extremely
narrow span for very tight control.
Point Level:
Echotel Model
961 Ultrasonic
Switch or
THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter or Jupiter
Magnetostrictive
Level Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
SCRUBBER VESSEL
Application: Scrubbers remove odors, pollutants,
acid gases and chemical wastes from air and liquid
streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted stream flows
counter currently past water or a liquid chemical
which removes the undesirable component of the gas
or liquid. Chemical scrubbing typically requires large
amounts of caustic chemicals.
Challenges: Accurate level monitoring of the scrubbing water necessitates a control to automatically
feed the correct amount of make-up water to the
recycle reservoir either continuously or on a periodic
basis. Located in the wet scrubber shell, the level
monitoring device for water-out control should be
equipped with a level alarm.
INSTRUMENTATION
Natural Gas Scrubbers
Point Level:
Continuous Level:
ECHOTEL Model
961 Ultrasonic
Switch or
THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705

Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter or
JUPITER
Magnetostrictive
Level Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
MIXING & BLENDING

Application: Mixing and blending of liquid
ingredients is essential throughout the broader
chemical industry. In-line and skid mounted
systems include batch and continuous mixing
for liquid/liquid formulation and blending. An
impeller in the process vessel accomplishes
the mixing of miscible liquids.
Challenges: A mixing and blending system can
be as simple as a vessel with an agitator and
graduate in complexity to a fully skid-mounted
PLC controlled system with heating, cooling,
homogenization and steam injection capabilities.
Level controls monitor tank and vessel levels and
trigger alarms in underfill and overfill incidents.
INSTRUMENTATION
Mixing Tank
Point Level:
External Cage
Level Switch
Continuous Level:
Pulsar Model RX5
Pulse Burst Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
CHEMICAL REACTOR
Application: Chemical, polymerization and pharmaceutical processes utilize reactor vessels to contain
chemical reactions. Chemical reaction speed and
product quality are frequently controlled by an external heat exchanger for elevating temperature and a
cryogenic system for lowering temperature. Reactors
typically contain impellers for product mixing.
INSTRUMENTATION
Chemical Reactor
10
Point Level:
External Cage
Level Switch
Challenges: Level instrumentation in a tank-type

reactor vessel must contend with diverse and often
aggressive product chemistries, agitation, mixing,
surface foam and temperature and pressure
variations. Low level monitoring in the discharge
line, high level monitoring in the vessel, and
interfacial measurement of the foam/emulsion
interface is recommended.
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
FERMENTATION VESSEL
Application: Industrial fermentation is the process of
breaking down organic substances and re-assembling
them in order to produce other chemical compounds.
Alternative fuels like ethanol and chemicals such as
methanol and a wide range of acids can be developed
using this process. Chemical fermentation takes place
in large tanks called fermenters in a process that can
either be aerobic or anaerobic.
INSTRUMENTATION
Fermentation Vessel
Point Level:
ECHOTEL
Model 961
Ultrasonic Level
Switch
Challenges: Depending upon the type of fermentation

vessel and the media being processed, the level control
often must contend with agitation and aeration. Froth
or foam is typically generated because fermentation
agents have surfactant properties. When processing
acids, contact level controls must tolerate the very
aggressive media.
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
11
STEAM DRUM
Application: Chemical manufacturers are major
users of steam for cleaning, drying, fermentation,
steam stripping, and chemical recovery. Steamingin-place (SIP) is a widely used method for in-line
sterilization of vessels, valves, process lines, and
filter assemblies. Steam is created in a boiler where
heat transforms water under pressure into steam.
INSTRUMENTATION
Steam Drum
12
Point Level:
Challenges: Boiler drum level control is critical for

safe and efficient steam generation. Drum level
control maintains level at constant steam load.
Too low a level may expose boiler tubes, which will
overheat and sustain damage. Too high a level may
interfere with separating moisture from steam, which
reduces boiler efficiency and carries moisture into
the process.
Continuous Level:
Series 3
Float-Actuated
External Cage
Level Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705

Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter or E3
MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
SURGE DRUM
Application: Surge drums are frequently located
between process units to help reduce the effect of
flow rate variations between interconnected process
units. A low surge drum level can result in reduced
capacity while a high level can cause liquid carryover. In an application characterized by alternating
inertia and turbulence, stable level output is highly
desirable.
INSTRUMENTATION
Surge Drum
Point Level:
Model A15
Switch
Challenges: Contrary to the normal control

