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Corn Introduction
Origin, History, and Uses of Corn
History and Origin
For western civilization, the story of corn began in 1492 when Columbus's men discovered this
new grain in Cuba. An American native, it was exported to Europe rather than being imported, as
were other major grains. Like most early history, there is some uncertainty as to when corn first
went to Europe. Some say it went back with Columbus to Spain, while others report that it was
not returned to Spain until the second visit of Columbus.
The word "corn" has many different meanings depending on what country you are in. Corn in the
United States is also called maize or Indian corn. In some countries, corn means the leading crop
grown in a certain district. Corn in England means wheat; in Scotland and Ireland, it refers to
oats. Corn mentioned in the Bible probably refers to wheat or barley. At first, corn was only a
garden curiosity in Europe, but it soon began to be recognized as a valuable food crop. Within a
few years, it spread throughout France, Italy, and all of southeastern Europe and northern Africa.
By 1575, it was making its way into western China, and had become important in the Philippines
and the East Indies. Although corn is indigenous to the western hemisphere, its exact birthplace
is far less certain. Archeological evidence of corn's early presence in the western hemisphere was
identified from corn pollen grain considered to be 80,000 years old obtained from drill cores 200
feet below Mexico City. Another archeological study of the bat caves in New Mexico revealed
corncobs that were 5,600 years old by radiocarbon determination. Most historians believe corn
was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico. The original wild form has long been extinct.
Evidence suggests that cultivated corn arose through natural crossings, perhaps first with
gamagrass to yield teosinte and then possibly with backcrossing of teosinte to primitive maize to
produce modern races. There are numerous theories as to the ancestors of modern corn and
many scientific articles and books have been written on the subject. Corn is perhaps the most
completely domesticated of all field crops. Its perpetuation for centuries has depended wholly on
the care of man. It could not have existed as a wild plant in its present form. Corn is often
classified as dent corn, flint corn, flour corn, popcorn, sweet corn, waxy corn, and pod corn. The
remainder of this discussion will be concerned only with dent corn, which is the major type
cultivated in the United States.
Corn was the most important cultivated plant in ancient times in America. Early North American
expeditions show that the corn-growing area extended from southern North Dakota and both
sides of the lower St. Lawrence Valley southward to northern Argentina and Chile. It extended
westward to the middle of Kansas and Nebraska, and an important lobe of the Mexican area
extended northward to Arizona, New Mexico and southern Colorado. It was also an important
crop in the high valleys of the Andes in South America.
The great variability of the corn plant led to the selection of numerous widely adapted varieties
which hardly resembled one another. The plant may have ranged from no more than a couple of
feet tall to over 20 feet. It was not like the uniform sized plant that most people know today. For
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the Aztecs, Mayas, Incas and various Pueblo dwellers of the southwestern United States, corn
growing took precedence over all other activities.
The principal role of the corn plant during the 19th century was closely tied to the development
of the Midwest. In the movement westward, corn found its major home in the woodland clearings
and grasslands of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and adjacent states. These were places where it
had not been grown widely in prehistoric times. As early as 1880, the United States grew over 62
million acres of corn. By 1900, this figure had reached approximately 95 million acres; by 1910, it
was over 100 million acres. The highest acreage ever recorded in the United States was 111
million acres in 1917.From the beginning of records in the 1880s, through the mid-1930s, there
was no significant increase in the national average corn yield. Yields during the 1920s and 1930s
were no higher than those produced as a national average in the late 1800S.
It was not until the vast technological advances in the early 1940s that corn yields started to
show significant yield increases. Prior to this time, the highest U.S. average yield was recorded in
1906 at 31.7 bushels per acre. Following moderate yield increases in the 1940s and 1950s, yields
shot up in the 1960s and early 1970s to a national average of 109.5 bushels per acre in 1979. In
2000, US farmers planted over 79 million acres of corn. More than 40% of the world's corn is
produced in the United States. Total acreage is now less than in earlier years, but planting has
increased in the more favorable areas of the Corn Belt. Iowa is normally the leading corn
producing state, followed closely by Illinois. As early as 1910, Iowa had 8.5 million acres of corn,
which averaged nearly 40 bushels per acre. In 1935, Iowa had 9.7 million acres of corn,
averaging 39 bushels per acre. In 1960, Iowa averaged 62 bushels per acre on nearly 12.5
million acres. In 2000, Iowa farmers averaged 145 bushels per acre on more than 12 million
acres. The highest all time record corn acreage in Iowa was 14.4 million acres in 1980.
Corn and soybeans form a major base of the Iowa economy. The combination of favorable soils,
weather, and management know-how for the production of these two crops is rivaled by few
other places in the world. Although few people are directly involved in the production of these
major crops, many jobs are associated with this industry. Industries involved in crop processing,
marketing, production of farm machinery and other farm inputs exist because of our ability to
grow crops in Iowa. Massive livestock industries also depend on feed produced from Iowa soils.

