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Unit 3
GPS Surveying
Introduction:
Satellite navigation is a leading-edge technology which allows anyone with a receiver to
determine their position very accurately at any time by picking up signals from a constellation of
several satellites. Currently, the United States Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian
GLONASS system are the only operational Satellite navigation systems. Europe has begun the
development of a third independent global system, known as Galileo.

Satellite navigation Overview:

The following system overview uses examples based on GPS, however the principles
apply to all satellite navigation system. GPS is a satellite navigation system capable of providing
a highly accurate, continuous, global navigation service independent of other positioning aids.
GPS provides 24 hour, all-weather, worldwide coverage with position, velocity and timing
information.
The system uses 24 operational satellites to provide a receiver with at least six satellites in
view at all times. A minimum of four satellites in view are needed to allow the receiver to compute
its current latitude, longitude, altitude and time. With this information the users receiver can also
calculate other parameters such as its velocity and acceleration.

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Components of GPS:
Any satellite navigation system has three parts:
The Space segment
The Control segment
The User segment
All these parts operate together to provide accurate three-dimensional positioning, timing and
velocity data to users worldwide.

The Space Segment:

The GPS system constellation has 24 satellites in six 55 orbital planes, with four satellites
in each plane, with room for spares. The orbit period of each satellite is approximately 12 hours at
an altitude of 20,183 kilometers. With this constellation, a user receiver has at least six satellites
in view from any point on earth. Other systems use satellites in different orbits and orbital periods.
The satellite broadcast signal contains data which identifies the satellite and provides the
positioning, timing, ranging data, satellite status and corrected orbit parameters of the satellite.
GPS satellites transmit on two frequencies; one centered at 1575.42 MHz, known as L1
and the other at 1227.60 MHz, known as L2. The L1 carrier is modulated by the C/A code
(Coarse/Acquisition) and the P code (Precision). P code is encrypted for military and other
authorized users. The L2 carrier is modulated only with the P code. Similar signals exist for
Galileo and GLONASS, although both systems differ in the way signals are delivered. New L2C
and L5 signals are being added to the system as new satellites are launched.

The Control Segment:

The GPS control segment consists of a master control station, five base stations and three
data up-loading stations in locations round the globe. Other configurations are possible for other
satellite navigation systems.
The base stations track and monitor the satellites via their broadcast signals. These
signals are passed to the master control station where orbital parameters and timing corrections
are computed. The resulting corrections are transmitted back to the satellites via the data uploading stations.

The User Segment:

User receivers, can be referred to as the User Segment, and consist of equipment which
track and receive the satellite signals. User receivers must be capable of simultaneously
processing the signals from a minimum of four satellites to obtain accurate position, velocity and
timing measurements. However accuracy and reliability is enhanced as the number of visible
satellites increases.
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Applications of Satellite Navigation:

Satellite navigation applications are almost limitless, but some typical ones include:
air traffic navigation and control and their related accuracy and integrity; enhancement
infrastructure;
management and tracking of ship and land vehicle fleets;
rental and personal car navigation systems;
automation of container location and tracking to increase the efficiency of ports;
navigation systems for remotely piloted air, land and water vehicles;
road and rail traffic monitoring;
dispatch and monitoring of emergency services;
automated car and truck guidance systems;
automated guidance of agricultural equipment for efficiency improvements in crop spraying
and harvesting
recreational guidance for hikers, boaters, cyclists and explorers;
aerial, seismic, and land surveying;
large structure monitoring (such as dams, bridges, buildings, etc);
accurate timing systems for communications and commerce; and
earthquake and tsunami detection and warning systems.

Map Datums:
Well-defined coordinate systems are required for positioning points in 2D or 3D space on
surface of earth. However, one needs to represent or idealize earth in a manner suitable for
proper representation of position. Several idealizations have been proposed for the shape of
earth. For example, the first approximation to shape of earth is Geoid, the theoretical shape of
earth. Differences in the density of the earth cause variation in the strength of the gravitational
pull, in turn causing regions to dip or bulge above or below a mathematical reference surface
called ellipsoid. This undulating shape is the Geoid. The geoid is very irregular and the magnitude
of geoidal deformation depends on the variation in the strength of the magnetic field, and on
geologic history. A rotational ellipsoid is another mathematical approximation to earth's shape. It
is an imaginary, regular and smooth mathematical surface over which computation of coordinates
becomes very easy. An ellipsoidal surface can be further approximated by a sphere.
Following figure gives the most important surfaces from the view point of positioning the
actual earths surface, and its approximation in the form of geoid and ellipsoid. The separation

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between ellipsoid and geoid is indicated by Geoidal undulation (N). The normal distance earths
surface and geoid is called ortho-metric height (H). The normal distance earths surface and
ellipsoid is called the geodetic height (h). An approximate relationship between these quantities is
given by (h = H + N). Since geoid is also very irregular, it is approximated by another surface
called mean sea level (MSL).