objective of keeping a measurement at set point,
the purpose of a surge drum level control is to
dampen the changes in controlled flow while keeping
the liquid level in the vessel between limits. For surge
drums it is generally more important to allow levels
to "float" in order to minimize flow rate variations.
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Transmitter or E3
MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level Indicators
10
13
CATALYSIS VESSEL
Application: The catalytic method of converting
compounds into other compounds uses a chemical
catalyst to increase the rate of a reaction. The
catalyst is chemically unchanged after the reaction
has occurred and can be recovered from the reaction
mixture. Thirty of the top fifty commodity chemicals
are created directly by catalysis.
Challenges: In the fluidized bed reactor-regenerator
(FBRR) a fluid is passed through the catalyst at high
enough velocities to suspend the solid and cause it to
behave as though it were a fluid. Measurement in the
reactor vessel must contend with severe process
conditions. Finished product and, in some configurations, spent catalyst, is on level control.
INSTRUMENTATION
Catalysis Vessel
14
Point Level:
Continuous Level:
Model A15
Displacer-Actuated
Level Switch
E3 MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Typically does not apply
CHLOR-ALKALI PROCESS
Application: Chlor-alkali (CA) refers to chlorine and
caustic soda (NaOH) manufacturing. These are
among the top ten chemicals produced worldwide
and are main ingredients in the manufacture of
pharmaceuticals, detergents, disinfectants,
herbicides, pesticides and PVC. Chlorine and caustic
soda are made by the electrolysis of brine (NaCl).
INSTRUMENTATION
CA Process
Point Level:
ECHOTEL Model 961
Ultrasonic Switch or
THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Thermal
Dispersion Switch
Challenges: In the preferred membrane process of

CA, level instruments control saturated brine and
demineralized water feed, and caustic liquid level.
Level control maintains a high enough level in the
anode and cathode compartments to ensure membrane saturation, thus preventing any exchange of
gases via the membrane in the upper part of the
electrolysis cell.
Continuous Level:
PULSAR Model RX5
Pulse Burst Radar
Transmitter or E3
MODULEVEL
Displacer-Actuated
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
15
11
CHEMICAL INJECTION
Application: From Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients
(APIs) to Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors (VCIs),
any one of a thousand additives and agents can be
injected into the process stream of a given industry
to alter or impart new product properties or enhance
processing dynamics. Injection systems and
chemical skid systems offer a wide range of dosing
control options.
INSTRUMENTATION
16
Point Level:
Challenges: A chemical injection system typically

consists of one or more chemical supply tanks or
drums, a metering tank, a vessel with a mixer (if
required), a variable pump, and process controls.
Chemical tanks and chemical skid packages require
level monitoring to ensure that the tanks do not
overfill or run out of feed chemicals.
Continuous Level:
ECHOTEL Model
961 Ultrasonic
Switch; or
THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Switch
ECLIPSE Model 705

Guided Wave Radar;
or Enhanced JUPITER
Magnetostrictive Level
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
DEIONIZATION TANK
Application: Highly purified water is essential in
processing premium grade and highly purified
products in the chemical, pharmaceutical, beverage,
cosmetics and electronics industries. Deionization (DI)
is frequently used to remove minerals from water by
passing water through two separate ion bedscation
and anionfollowed by mixed bed saturation.
Challenges: Multiple bed DI units have pairs of tanks
where an optional CO2 degasser may be placed in
between. Single bed DI units incorporate both the
cation and anion exchangers mixed in a single tank.
In addition to monitoring feed water, a level control
in the mixing tank will operate the transfer pump to
route the purified water to storage.
INSTRUMENTATION
Deionization Tanks
Point Level:
ECHOTEL Model
961 Ultrasonic
Switch; or Model
T20 Float Level
Switch
Continuous Level:
PULSAR Model RX5
Radar Transmitter; or
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
Level Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can
be supplied with
switches or
transmitters
12
17
WASTE SUMP
Application: Industrial chemical plants generate large
volumes of liquid wastes and runoffs that are collected
in large open-atmosphere sumpsconcrete lift stations,
in-ground pits or reservoirs. When the collected liquid
reaches a pre-determined level it is discharged for transport to waste storage, treatment, or disposal facilities.
Challenges: Level controls typically actuate a pump to
automatically control sump level between two set points.
The control can be configured to activate an alarm and a
pump shutdown to avoid overfill or pump cavitation in
the event of too high or too low levels. Sump level
controls must often be robust enough to contend with
corrosive media, high solids content and very punishing
weather.
INSTRUMENTATION
Open Atmosphere Sump
18
Point Level:
Model A10
Switch
Continuous Level:
ECHOTEL Model 338
Ultrasonic Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Typically does not
apply
NEUTRALIZATION
Application: To protect neighboring water systems,
industrial wastewater must be neutralized so that it is
neither acidic nor alkaline prior to its discharge. The
neutralization process takes place in a tank where
aqueous solutions of an acid and a base
are added to wastewater. Sulfuric acid, sodium
hydroxide and calcium carbonate are most
commonly used.
INSTRUMENTATION
Neutralization Tank
Point Level:
ECHOTEL
Model 961
Ultrasonic
Level Switch
Challenges: Level is measured in the neutralization

and chemical regeneration tanks which typically
involve agitation and aggressive chemicals. Ideally,
the tank level monitoring system should be easily
removable for frequent cleaning. Contact level
sensors should be single rod types to avoid media
buildup.
Continuous Level:
PULSAR Model RX5
Pulse Burst Radar
Transmitter or
ECHOTEL Model 338
Ultrasonic Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
19
13
LIQUIDS STORAGE
Field Storage
Application: Liquids stored at chemical plants include

water (potable, demineralized, fire, cooling), ingredients
and finished product storage. Hazardous chemicals
include inorganic acids, buffers, ammonia, chlorine,
and solvents. Tanks range in size from small plastic
totes to large steel tanks. The chemical stored and
the tank type largely determine the level control used.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Level instruments indicate inventory

levels and protect against tank overfills and underfills
that cavitate pumps. As some chemicals are
corrosive enough to destroy contact sensors, or
can crystallize and coat sensors to render them
ineffective, non-contact level monitoring, resistant
materials, by-pass chambers and redundant controls
are sometimes used.
20
Point Level:
Model A10
Switch
Continuous Level:
Burst Radar Transmitter
or ECHOTEL Model 338
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
LIQUEFIED GAS STORAGE