Uses of Corn
During the mid-1960s, about 75 percent of the corn was fed to livestock, 13 percent was
exported, and the remainder went into human food and industrial products. By 2000, the relative
amount of corn fed to livestock had decreased to 60 percent, 22 percent was exported, 6 percent
was used for High-Fructose Corn Sweetener, 6 percent was processed for ethanol, and 6 percent
went into other products. Between 90 and 95 percent of the crop is harvested for grain; the
remaining 5 to 10 percent is grown for silage. Of the corn fed to livestock in 1960, about 40
percent went to hogs, 20 percent to poultry, 30 percent to cattle on feed and milk cows, and 10
percent to other types of livestock. By 2000, these amounts had shifted to 29 percent to cattle
on feed, 29 percent to poultry, 24 percent to hogs, 16 percent to dairy cattle, and 2 percent to
other types of livestock. One reference lists over 500 different uses for corn. Corn is a component
of canned corn, baby food, hominy, mush, puddings, tamales, and many more human foods.
Some industrial uses of corn include filler for plastics, packing materials, insulating materials,
adhesives, chemicals, explosives, paint, paste, abrasives, dyes, insecticides, pharmaceuticals,
organic acids, solvents, rayon, antifreeze, soaps, and many more. Corn also is used as the major
study plant for many academic disciplines such as genetics, physiology, soil fertility and
biochemistry. It is doubtful that any other plant has been studied as extensively as has the corn
plant.
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A bushel of shelled corn weighs 56 pounds.

Lance Gibson and Garren Benson, Iowa State University, Department of Agronomy
Revised January 2002.

Corn Process
INSPECTION & CLEANING
Corn refiners use yellow dent corn, which is removed from the cob during harvesting. An average
bushel of yellow dent corn weighs 56 pounds. Approximately 70 percent of the kernel is starch
(from the endosperm), about 10 percent is protein (predominantly gluten), four percent is oil
(extracted from the germ), and two percent is fiber (from the hull). It is the goal of the corn
refining process to separate each component and then further refine it into specific products.
Corn arrives at the refining facility by truck, barge or railcar. Refinery staff inspect arriving corn
shipments and clean them twice to remove pieces of cob, dust, chaff, and foreign materials. The
corn is then conveyed to storage silos, holding up to 350,000 bushels, until ready to go to the
refinery for steeping, the first processing step.

Corn Wet Milling Process

Description
The wet mill of a corn plant refers to area where the corn is separated into its individual
components of starch, gluten, fiber, and germ. The separations in the wet mill are mostly
physical through grind mills, screens, cyclones, centrifuges, presses, and filters. The main
product of the wet mill is a relatively pure starch stream, either dried or in a slurry form. The
byproducts of the wet mill include the germ, fiber, and gluten, which are further processed or
marketed as feed products.