As the actual earth surface is highly undulating, defining position on this surface is quite
difficult. We use the concept of datum which is a mathematical model of the earth we use to
calculate the coordinates (2D or 3D) on any map, chart, or survey system. The datum can be
vertical to define vertical position (Z) with respect to a reference surface or horizontal to define
the horizontal position (X and Y). Geoid is used for representation of land and ocean surface
topography and can be defined as that surface which best fits the MSL. The MSL is generally
used as the reference surface for heights or as the vertical datum. Using conventional survey
equipment which make use of plumb bob and bubble tube to establish directions of gravity and
level surface, one can easily realize the difference in heights between two points However, even
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this surface (MSL) is also not smooth enough for representation of horizontal coordinates. Hence,
separate horizontal datum, also called as the geodetic datum are used for horizontal positioning.
Geodetic datum define the size and shape of the earth and the origin and orientation of the
coordinate systems used to map the earth. Modern geodetic datum range from flat-earth models
used for plane surveying to complex models from spherical earth to ellipsoidal models and
derived from years of satellite measurements. These are used for many applications which
completely describe the size, shape, orientation, gravity field, and angular velocity of the earth.
The ellipsoidal systems can be geocentric or non-geocentric. The geocentric systems have
their z-axis aligned either (a) with the instantaneous spin axis of the earth (instantaneous
terrestrial system, ITS) or (b) with a hypothetical spin axis adopted by a convention (conventional
terrestrial systems, CTS). Such systems became useful only quite recently, with the advent of
satellite positioning. The World Geodetic System-84 (WGS-84) is one such system which is the
global system for defining coordinates for GPS measurements. The non-geocentric systems are
used for local work (observations) in which case their origin would be located at a point on the
surface of the earth. For near-geocentric systems, origin is usually as close to the center of mass
of the earth as the earlier geodesists could establish.
Such systems are off the center of mass by anything between a few meters and a few km
(more than 100 such systems are in existence around the world). These associated reference
ellipsoids are taken to be concentric with their coordinate system, geocentric or near-geocentric,
with the axis of revolution coinciding with the z-axis of the coordinate system. Indian Everest
system, on which all our topographic mapping is based, is an example of such local geodetic
system whose initial point or tie point is located at Kalyanpur (MP, India).

Indian Geodetic Datum:

The Indian system is a topo-centric system which is realized by:

Choosing an initial point (origin)

Specifying, the latitude and longitude of the initial point

Azimuth of a line from this point

Two parameters of a reference surface (ellipsoid):

Components of deflection of vertical

Geoidal undulation at the initial point

Indian Geodetic datum, using Everest spheroid is a local geodetic datum, which best fits to
certain extent the Indian subcontinent. It is non-geocentric ellipsoid, and its origin is far
away from the geo-centre (C. G. of the Earth).

The geodetic coordinates based on Everest spheroid differ considerably (in many cases
even hundreds of meters) as compared to WGS 84 and other International ellipsoids.

Details of the Indian topo-centric system:

Origin (Initial Point)
Latitude of Origin
Longitude of Origin
Meridional deflection of vertical

Kalyanpur
24o 07' 11''.26
77 o 39' 17''.57
-0''.29

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Prime vertical deflection of vertical

Semi major axis of Everest Spheroid
Flattening of Everest Spheroid
Geoidal undulation
Azimuth to Surantal

2''.89
6,377,301 meters
1/300.8017
0 meters
190 o 27'06''.39

Types of GPS receivers:

Two basic types of GPS receivers are:
1. Code phase receivers
2. Carrier phase receivers
These receiver types can be further subdivided as
1. C/A code receivers
2. P-code receivers
3. Codeless receivers
4. Single and dual-frequency receivers
5. Receivers using cross-correlation or squaring or P-W techniques

Code dependent or code phase receivers:

These are also called code correlating receivers since they need access to the satellite
navigation message of the P- or C/A-code signal for operation. Following are the characteristics;

Use almanac data from satellite navigation message for operation and signal processing

Provides real-time navigation data

Have anywhere-fix capability because it can synchronize itself with GPS time at a point
with unknown coordinates once a lock on the signals of four satellites has been obtained
and, consequently, a quicker start-up time at survey commencement.

Unique capability to begin calculations without being given an approximate location and
time.

In code based receivers, the phase position of the received code sequence is compared
with the phase of an identical code replica, generated by the receiver (using the same

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algorithm as used for the code from the satellites) via a correlation technique. Hence, the
observable is also called the code phase. The two code sequences are shifted stepwise in
phase until maximum correlation is obtained.