Liquefied Gas Storage
Application: Gases are frequently converted to a liquid

to facilitate convenient storage. Many liquefy by cooling
at normal atmospheric pressure while others require
pressurization as well. Industrial gases commonly stored
in this fashion include liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, liquefied chlorine, LPG and LNG Gases are re-vaporized
through an application of heat.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Above or below ground insulated storage

tanks are built to specifically hold liquefied gases and
minimize the amount of evaporation. Liquefied gas tank
level monitoring typically contends with pressurization,
extremely low temperatures and low dielectric media.
Contact and non-contact measurement sensors may
require a standpipe.
Point Level:
Cage Switch or
TUFFY II FloatActuated Switch
Continuous Level:
ECLIPSE Model 705
Guided Wave Radar
or PULSAR Model RX5
Pulse Burst Radar
Transmitter
Visual Indication:
Atlas or AURORA
Magnetic Level
Indicators can be
or transmitters
14
21
MASS AIR & COMPRESSED AIR FLOW

Application: The flow of air is monitored in nearly all
industrial settings, including applications for processing,
air/gas mixing, cooling, blowing & drying, combustion,
aeration, ventilation, filtration, and ingredients mixing.
Compressed air (CA) is essential for pneumatic tools,
materials handling, oxidation, fractionalization,
cryogenics, dehydration, filtration and aeration.
Challenges: Significant air-flow variables include pipe
diameters, wide flow ranges, varying velocities and low
flow sensitivity. Flow meters help ensure efficient operation at rated SCFM output and detect air leaks. A flow
meter with a totalizer provides an accurate measurement of CA consumption.
INSTRUMENTATION
Combustion Air Flow
22
Flow Alarm:
Continuous Flow:
THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Thermal Dispersion
Flow Switch
THERMATEL Model TA2

Flow Meter
PROCESS & WASTE GAS FLOW

Flare Gas Monitoring
Application: Common process gases used in chemical,

pharmaceutical, plastics, semi-conductor, food, beverage, and petrochemical processing include compressed
air, natural gas, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen, oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Industrial waste exhaust gases are
present in a wide variety of compositions from benign
to toxic. Measurement of the flow of these later gases
is often required for reporting environmental emissions.
INSTRUMENTATION
Challenges: Continuous mass flow measurement of

compressed gases help improve plant efficiency. Often
these applications require high turndown capabilities and
low flow measurement with varying gas pressures and
temperatures. Thermal mass flow measurement ideally
handles these applications providing high accuracy, high
turndown with reliable, dependable operation.
Flow Alarm:
THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Thermal Dispersion
Flow Switch
Continuous Flow:
THERMATEL Model TA2
Flow Meter
23
15
TANK BLANKETING
Application: Nitrogenthe most widely used commercial gasis the ideal tank blanketing gas when
injected into the vapor space of a storage tank. It
prevents ignition of flammable liquids, inhibits vapor
loss, and protects chemicals, pharmaceuticals and
foods from oxygen and moisture degradation.
Nitrogen is also used as a purging agent and in
cryogenic applications.
Challenges: Mass flow measurement will monitor the
nitrogen blanketing gas. A mass flow meter can track
usage as a cost control measure and determine the
when, where and by whom of gas usage. Flow monitoring of feed lines can prevent unsafe conditions that
may arise when gas supply is insufficient.
INSTRUMENTATION
Field Tanks
24
Flow Alarm:
Continuous Flow:
THERMATEL
Model TD1/TD2
Thermal Dispersion
Flow Switch
THERMATEL Model TA2

Flow Meter
PUMP PROTECTION
Application: Pumps are used throughout chemical
operations for moving process fluids. Whether caused
by a closed valve, a plugged line downstream or by
pump cavitation, pumps operating in a reduced or
no-flow condition can overheat and rupture the pumps
seal and cause a dangerous deviation in process
pressure and temperature.
Challenges: A flow switch along a pumps discharge
piping will actuate an alarm and shut down the pump
when liquid flow drops below the minimum flow rate.
Solid state switches provide the highest level of protection in these instances by offering low flow sensitivity,
wide temperature operation and high turndown.
INSTRUMENTATION
Centrifugal Pumps
Flow Alarm:
THERMATEL Model
TD1/TD2 Thermal
Dispersion Flow
Switch
Pump Protection:
THERMATEL Model TD1/TD2
Thermal Dispersion Flow Switch