STEEPING
The corn after arriving to the plant, must be cleaned to meet the standards of the U.S. Yellow
Dent #2 corn. The cleaned corn is conveyed and metered into the steep tanks. Steeping the corn
prior to milling is done by soaking the corn in a solution of sulfur dioxide and water at controlled
temperature for a length of time between 30 and 45 hours. The purpose of steeping is to soften
the kernel, allowing for separation of the germ without cracking during milling, to partially
breakdown the protein matrix in which the starch is embedded allowing for separation in
subsequent milling stages, and to remove the soluble impurities contained within the corn. Good
steeping is a necessity for achieving a good quality starch product.
Freshly made steep acid is added to the steep tank where the corn has been in the steeping
process the longest. The steep acid is circulated through the steep tanks towards the tank where
the newest corn is being added. From this point, some of the steep liquor must be removed from
the system. The amount of steep water removed is critical for producing a quality starch product
as this is the only point in the system where soluble impurities can leave the system. The
dissolved solids content of this stream is usually in the range of 10%.
Water in this light steep water stream needs to be evaporated until the solids content reaches
about 50%. Doing this will allow the "heavy" steep water to be mixed with the end fiber product
to increase the nutritional content of the feed product. The condensate from this evaporator,
being high in impurities, cannot be utilized back into the process and therefore makes up the
majority of the waste water leaving the plant.
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After steeping, the corn is conveyed to the milling area via sluice water. This water flows between
the outlet of the steep tank to the dewatering screen prior the first stage milling where it is
continuously recycled back. In between the steep tanks and the dewatering screen, the slurry if
fed to a Stone Cyclone.

DESTONING
The stone cyclone protects the grind mills and other downstream process equipment from
damage or excessive wear resulting from stones, sand, pieces of metal, or other high specific
gravity contaminants that enter the corn slurry during the washing, conveying, or steeping
processes.
The
centrifugal forces within the cyclone force the heavy contaminants to the outside of the cyclone
towards the underflow. A reject pot on the bottom of the cyclone collects the contaminants which
are then purged from the system with a pair of actuated valves on either side of the reject pot.
The overflow of the cyclone, free of contaminants, is then directed to the corn dewatering
screen.

CORN DEWATERING
Before the first grind process step, the corn slurry from the destoning cyclone is dewatered by a
gravity screen. Dewatering the corn slurry prior to milling reduces the hydraulic load on the grind
mill and improves the milling efficiency.

FIRST GRIND MILL

The steeped corn, after being dewatered by the corn screens, enters into the first grind. The
purpose of the first grind is to crack the corn kernels and free the germs.
The devils tooth grind plates commonly used in the first grind mill have a pattern of large
interlocking teeth that the corn kernels must pass through before reaching the machine
discharge. In the grind mill, one set of the grind plates are rotating, while the other set of plates
is fixed.
The
gap between these two sets of plates are adjusted so that first
grind mill cracks most of the kernels and frees up most of the
germ without damage to the soft germ particles. In every
handful of slurry coming from the first grind mill, there should
only be about 7-8 uncracked kernel. Any corn not cracked in
the first stage, will be cracked in the second stage.
Dilution water is added to the first grind mill so that the starch
freed from the kernel can enter into slurry without pasting up
in the grind mill. Factors affecting the capacity and efficiency of
the first grind mills include the density of the feed slurry, the
plate clearance, the applied horsepower, and the steep
processes employed.
After leaving the first grindmill, the slurry is gravity discharged
into the first grind tank where it is mixed with recycle streams
from the germ separation and other millhouse recycle streams.

SECOND GRIND MILL

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The purpose of the second grind is to crack any of the kernels that were missed in the first grind.
Like the first grind, the slurry feeding the second grind is dewatered just prior to milling. From the
second grind mill, the slurry is again diluted and then dumped into the second grind tank, which
feeds the secondary germ separation system.A handful of discharge from the second grind mill
should not contain any whole kernels, on average. Factors affecting the efficiency of the second
grind include the steep processes, the efficiency of the first grind, the feed slurry density, the
grind plates used, the clearance between the plates, and the applied horsepower.
Like the first grind, devil tooth plates are used in the second grind. The clearance between the
plates should be set closer than in the first grind. Setting the plates too close, would result in
cracking germs and tearing fibers more than necessary. Setting the plates too far would result in
a lower overall oil recovery, as any germ not recovered in the second grind will be lost later in
the process.

PRIMARY GERM SEPARATION

The slurry from first grind tank is fed to the primary germ separation system, where the main
separation of the germs from the slurry occurs.
The primary germ separation system consists of a two stage
system, where the underflow of the first stage is fed to a second
stage. Usually the two stages are directly connected with only
one feed pump for the entire system.
Typically, the
Baume in the first grind tank is around 8. At this Baume, the
germs, with lighter specific gravity than the starch slurry, will start
to float on the top of the slurry. The centrifugal force inside the
cyclone, driven by the pressure drop across the cyclone,
accelerates the floating of the germs, so that the overflow of the first
stage cyclone contains many of the germs in the slurry.
The overflow of the first stage cyclone is controlled with pressure to ensure that most of the
germs with a minimum amount of fiber is leaving the system with the germs.
The underflow of the first stage cyclone is then fed to a second stage to recover more of the
germs remaining in the slurry. The overflow of this second stage is directed back to the first grind
tank, and the underflow of this stage proceeds to the second grind step.