A complete code dependent correlation channel produces following observables and

information:

code phase

carrier phase

change of carrier phase (Doppler frequency)

Carrier phase receivers:

Utilize the actual GPS signal itself to calculate a position. Two general types of such
receivers are (a) single frequency (b) dual frequency
(a) Single frequency receiver

Tracks L1 frequency signal only

Cheaper than dual frequency receivers

Used effectively to relative positioning mode for accurate baselines of less than 50 km or
where ionosphere effects can generally be ignored.

(b) Dual frequency receiver

Tracks both L1 and L2 frequency signal

More expensive than a single frequency receiver

Can more effectively resolve longer baselines of more than 50 km where ionosphere
effects have a larger impact.

Eliminate almost all ionosphere effects by combining L1 and L2 observations.

Comparison of single and double frequency receivers:

Single Frequency
Access to L1 only
Mostly civilian users
Much cheaper
Modulated with C/A and P codes
Corrupted by ionospheric delay

Double frequency
Access to L1 and L2
Mostly military users
Very expensive
It may not be possible for civilian users once Y code is
there.
Almost independent of ionospheric delay

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Used for short base lines

Most receivers are coded

Used for both long and short base lines

Most receivers with dual frequency are codeless

Most dual-frequency receivers utilize codeless and propriety semi-codeless techniques

allowing use of L2 during anti-spoofing (AS). "AS is a policy of the U.S. Department of Defense
by which the P-Code is encrypted (by the additional modulation of a so-called W-Code to
generate a new "Y-Code"), to protect the militarily important P-Code signals from being "spoofed"
through the transmission of false GPS signals by an adversary during times of war. Hence civilian
GPS receivers are unable to make direct P-Code pseudo-range measurements and must use
proprietary (indirect) signal tracking techniques to make measurements on the L2 carrier wave
(for both pseudo-range and carrier phase). All dual-frequency instrumentation must therefore
overcome AS using these special signal tracking and measurement techniques" (Rizos, 1999).

Characteristics of codeless receivers:

Use signals without the knowledge of codes which has the advantage that the system is
independent of possible restrictions on code access to civilian users.

Neither the ephemeris nor the almanac and precise time can be extracted from signals.

Nowadays totally codeless receivers are not built as it is almost certain that C/A code will be
available to all users. Such technique is useful, however, for access of L2 in times of P-code
denial (AS activated) (Seeber 2003).

Geodetic receivers:
These receiver are essentially used for geodetic/surveying applications with the following
characteristics (Seeber, 2003):

carrier phase data as observables

availability of both frequencies (L1, L2 )

access to the P code, at least for larger distances, and in geographical region with strong
ionospheric disturbances (low and high latitudes).

Following factors should be kept in mind for such receivers (Seeber, 2003):

Tracking all signals from each visible satellite at any time (GPS only system requires 12
dual frequency channels; GPS+GLONASS system needs 20 dual frequency channels)

Both frequencies should be available

Low phase and code noise

High data rate ( > 10 Hz) for kinematic applications

High memory capacity

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Low power consumption and weight and small size

Full operational capability under AS

Capability to track weak signals (under foliage, and difficult environmental conditions)

Multi-path mitigation, interference suppression, stable antenna phase centre (explained

later)

Good onboard and office software

Other useful features for geodetic receivers:

A modern GPS survey system should measure accurately and reliably anywhere under any
condition; it should be useable for almost any application (geodetic, geodynamic, detailed GIS
and topographic engineering survey, etc.) and may have the following features (Seeber, 2003):

1 pps timing output

event marker (for marking special events or area of interest to the GPS use)

ability to accept external frequencies

fast data transfer to computer

few or no cable connection

radio modem

DGPS and RTK capability (explained later)

operate over difficult meteorological conditions

ease in interfacing to other systems and from other manufacturer

ease and flexibility of use (multi purpose applications)

flexible set up (tripod, pole, pillar, vehicle)

Considerations in selection of GPS receivers:

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Structure of GPS receiver:

Functionally, there are two groups of GPS receiver structures:

Application processing

Signal processing

Application processing

Time and frequency transfer

Static and kinematic surveying

Navigation

Ionospheric Total Electron Content (TEC) monitoring

Operation as differential GPS (DGPS) reference station

GPS signal integrity monitoring

Signal processing

Splitting of incoming signal into multiple satellite signals

Generation of reference carrier

Generation of reference PRN code

Acquisition of satellite signal

Tracking of code and carrier

Demodulation and system data extraction

Extraction of code phase measurements

Extraction of carrier frequency and carrier phase

Extraction of satellite Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) information

Relationship of GPS system time

Components of GPS receiver:

Antenna with preamplifier

Radio frequency (RF) and intermediate frequency (IF) Front end section

Signal tracker and Code co-relator section

Reference oscillator

Microprocessor (navigational solution unit)

Other parts: memory, power supply, display and control

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(i) Antenna and preamplifier

Detects the electromagnetic waves arriving from the satellite, converts the wave energy
into an electrical current, amplifies the signal strength and passes on the signal receiver
electronics.