Food & Beverage
Life Science
Nuclear Power
Petroleum Refining
Power Generation
Pulp & Paper Mills
Renewable Energy
Steam Generation
Water & Wastewater
Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
Phone: 052 45.11.11 Fax: 052 45.09.93
Magnetrol & Magnetrol logotype, Aurora, Echotel, Eclipse, Jupiter, Modulevel,
Pulsar, Thermatel, and Tuffy are registered trademarks of Magnetrol International, Incorporated.
LIQUID INTERFACE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
The Need
for Interface
Measurement
I N T E R FA C E 1 0 1
he need for interface measurement arises

whenever immiscible liquidsthose incapable
of mixingreside within the same vessel.
The lighter material rises to the top and the heavier
material settles at the bottom. In oil production,
for example, water or steam is used to extract oil
from a well. Well fluids then route to production
separators where they settle into their primary
constituent parts as a water-hydrocarbon interface.
Water may also be used as a transport medium or

a cleaning agent and forms an interface with an
allied material which is later extracted.
Interfaces are most commonly found in the
diverse separation processes that are essential to
every industry. Separation recovers additives, catalysts or solvents, extracts impurities, and routes
media into different processing channels.
Though our emphasis is on liquid/liquid interface, interfaces also form between liquid and solids,
liquid and foam, or liquid and a gassuch as gases
(other than air) that are used in tank blanketing.
Immiscible liquids meet along an interface layer
The
Emulsion
Layer
Interface
Measurement
Technology
where they undergo some amount of emulsification. This emulsion layer (also called a rag layer)
may form a narrow and precise boundary; but
more frequently it is a broader gradient of mixed
liquidsor liquids mixed with particles that form
a slurry. Generally, the thicker the emulsion layer,
the greater will be the measurement challenge.
Knowing the position of a process interface
is necessary for maintaining product quality and
operations efficiency. The interface is measured
and controlled by precision level switches and
transmitters. Though at least 20 different types of
liquid level measurement devices are in service
today, only a very few are suitable for accurate and
reliable interface measurement.
The five leading interface measurement technologies in use today are discussed in the pages
ahead. Grouped by their operating technologies,
these include Buoyancy (Floats and Displacers),
RF Capacitance, Thermal Dispersion, Radar, and
Redundant Technologies (those combining two
measurement technologies in one instrument).
Principal Applications
Petroleum and Gas
Separators
LPG Dehydrators
Heater Treaters
Crude Desalters
Free-water Knock-out
Regenerators
Coalescers
Crude Dewatering
Acid Settling Tanks
Alkylation Tanks
Coking Drums
Other Industrial
Liquid Oxygen and
Nitrogen production
Digester Vessels
Extractors & Separators
Grease Traps
Pulp and Paper
Mining and Quarrying
Food and Beverage
BioPharmaceutical
Chemical Plants
Storage Facilities
Water & Wastewater

Settlement Tanks
Clarifiers
Sludge Thickeners
Filtration Systems
Final Effluent Monitoring
Types of Interface
Liquid/Liquid Interface
The liquid/liquid interface
including classic oil/water

productsis found in separation, purification, catalysis,
extraction and other processes.
Liquid/Solids Interface
These interfaces are common
in Water and Wastewater
Treatment, Pulp and Paper,
Mining and Quarrying, and
Chemical Processing.
Foam/Liquid Interface
Interface detection between
immiscible fluids can be

calibrated in some controls to
alarm when the liquid changes
to foam.
Vapor/Liquid Interface
The phase change of a vapor
to a liquid is detected in
storage tanks, tank cars and
process systems. Interfaces
between vapor and foam can
also be detected.
FLOAT & DISPLACER

I N T E R FA C E
Float Switches
Displacer Switches
MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE:
A float calibrated for interface

service must be heavy enough to
penetrate the upper liquid yet
buoyant enough to float on the
lower liquid.
PROCESS CAPABILITIES:
Max Pressure:
3000 psig @ +697 F
Min Pressure: Full Vacuum
Max Temperature: +1200 F
Min Temperature: -150 F
Sensitivities: 0.1 is the minimum difference allowable
between the S.G.s of the upper
and lower liquids. As S.G. difference approaches this limit, very
large floats are required.
Interface level movement changes

the buoyancy force on a displacer
suspended from a range spring.
The force change on the spring
causes it to extend or compress,
moving an attraction sleeve into
or out of the field of the switch
magnet, actuating the switch.
PROCESS CAPABILITIES:
INSTRUMENT OPTIONS: Float-
type switches available for top,

side mounting, and external
cage applications. A wide range
of mercury, dry contact, hermetically sealed, pneumatic and
vibration-resistant switch mechanisms are offered.
TECHNOLOGY
The Tuffy side-mount, float-type switch is compact

and economical. A simple and reliable T20 topmount switch. One of Magnetrols many float or
displacer, external cage switches. Displacement-type
controls are well-suited for simple or complex interface

applications.
Max Pressure:
5000 psig @ +300 F
Max Temperature:
+500 F @ 2665 psig
Sensitivities: Wider deadbands
than float; entire displacer must
be submerged in interface service.
INSTRUMENT OPTIONS:
Top-mounting displacer switch

options include electric or pneumatic switch mechanisms and
enclosures; Proof-er ground
check; and a wide range of connections.
Displacer Controllers & Transmitters