GERM WASHING SYSTEM

The overflow of the first stage of the primary germ separation system contains all of the
recovered germ, some fiber, and some starch. The purpose of the germ washing system is to
wash as much of the starch as possible from the germ and from the fiber with the germ.
The system typically consists of a three stage counter current system, with the feed entering into
the first stage and the wash water entering into the feed of the third stage. The overflow from
the third stage is the germ which proceeds to further dewatering and drying stages. The first
stage underflow is a starch/gluten stream which proceeds back to the first grind tank for dilution.

GERM PRESS / GERM DRYING

After the germ stream is washed in the germ washing

system, the slurry, which still contains some fiber, then
proceeds to a dewatering press to remove as much free
water as possible. At the outlet of the germ dewatering
press, the germ product is dried in the germ dryer and
then to Expeller section to extract oil.

FIBER WASHING SYSTEM

The fiber wash system consists of a series of 120
degree pressure screens configured to counter-currently
wash the fiber stream coming from the third grind mill. The goal of the fiber wash system is to
wash all of the free starch off of the fiber pieces. Typically, a 6
stage system is used where the feed enters into the 1st stage. The
wash water enters in the final stage. The unders of each stage
becomes the wash for the previous stage, and the overs of each
stage become the feed for the next stage. The unders of the first
stage becomes the feed starch slurry heading for the centrifuges
while the overs of the last stage is fiber heading to the fiber
dewatering step in the process. There is some starch that leaves the
system with the fiber and cannot be recovered. This starch can
either be bound starch (unrecoverable pieces of starch physically
attached to the fiber) or free starch (starch in the water). An
efficient wash system will minimize the amount of free starch
leaving with the fiber to about 5-10%. Much of this free starch can
be recovered prior to the fiber dewatering press with a fiber press
dewatering screen. If the bound starch is high, the problem is most
likely in the steeping and grinding processes. In stages 2 to 6, 75 micron screens are used, and
they are fed with 0.75 nozzles. In the first stage, 0.50 nozzles and a 50 micron screen is used
to prevent fine fibers from entering the starch slurry. All stages can be fed at close to 60 psi
pressure for maximum capacity. To recover much of the free starch leaving with the fiber in the
6th stage overs, a fiber dewatering screen, with a 150 micron screen fed with 0.75 nozzles can
be used. Using this screen to dewater prior to the press can increase the efficiency of the press
and recover some of the free starch. The overs of the screen is further dewatered, and the
unders of the screen is recycled back to the main fiber wash screens.

FIBER DEWATERING
After the fiber washing system, the fiber slurry is dewatered as much as possible with an
additional pressure screen. Any water removed from this dewatering screens helps to reduce the
dewatering requirements of the downstream fiber press.

FIBER PRESS / DRYER

After the fiber stream is washed in the fiber washing system and dewatered, the slurry is further
dewatered in a fiber press. At the outlet of the fiber dewatering press, the fiber product is dried
in the fiber dryer.

DEGRITTING SYSTEM
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The mill starch stream, comprised of the combined filtrates

from the third grind dewatering screen and the first stage
fiber wash screen, will be further processed by centrifuges
and starch washing cyclonettes to separate the starch and
gluten fractions of the slurry. To protect the downstream
equipment, the mill starch stream is fed to a degritting
system to remove and small heavy particles such as sand,
grit, rust, or pipe scale. These materials, when passing
through the high speed centrifuges, would cause rapid wear
and lead to premature replacement of expensive machine
parts. This heavy material also contributes to premature
wear of the cyclonettes in the starch washing system.
The degritting system consists of a two stage system, with
the underflow of the first stage being fed to a second stage. The overflow of the first stage
proceeds to the centrifuge separation steps. The overflow of the second stage is recycled back to
the feed to the first stage. Reject pots on the underflow of the second stage cyclones collect the
contaminants, which are purged periodically with timed automated purge valves around the
reject pot.