GPS signal structure requires that all GPS antennas are right-handed circularly polarized.

Very sensitive as it has to pick up rather weak satellite signal, allows signal reception from
all elevation and azimuths of the visible hemisphere and should minimize the multi-path
effects.

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Voltage induced by GPS signal in the antenna is sent to the preamplifier

Antenna Types: monopole or dipole, quadrifilar helix (also called volute), spiral helix,
microstrip (also called patch), choke ring

(ii) RF/IF Section

GPS signal is down converted to a lower frequency in RF/IF section. This is done by
combining the RF signal with a sinusoidal signal generated by the local reference
oscillator.

IF signal contains all code and data signals from the original RF signal with low carrier
frequency.

(iii) Signal tracker and code correlator

IF signal from all satellites is passed on to this section. Here signals are isolated, identified
by their codes and assigned to a particular channel.

Receiver channel is main electronic unit of GPS receiver.

Various channel types: parallel, sequencing, and multiplexing

(iv) Reference oscillator

Inexpensive quartz oscillators are used.

Some receivers can also accept external high precision signal from atomic frequency
standards with less noise.

(v) Microprocessor (navigational solution unit)

Controls the operation, including signal acquisition, signal processing, and decoding of
broadcast message.

Computation of on-line positions and velocity, conversion into a given local datum, DGPS
correction

Accepts commands from the user, display of information, and data flow through
communication port.

(vi) Other parts: memory, power supply, command and display

For post processing data is stored on internal or external memory devices, Modern
receivers have internal solid state (RAM) memories or removable memory cards. Data can
also be transferred to laptops by using RS232 or equivalent communication port.

Receivers use low voltage DC power with low energy consumption and generally use
rechargeable nickel-cadmium or lithium batteries.

Handheld keypads are used for display and communication between user and receiver.

Post-processing software from the vendor can be used for further processing of GPS data.

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Advantages of GPS:

Unlike conventional surveying procedures, there is no need for inter-visibility between

stations.

Independent of weather conditions as a result of using radio frequencies to transmit the

signals.

Use of same field and data reduction procedures results in position accuracy which are
independent of network shape or geometry and are primarily a function of inter-station
distance.

GPS surveying provides generally homogeneous accuracy. Hence, geodetic network

planning in the classical sense is no longer relevant. The points can be established
wherever they are required and need not be located at evenly distributed sites atop
mountains to satisfy inter-visibility, or network geometry criteria.

GPS surveying is more efficient, more flexible and less time consuming positioning
technique than using conventional terrestrial survey technologies.

GPS can be used to obtain high accuracy three dimensional (3D) information, anywhere
and any time with relatively little effort on a global datum .

The GPS instrumentation and the data processing software do not radically change even if
very high or moderately high accuracies are required (from 1 part in 10 4 to 1 part in 106 ).

Current Limitations of GPS:

GPS requires that there is clear opening to sky without any obstruction to the signals by
overhanging branches or structures (though the antenna can be raised above the
obstruction). Hence, underground usage is not possible. Further, there may be limited
applications in densely settled urban areas .

One needs careful advanced planning to realize true potential of GPS. Various issues
related to transportation, travel, and logistic support need to be sorted out before actual
survey work for higher efficiency.

Frequently, GPS surveyed sites may not be useful for conventional surveys due to intervisibility, shape and geometry requirements.

Two inter-visible stations would have to established by GPS in order to satisfy the
requirement for azimuth data for use by conventional (line-of-sight) survey methods.

Since GPS coordinates are available in global WGS-84 datum, reliable coordinate
transformation schemes are required for transforming GPS coordinates into a local
geodetic system for their integration with results from conventional surveys.

GPS results are, in general, more accurate than the surrounding control marks established
by terrestrial techniques over time. Comparison of GPS and terrestrial results will be the
source of confusion, controversy and conflict for many years to come .

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Since GPS vertical information is not available in universally acceptable geoid based
height system, GPS heights have to be reduced to a sea level datum by suitable
transformation.

The GPS instrumentation is still comparatively expensive. Although the price of one
receiver is likely to soon match that of a theodolite-EDM instrument, generally a minimum
of two are required for most survey works.

Because of complex procedures for planning, data reduction and post-processing, GPS
surveys require skilled personnel for operations.

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