Movement of the interface level along the length

of the displacer causes the precision range spring
to extend or compress. This causes the movement
of the core within a linear variable differential
transformer in the electronic Modulevel resulting
in a digital or analog output. In the Pneumatic
Modulevel, this causes the movement of a magnetic
ball which guides the magnet carriage resulting in
a pneumatic output change.
INTERFACE MEASUREMENT:
This technology is widely used for interface service

because it is unaffected by emulsions and will accurately track the middle of the emulsion layer.
PROCESS CAPABILITIES (Electronic Models):
Steam Applications:
20 F to +500 F
Non-Steam Applications: 20 F to +600 F
(with carbon steel chambers)
Process Pressure: Up to 5100 psig @ +100 F
Modulevel
Far Left: Shown with

cutaway views to reveal
the position of its range
spring and displacer,
Pneumatic Modulevel
controllers offer high
reliability in temperature and pressure
extremes.
Near Left: E3 Modulevel
electronic transmitters
offer advanced interface
control in digital or analog versions.
RF CAPACITANCE
I N T E R FA C E
TECHNOLOGY

RF TECHNOLOGY:
KOTRON RF (Radio Frequency)
Capacitance-type electronic controls offer
many interface measurement advantages:
Up to 150-foot measurement range
Conductive and non-conductive liquids
Corrosive and abrasive media resistance
Extensive sensor probe selection
No moving partsMaintenance free!
AIR:
PUMP ON
OIL:
=1
=2.1
Emulsion:
RF MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE:
As media rise and fall inside a tank, the
amount of capacitance developed between
the sensing probe and the ground reference
rises and falls. In RF switches, this change
is sensed by the electronics and converted
into a relay operation. In RF transmitters,
the electronics convert the capacitance
change into a continuous level measurement.
RF INTERFACE MEASUREMENT:
The dielectric constant () of the process
medium is critically important. The higher
the difference between the dielectric constants of the process material and the area of
the two layers the easier the interface measurement will be.
RF PROCESS CAPABILITIES:
Max Pressure: 2000 psig @ +100 F
Max Temperature: +400 F @ 200 psig
Min Temperature: -40 F @ 3000 psig
Sensitivities: Variable dielectrics and
conductive coating.
RF SWITCH OPTIONS:
Single-point and multi-point
Integral or remote location
Field selective fail-safe setting
Intrinsically safe probe circuitry
Narrow or wide differential
Easy calibration models
RF TRANSMITTER OPTIONS:
4-20 mA, 20-4 mA output
Integral or remote location
Self diagnostics
FM and CSA approvals
Up to four control relays
LCD display and keypad options
Two-wire, 24 VDC, loop-powered
RS-485 Modbus communication
HART digital communication
Dual channel operation for two probes
=?
PUMP OFF
WATER:
=80
WATER OUT
Switches: In the oil and water

interface above, RF Point Switches
provide instantaneous detection
of the dielectric difference
between the two media. The
Model 822 Multi-Point Switch can
use one unit for pump control.
The Model 804 provides pump
control and 4-20 mA output.
Switches
Transmitter: A Capacitance transmitter

will measure total vessel capacitance.
Since water has a high dielectric, most
capacitance is generated by the water.
The dielectric () in the rag layer (red
box) changes from 2.1 to 80. As water
mixed in the oil increases conductivity,
the emulsion layer will appear to be more
like water than oil.
Transmitters
801
811
822
832
842
804
805
082
THERMAL DISPERSION
I N T E R FA C E
TECHNOLOGY
TD TECHNOLOGY:
THERMATEL switches offer a new level
of interface performance and reliability in
thermal dispersion technology (see productspecific features in grey box below right):
Accurate, fast-responding technology
Easy, quick calibration
Not affected by temperature, pressure
or viscosity.
TD MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE:
Switches using thermal dispersion technology detect heat transfer which reduces the temperature difference between the switchs two
sensors; one sensor is for reference and the
other is heated to a temperature above the
process temperature. The temperature difference is greatest in air, then decreases when
cooling occurs due to a change in media. The
electronics compare the electrical signal from
the sensor against the set point and provide a
relay actuation.
TD INTERFACE MEASUREMENT:
The Thermatel TD1/TD2 and TG1 switches
have been designed and engineered for level,
flow or interface detection. When used as an
interface detection switch, the set point can
be adjusted to detect the difference in media
between two fluids that have different thermal
conductivity. Water has a very high thermal
conductivity while organic materials (oil) have
a much lower thermal conductivity. Thermatel
detects the difference in media due to the temperature difference which will be greater in the
organic layer than in the oil layer.
Three Interfaces detectable by Thermatel Switches:

Liquid/Liquid Foam/Liquid Vapor/Liquid
Switches
TD1/TD2
TG1
TD PROCESS CAPABILITIES:
Sensitivities: Condensing environments
TD SWITCH OPTIONS:
Available in explosion-proof version
Intrinsically safe design
Available in threaded, flange, sanitary
and adjustable length connections
Viewable alarm status window
Integral or remote electronics
Hot tap retractable probe
FEATURES:
Continuous diagnostics; fault indication
Temperature compensated to provide

repeatable alarm under varying temps
Narrow hysteresis and fast response
FEATURES:
Two-wire, intrinsically safe circuit

between the probe and the remote
din rail enclosure
LEDs provide visual indication
24 VDC input power

Non-linear mA output signal for trending,
Adjustable set point and time delay
diagnostics & repeatable level indication
Sanitary design option
NACE construction option
Window to view alarm status option

