Basic Hydraulics2

Basic
Hydraulics
1 of 1
Tractor & Equipment

AIMS & OBJECTIVES
Course title
Caterpillar Basic Hydraulic systems
Proposed date (s)

Max No of Students
Course duration
5 Days
Audience
Work shop engineers and technicians
Prerequisites
None
Course Aims and Objectives
At the completion of the course, the Field Service Engineers will be able to
1. Give the meaning of 10 Hydraulic symbols

2. List the available Caterpillar test tools for measuring pressure and flow
3. State Pascals law
4. Describe to the Instructors satisfaction the relationship between flow and pressure
5. Identify 10 given components on a Caterpillar hydraulic schematic
6. Describe to the Instructors satisfaction the purpose and operation of a Pilot hydraulic circuit
7. List the types of Caterpillar Hydraulic Pumps
8. List the types of Hydraulic motors
Subjects covered include:
a) Hydraulic nomenclature e.g. pressure, flow, Closed loop system, Open centre system, Load
Sensing
b) Hydraulic Pumps and motors types and operation
c) Hydraulic Valves
d) ISO Symbols
Comments
Suggested Handouts / reference material
Think Big CDs
Cat Basics Library
SEEV0529
Fluid Power Symbols
SENR3981
Fluid Power Symbols users guide
A&O Caterpillar Basic Hydraulic systems
Revision 1.0
14-11-01
Hydraulic Fundamentals Hydraulic Principles
Upon completion of this unit, the student will be able to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of the basic hydraulic principles.
Introduction
Hydraulic systems are extremely important to the operation of heavy
equipment. Basic hydraulic principles are used when designing
hydraulic implement systems, steering systems, brake systems and
power train systems. An understanding of the basic hydraulic
principles must be accomplished before continuing into machine
systems.
Unit 2: Hydraulic Fundamentals
UNIT 2
BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES
Introduction
We all know that hydraulic principles are demonstrated when using a
liquid under controlled pressure to do work. There are laws that
state the action of liquids under conditions of changing flows and
increasing and decreasing pressures. The student must be able to
state and understand these laws to become successful as a heavy
equipment technician.
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, the student will be able to:
1. State why liquid is use in hydraulic systems.
2. Identify Pascal's Law as applied to hydraulic principles.
3. State the characteristics of oil flow through an orifice.
4. Demonstrate an understanding of the basic hydraulic
principles.
Hydraulic Principles
Lesson 1: Hydraulic Principles
Unit 2
Lesson 1
2-1-4
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Using a Liquid
There are several advantages for using a liquid.
1. Liquids conforms to the shape of the container.
2. Liquids are practically incompressible.
3. Liquids apply pressure in all directions.
Fig. 2.1.1 Liquid Containers
Liquids Conform to Shape

Liquids will conform to the shape of any container. Liquids will also
flow in any direction through lines and hoses of various sizes and
shapes.
50 lbs.
WEIGHT
FORCE
LIQUID
Fig. 2.1.2 Liquid Under Pressure
Practically Incompressible
A liquid is practically incompressible. When a substance is
compressed, it takes up less space. A liquid occupies the same
amount of space or volume even when under pressure. The space or
volume that any substance occupies is called "displacement."
Unit 2
Lesson 1
2-1-5
50 lbs.
WEIGHT
FORCE
GAS
Fig. 2.1.3 Gas is Compressible
Gas is compressible
Gas is compressible. When gas is compressed, it takes up less space
and its displacement becomes less. The space previously occupied
by the gas may be occupied by another object. Therefore, a liquid is
best suited for the hydraulic system because it continually occupies
the same volume or displacement.
1130 lbs
40 psi
3 in. radius
FORCE
FORCE
500 lbs
2 in. radius
Fig. 2.1.4 Hydraulics Doing Work
Hydraulics Doing Work

According to Pascals Law, "Pressure exerted on a confined liquid is
transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with equal force
on all equal areas." Therefore, a force exerted on any part of an
enclosed hydraulic oil system transmits equal pressure in all
directions throughout the system.
In the above example, a 500 pound force acting upon a piston with a
2 in. radius creates a pressure of approximately 40 pounds per square
inch (psi) in a confined liquid. The same 40 psi acting upon a piston
with a 3 in. radius supports a 1130 pound weight.
At this time, perform Lab 2.1.1
Unit 2
Lesson 1
2-1-6
Force = Pressure x Area
Pressure = Force Area