GLUTEN THICKENER
From the overflow of the primary centrifuge, the light gluten slurry is fed to a Gluten Thickener
(GT) centrifuge. This light gluten stream contains all of the gluten to be recovered in the gluten
product stream, water, and soluble proteins. The gluten thickener centrifuge concentrates the
gluten stream prior to dewatering and also provides clear overflow for process water to be used
upstream in the millhouse.

GLUTEN DEWATERING / DRYING

After the GT machine has thickened up the gluten
stream by removing as much water as possible,
vacuum belt filters are commonly used for additional
dewatering. The water removed from the gluten slurry
at the vacuum filters is sent back to the feed of the GT
machine to recovery and remaining gluten.

MST CENTRIFUGE
The combined filtrate streams from the third grind screen and first stage fiber wash screens will
contain about 10 to 11% solids (5 to 6 Be). This slurry is comprised of the starch and protein
components of the corn, along with some soluble impurities released from the corn during the
steeping process.
This slurry
is fed to the Mill Stream Thickener (MST) centrifuge to thicken the starch slurry and provide a
process water stream. The centrifuge has high rotational speed, creating significant G forces
inside the machine which drives the separation of the water, solubles, and higher specific gravity
starch and gluten particles. The solids are continuously discharged through nozzles around the
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periphery of the bowl, while the water and soluble head toward the center of the bowl and out
the overflow of the machine.
The MST centrifuge increases the Baume of the mill stream
slurry providing a reduced flow rate and consistent feed
Baume to the downstream primary centrifuge, and also
separates out solubles early in the starch protein
separation process. This reduces the washing requirements
to remove the solubles in the downstream primary
centrifuge and starch washing system.
The overflow of the MST centrifuge is primarily used for the
steeping system makeup water. Great care is taken in the
operation of the MST centrifuge to ensure that a minimum
amount of starch and gluten solids are sent back to the
steeping system through the MST overflow.

PRIMARY CENTRIFUGE
The primary centrifuge is fed from the MST centrifuge underflow and any direct portion of the
mill starch stream that bypasses the MST. The primary centrifuge is the main separation point
between the starch and the water, gluten, and solubles. Wash water from the clarifier centrifuge
overflow is introduced into the primary where it washes the solubles from the starch via
displacement washing. Fluid-Quip primary centrifuges are designed to accommodate high rates
of displacement washing, to lower the residual soluble protein levels in the starch leaving
through the underflow of the machine. The overflow of the primary centrifuge becomes the light
gluten stream, which is further dewatered and dried to become the gluten meal product. Since
any starch in the overflow of the primary centrifuge will be lost to the gluten meal product, and
lower the important protein concentration of the gluten meal, it is very important to operate the
machine with minimal starch loss to the overflow.
The underflow of the primary centrifuge, which still contains some insoluble and soluble proteins,
is further purified in the starch washing system.

STARCH WASHING SYSTEM

To produce a high quality starch product, the underflow of the primary is sent to a multiple stage
washing system. In this system, fresh water is added to the final stage to wash the starch slurry
counter currently across 13 stages. The starch reports to the underflow of each stage, getting
purer and purer as it progresses towards the end of the system. The protein and soluble
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impurities are carried out the overflow of the first stage of the system with some starch. Sending
some starch out the overflow is necessary for ensuring a high quality starch product. The
underflow of the starch washing system proceeds to further processing for modification into
specialty starch products, conversion to syrup for sweeteners/ethanol, or dewatering/drying to
make dry starch product.

Corn Wet Milled Feed Products

Corn Germ Meal is a by-product from the extraction of oil. It contains typically 20-21% protein
and 90% dry matter. Corn Gluten Feed is a mixture of the hulls & fiber fraction with steepwater,
corn germ meal and other process residuals. A typical yield per ton corn is 250 kg corn gluten
feed with 18-22% protein and 89-90% dry substance. Corn Gluten Meal is the dried gluten from
the gluten concentration. A typical yield per ton corn is 50 kg corn gluten meal with 60% protein
and 89-90% dry substance.
Corn Steep Liquor also known as condensed fermented corn extractives is a high protein
ingredient. It is often a constituent of corn gluten feed, but may be sold as is with approximate
23% protein and 50% dry substance for cattle feeds or as a pellet binder.