Integral or remote electronics
SPDT Alarm relay
mA output signal for diagnostics

and repeatable level indication
NACE construction option
GUIDED WAVE RADAR

I N T E R FA C E
GWR TECHNOLOGY:
An ECLIPSE Model 705 Guided Wave
Radar (GWR) transmitter is capable of measuring both an upper liquid level and the interface level:
Two-wire, 24 VDC, loop-powered
Not effected by changing specific gravity
Probe-based GWR is subject to less signal
dispersion and attenuation.
Easy configuration without changing level
Quick connect/disconnect probe coupling
GWR MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE:
Eclipse is based on Time Domain Reflectometry. TDR transmits pulses of electromagnetic energy down the wave guide, or probe.
When a pulse reaches a liquid surface that has
a higher dielectric constant than the air in
which it is traveling (dielectric constant of 1),
the pulse is reflected. Ultra high-speed timing
circuitry provides an accurate measure of liquid level. Even after the pulse is reflected from
the upper surface, some of the energy continues along the length of the probe through the
upper liquid. The pulse is again reflected when
it reaches the higher dielectric lower liquid.
GWR INTERFACE MEASUREMENT:
The dielectric constant () of the interface
media is critically important for GWR. As
shown in the illustration at right, the upper
dielectric should be between 1.4 and 5, and
the lower dielectric should be greater than 15.
The typical oil and water interface application
shows the upper, nonconductive oil layer
being 2, and the lower, very conductive water
layer being 80. Eclipse measurement is suitable where the interface is clean and distinct
and the depth of the emulsion layer is shallow.
TECHNOLOGY
Reference Signal
AIR:
=1
Eclipse
Model 705
with a
Model 7XT
Coaxial
Interface
Probe
OIL: =2.1
WATER:
=80
CUTAWAY: Eclipses coaxial probe allows nearly

100% unimpeded transmission of the high-frequency
Radar pulses. The electromagnetic field that develops
around the inner rod is completely contained.
GWR PROCESS CAPABILITIES:

Sensitivities: Probe coating or buildup,
foam, dielectric constant, deep emulsion layer.
GWR TRANSMITTER OPTIONS:
HART or FOUNDATION fieldbus digital
communications
Hastelloy and Monel construction
Local Remote assembly
Eight-character LCD and three-button keypad
LOCAL REMOTE: A chambered Eclipse transmitter

at an Oman oil refinery (above) utilizes a Local Remote
assembly for installation convenience and flexibility.
MAGNETIC LEVEL INDICATION

R E D U N D A N T I N T E R FA C E
TECHNOLOGY
MLI TECHNOLOGY:
Flagship of the Orion Instruments product
line, the AURORA Magnetic Level Indicator
(MLI) combines Eclipse Guided Wave Radar
and float technology into a truly redundant
measurement system. Auroras chamber houses
both an Eclipse probe and a float:
Single-chamber redundancy in a compact,
precision fabricated chamber
The Eclipse probe is mounted off-center
within the chamber permitting the float to
rise and fall as level changes
Ideal for low specific gravity applications
and low-dielectric media such as propane,
butane, and hexane
MLI MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE:
Orions Aurora combines the operating system of a conventional float-based MLI with
an all-electronic Eclipse Guided Wave Radar
transmitter for true level measurement redundancy in a single-chamber design.
MLI PRODUCTS:
Orions products are applicable to a wide
range of services and offer either level or continuous interface measurement (or both).
In addition to Aurora, Atlas is the ideal
replacement for sight and gauge glass instruments and suitable for the most demanding
high pressure and temperature applications.
Twin chamber Gemini features a Guided
Wave Radar, Magnetostrictive or Capacitance
transmitter set into its secondary chamber.
Jupiter utilizes Magnetostrictive technology
for reliable level and interface measurement.
ESSENTIAL MLIs: Atlas is designed for side and

top mounting. Jupiter mounts to the side of the
MLI gauge or directly into a secondary chamber or
vessel. Gemini and Aurora MLIs are side-mounted
on vertical, horizontal or spherical vessels.
VISUAL INDICATION: A side-mounted Atlas with
a reed switch (below) measures a tanks true interface level. Rising or falling tank fluid corresponds
to a similar change within the Alas chamber. In
response to this movement, the float moves up or
down accordingly and registers the interface level
on a flag-type (or shuttle style) indicator.
MLI PROCESS CAPABILITIES:

Max Pressure: 4500 psig
Max Temperature: +1000 F
Sensitivities: Variable S.G., media buildup.
PROCESS
INTERFACE
MLI TRANSMITTER OPTIONS:

HART digital communication
FOUNDATION fieldbus communication
MLI options include flag-type or shuttle
indicator, scales, switches and transmitters,
blankets, steam or electric heat tracing, and
frost extensions. A wide selection of materials, pressure classes, process connections,
and instrument configurations is offered.
VISUAL
INDICATION
PLEASE NOTE: The instruments recommended in this guide are based on
field experience with similar applications and are included as a general guide
to instrument selection. However, because all applications differ, customers
Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
Phone: 052 45.11.11 Fax: 052 45.09.93
BRAZIL: Av. Dr. Mauro Lindemberg Monteiro 185-Jd. Santa F, Osasco So Paulo CEP 06278-010
CHINA: Room #8008 Overseas Chinese Mansion 129 Yan An Road (W) Shanghai 200040
DUBAI: DAFZA Office 5AE 722, P.O. Box 293671 Dubai, United Arab Emirates
SINGAPORE: No. 48 Toh Guan Road East #05-123 Enterprise Hub Singapore 608586
Magnetrol & Magnetrol logotype, Echotel, Eclipse, Modulevel, Thermatel, Pulsar,
Aurora and Jupiter are trademarks of Magnetrol International.
PACTware is trademark of PACTware Consortium
Copyright 2009 Magnetrol International. All rights reserved. Printed in the USA.
Bulletin: 41-171.1 Effective: September 2008
Special Applications Series:
Flow Instrumentation for

Energy Management
GO GREEN... THINK BLUE.

Think Magnetrol .
To meet increasing regulatory,

environmental, social and bottom
line demands, rely on Magnetrol
and Thermatel TA2 mass flow meters
for your energy and environmental
management solutions.
Thermatel TA2 thermal mass flow meters

are up to the challenge of your most
demanding applications.
TA2 thermal mass flow meters will help optimize your green energy initiatives by
improving measurement of greenhouse gases and making processes less energy
intensive and more energy efficient.
Thermal dispersion technology

Thermal flow meters are primarily used in air and gas flow measurement
applications. The meters consist of a transmitter and probe with temperature
sensors (RTDs) located in the pins at the bottom of the probe. One sensor
measures the process temperature and the other sensor is heated to a specific
temperature above this. As the flow rate increases, heat gets taken away from
the heated sensor. Some manufacturers use a variable power operation to keep
Francisco
the temperature difference constant, while others keep the power
constant and
measure the temperature difference. Thermatel model TA2 measures the power
it takes to maintain a constant temperature difference between the sensors.
This relationship between power and mass flow rate is established during
calibration.
Higher
Specific Temp
RTD
Process Temp
RTD
Media flow
dissipates heat from
Specific Temp RTD
Power needed to
maintain constant
temperature between
the 2 RTDs
Aeration
Aeration basins require air flow to allow microorganisms to efficiently

break down the waste in wastewater treatment plants.
Challenge: Maintain proper air flows to the sections of the basins.
Solution: Measure and balance air flows using the Thermatel TA2.
Blower efficiency can also be optimized by measuring the air flow
and not running excess air into the basin based on dissolved oxygen
(DO) levels.
Note: The TA2 is also used for aeration flow measurement in froth flotation
applications in the mining industry.
Digester Gas
Sludge at a wastewater treatment plant goes into an anaerobic digester

that produces a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide. This is similar
to a biogas plant using waste from farms or the food industry to release
a similar gas mix.
Challenge: Low flow rates and low pressures make it difficult to
monitor how much gas is going to flare or is being used in an energy
co-generation process or carbon credit project.
Solution: The Thermatel TA2 has a strong signal at low flow rates and
low pressures to accurately measure the digester gas mix. It is easy to
install using a compression fitting, has no moving parts and will
measure mass flow directly without the need for pressure or temperature correction.
Landfill Gas (LFG)
Landfills produce a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide that can be

flared off or captured in a co-generation project. The EPA has
regulations for reporting the emissions for landfills that produce 25,000
metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent per year.
Challenge: Measure mass flow rate to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions for reporting or determining fuel use in a co-generation
process.
Compressed Air Systems
Often unmeasured, compressed air runs through the departments of a

facility, and failure to measure the air leads to unnecessary energy
costs.
Challenge: Accurately measure compressed air throughout the facility
to determine consumption and to monitor if there is leakage in branch
lines. It is estimated that 30% of compressed air usage is due to
leakage, which can account for thousands of dollars of wasted air.
Solution: Use the TA2 to measure mass flow directly for a wide
operating range and without the need for temperature or pressure
correction.
Flare Gas
Flares can include exhaust gases at a chemical plant or refinery, natural

gas at the wellhead, or landfill and digester gases.
Challenge: Measure the emissions that are being flared to the
atmosphere.
Solution: The high turndown and low flow capabilities of a Thermatel
TA2 make it desirable in flare gas applications. Calibrations for mixed
gases are available and the insertion probe can be supplied with a
retractable device for removing the probe for cleaning.
Combustion Air Flow
Precise air flow control to a furnace or boiler is required to maintain an

efficient stoichiometric ratio too little air results in incomplete
combustion and potential carbon monoxide off-gassing; too much air
cools the furnace and wastes heat out of the stack.
Challenge: Monitor air flow to make more efficient use of fuels for
combustion.
Solution: The Thermatel TA2 is a highly repeatable device that can be
used to track the flow in order to tune the furnace or boiler accordingly.
Natural Gas Measurement
Solution: Capturing and measuring LFG allows the flare flow to be

measured or the amount of gas being stored to be used as a fuel. The
Thermatel TA2 can be calibrated for mixed gases and operates over a
very wide flow range (high turndown).
Flow of natural gas to individual combustion sources should be

measured to optimize combustion efficiency or, similarly, to determine
which unit is most efficient. Users can also measure natural gas to
know how much is being burned and eventually emitted for reporting
purposes.
Coal Mine Methane
Challenge: Get accurate and repeatable flow measurements of natural