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Modified Starch Division (MSD)

Native starches have certain inherent features for use in the development of foods,
pharmaceuticals and industrial products. Among other advantages, they are readily available,
generally low in price, and yield a simple, consumer-friendly label when listed in an ingredient
panel. However, the advent of more sophisticated processing systems made it apparent that the
natural properties of raw starches could not meet the demanding processing requirements of
increasingly sophisticated product formulations. In order to meet such manufacturing
requirements, starch chemists developed modified starches. The techniques and chemicals used
to manufacture food and industrial modified starches have been thoroughly researched and
tested to ensure safety and functionality. Modified food starches are strictly defined and
regulated by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 21 CFR Chapter 1,
paragraph 172.892, and industrial modified starches are covered by 21 CFR Chapter 1,
paragraph 178.3520.

Acid-modified Corn Starch

The first method used commercially to reduce the viscosity of starch pastes was the acidmodification process patented by Duryea in 1899. In this method, a starch-water suspension is
agitated while being subjected to mild treatment with dilute mineral acid at temperatures
elevated but below the starch gelatinization temperature, for varying16 periods of time. When
tests show the desired viscosity has been reached, the acid is neutralized with sodium carbonate
and the starch is filtered, washed and dried. In this manner a series of starches yielding pastes of
decreasing viscosity are produced. The primary reaction taking place during acid-modification is
hydrolysis of glucosidic bonds in starch molecules. This limited and controlled hydrolysis
produces two important consequences. First, since the starch molecule is so large, only a small
amount of cleavage is needed to markedly reduce viscosity. Second, disruption of bonds within
the granule weakens the granule structure. Like the parent starch, all acid modified starch pastes
have reduced viscosities when warm, yet have a strong tendency to gel when cooled. This
suggests that acid-modification reduces chain length but does not substantially change the
molecular configuration.

Oxidized Corn Starch

A second method for reducing the viscosity and altering the properties of starch is oxidation.
Although oxidizing agents such as chlorine, hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate can
be used, oxidized starches produced by the corn wet milling industry are almost exclusively
made using sodium hypochlorite as the oxidizing agent. As in the case of acid-modification,
aqueous starch suspensions under continuous agitation are treated with dilute sodium
hypochlorite containing a small excess of caustic soda (NaOH). The reagent solution is added
slowly to the starch suspension in a reactor which is maintained at about 120 o F. Cooling water
in the reactor jacket or external heat exchangers remove heat generated during the oxidation
reaction. When the correct amount of reagent has been added and sufficient time for reaction
has elapsed, the viscosity of the starch is determined. When the desired degree of oxidation is
reached, the starch slurry is treated with a reducing agent such as sodium bisulfite to remove
excess hypochlorite, adjusted to the desired pH, filtered, washed and dried.

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STARCH DEWATERING
The purified starch milk is discharged to a peeler centrifuge for dewatering. The peeler filtrate is
recycled to starch refining. The dewatered starch is batch-wise peeled off and discharged by
gravity to the moist starch hopper.

STARCH DRYING
From the moist starch hopper the starch is fed by a metering screw conveyor into a flash dryer
and dried in hot air. The inlet air temperature is moderate. The dried starch is pneumatically
transported to a starch silo ready for screening and bagging. The moisture of cornstarch after
drying is normally 12-13 %.

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Glucose Refinery
Production of Glucose Syrup and Dextrose: Figure highlights the production process for glucose
and liquid starch. To produce glucose, the starch slurry is first treated with acid or enzymes and
heated in a conversion process to break down the starch molecule, yielding degrees, ultimately
resulting in producing a wide variety of glucose. Next, the corn syrup is refined using carbon to
remove residual color, odor, taste, or flavor bodies. At this point, some of the corn syrup has the
water removed from it to produce some types of glucose syrup (regular corn syrup). The
remainder of the corn syrup goes through a process called ion exchange to remove additional
flavor and color bodies that were missed during the previous stages of production. In this
process, the syrup passes through anion resin and cation resin vessels. In the case of fructose
syrups, additional ion exchange steps may be necessary to remove certain additional
substances. Finally, the water from this corn syrup, is evaporated to yield some additional types
of glucose syrup, dextrose, and high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). To produce liquid glucose, the
original starch slurry is simply fermented and distilled.

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