gas to boilers, furnaces, kilns and other equipment to get peak
efficiency in the combustion process.
Venting gases from both active and inactive coal mines can be captured
and used as an energy source rather than emitting them to the
atmosphere. The EPA created the Coalbed Methane Outreach Program
to help reduce these emissions.
Challenge: Varying flows and amounts of methane.
Solution: Direct mass flow measurement, high turndown, simplified

installation and low pressure drop have made the Thermatel TA2 ideal
for many natural gas applications.
Solution: With high turndown, low flow sensitivity and mixed gas
calibration capabilities, the Thermatel TA2 is the optimal choice for flow
measurement.
ISO 50001
is a voluntary standard for

energy management systems that can apply to
many industrial and commercial industries. The
TA2 can be used to measure compressed air or
sub-meter natural gas in order to determine
current energy consumption, as well as future
process improvements.
Read our paper Energy Efficiency:

Tracking Natural Gas with Flowmeters.
Download it from our thermal mass flow technology portal:
www.magnetrol.com/thermalmassflow
Note: Natural gas and renewable fuels like biogas are used at district energy sites,
as well as combined heat and power plants (CHP), where the Thermatel TA2 can be
used to measure the fuel usage.
Thermatel TA2 Thermal Mass Flow Meters

Breakthrough Performance
Thermatel TA2 flow meters deliver significant advantages compared to traditional gas flow measurement technologies.
Direct thermal mass flow measurement doesnt require pressure or
temperature input for density correction, as do many gas flow
technologies, such as differential pressure.
Offers excellent low flow sensitivity: mass velocities of 10 SFPM
(0.05 Nm/s) to 50,000 SFPM (250 Nm/s) (gas dependent).
Measures low velocities as well as high flow rates for a turndown
rate of 100:1 or more.
TA2 probes create negligible pipe blockage, resulting in very low
pressure drops.
TA2 measurement functions are accomplished without moving parts,
resulting in little or no maintenance and fewer online problems.
TA2 transmitters have been engineered for easy installation and fast
set-up, while providing rugged, accurate and reliable service.
Calibrated for your application, each instrument is ready for
immediate field installation and operation.
Installed cost of TA2 transmitter is very competitive with other gas
mass flow measurement technologies.
Agency approvals include FM, FMc, ATEX and IEC.
Available as insertion or inline styles; hot tap assemblies available.
Flow body designs for pipe sizes as small as inch.
GO GREEN THINK MAGNETROL BLUE.
To learn more about the advantages of Thermatel TA2 thermal dispersion technology,
contact your Magnetrol representative today.
5300 Belmont Road Downers Grove, Illinois 60515-4499 USA Phone: 630-969-4000 Fax: 630-969-9489
Magnetrol & Magnetrol logotype and Thermatel are registered trademarks of Magnetrol International, Incorporated.
Bulletin: 54-280.0 Effective: September 2012

Magnetrol O&g

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INDUSTRY

A Guide to Level Instrumentation for Onshore/Offshore Oil Processing

Level & Flow

NOTE: The actual nature and number of steps

1. Production Fluid Storage 3

Natural Gas Processing

Flow controls for

Continuous Gas Flow:

Natural Gas processing is found in

Primary Water Treatment

Secondary Water Treatment

PRODUCTION FLUID STORAGE

Thermatel Model TD1/TD2

Chemical Injection Skid

TWO PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SEPARATORS

Horizontal (below): These separators are well suited for three-phase

Water Wash Tank

PROCESS & STORAGE TANKS

API 2350: New recommended practices regarding tank overfill

Model A15 Series

ECLIPSE Model 705 Transmitter

VAPOR RECOVERY UNIT

Application: If allowed to escape into the atmosphere,

AN INDUSTRY GUIDE TO LEVEL MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL FROM MAGNETROL

10. Catalytic Stripper

12. Acid Settling Tanks

13. Alkylation Tanks

14. Catalytic Reformer 10

20. Finished Products

See page 14 for information on

A n Industry Guide To Level Measurement and Control from Magnetrol

Challenges: Tank level is maintained by valve

Challenges: Coating and build-up on probes

Challenges: Preflash drums create moderate

Challenges: In some steam reboilers, the level

Challenges: Level control is critical because

Challenges: Catalytic crackers utilize a reactor

Seldom used due

Challenges: Level controls for the catalyst

Series 3 FloatActuated External

ACID SETTLING TANKS

Challenges: Interface level control of the settler

Challenges: Interface level control in caustic

E3 MODULEVEL DisplacerActuated Transmitter or

Photo of Catalytic Reformer courtesy of CB&I

Series 3 FloatActuated External

Challenges: Near the end of the process, reactor

CHEMICAL STORAGE & FEED

Challenges: Liquid solution storage and day

Challenges: Level is normally measured only for

FINISHED PRODUCT STORAGE

Challenges: Tank monitoring uses buoyancy,

REFINERY FLOW APPLICATIONS

Challenges: Flow alarms and continuous flow

Thermatel Model TD2

THERMATEL Model TD2

For Continuous Air or Gas

POWER GENERATION & WATER/WASTEWATER

Power Generation: Many petroleum refineries incorporate power generating

Where Great Fuel

efinery professionals know that great gasoline can

that especially means process controls that deliver reliable

second to none. And thats the difference between just

Mass Flow Measurement