Area = Force Pressure
Fig. 2.1.5 Pascal's Law
A simple formula allows us to determine the Force, the Pressure, and

the Area when two of the three are known. Understanding these
terms are necessary to understand the fundamentals of hydraulics.
Force is the push or pull acting upon a body. Force is usually
expressed in pounds (lbs.). Force is equal to the pressure times the
area (F = P x A).
Pressure is the force of a fluid per unit area, usually expressed in
pounds per square inch (psi).
Area is a measurement of surface space. The area is calculated in
square inches. Sometime the surface area is referred to as effective
area. The effective area is the total surface that is used to create a
force in the desired direction.
The surface area of a circle is calculated with the formula:
Area = Pi (3.14) times radius-squared
If the radius of the circle is 2 inches, Fig. 2.1.4,
A = Pi x r square
A = 3.14 x (2" x 2")
A = 12.5 sq. in.
With the knowledge of the surface area, it is possible to determine
how much system pressure it will take to lift a given weight.
Pressure is the force per unit and is expressed in pounds per square
inch (psi).
If a force of 500 pounds was acting upon an area of 12.5 sq. in., the
pressure created would be 40 psi.
The pressure is calculated with the formula:
Pressure = Force divided by Area
P = 500 lbs./12.5 sq. in.
P = 40 psi
Unit 2
Lesson 1
2-1-7
Solving for the large piston we find:

Pressure x Area = Force
40 x (3x3) x 3.14 = Force.
40 x 28.26
= 1130 lbs.
?
FROM
PUMP
5 sq. in.
1 sq. in.
3 sq. in.
FORCE
100 lbs
FORCE
50 lbs
FORCE
FORCE
Fig. 2.1.6 Mechanical Advantage
Mechanical Advantage
Figure 2.1.6 demonstrates how liquid in a hydraulic system provides a
mechanical advantage.
Since all cylinders are connected, all areas must be filled before the
system pressurizes.
Use the hydraulic formula and calculate the items in question.
Cylinders are counted from left to right.
When calculating the pressure in the system, we use the two known
values of the second cylinder from the left. The formula used is
"pressure equals force divided by area."
Pressure = Force
Area
Pressure = 50 lbs
1 sq. in.
Pressure = 50 psi
Now that we know the pressure in the system, we can calculate the
force of the load for cylinders one and three and the piston area for
container four.
Calculate cylinders one and three loads using the formula, force
equals pressure times area (Force = Pressure x Area).
Calculate cylinder four piston area using the formula, area equals
force divided by pressure (Area = Force / Pressure).
The correct answers are: cylinder one load is 250 lbs, cylinder
three load is 150 lbs and cylinder four piston area is 2 sq. in.
Unit 2
Lesson 1
2-1-8
60
60
120
120
FLOW
1 GPM
Fig. 2.1.7 No Restriction
ORIFICE EFFECT
When discussing hydraulics, it is a common practice to use the term
"pump pressure." However, the pump does not produce pressure.
The pump produces flow. When flow is restricted, pressure is
produced.
In Figures 2.1.7 and 2.1.8, the pump flow through the pipe is 1 gpm.
In Figure 2.1.7, there is no restriction to the flow through the pipe.
Therefore, the pressure reading is zero for both gauges.
60
30
0
60
90
120
120
FLOW
1 GPM
Fig. 2.1.8 Orifice Offers Restriction
Orifice Offers Restriction

An orifice offers a restriction to the pump flow. When oil flows
through an orifice, pressure is produced on the upstream side of the
orifice.
In figure 2.1.8, there is an orifice in the pipe between the two gauges.
The gauge up stream of the orifice shows that a pressure of 207 kPa
(30 psi) is needed to send a flow of 1 gpm through the orifice. There
is no restriction to flow after the orifice. The gauge down stream of
the orifice shows 0 pressure.
Unit 2
Lesson 1
2-1-9
60
30
0
60
90
30
120
90
120
FROM
PUMP
60
30
0
60
90
120
30
0
90
120
FROM
PUMP
Fig. 2.1.9 Blocked Flow
Oil Flow to Tank Blocked

When the end of either pipe is plugged, oil flow to the tank is
blocked.
The positive displacement pump continues pumping at 1 gpm and
fills the pipe. When the pipe is filled, the resistance to any additional
flow into the pipe produces pressure. The pressure reaction is the
same as Pascals Law which states that "pressure exerted on a
confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts
with equal force on all equal areas." The two gauge readings are the
same.
The pressure will increase until the pump flow is diverted from the
pipe to another circuit or to the tank. This is usually done with a
relief valve.
If total pump flow was not diverted from the pipe, pressure in the
pipe would continue to rise and cause an eruption of the circuit.
Unit 2
Lesson 1
2-1-10
60
60
30
0
90
PSI
60
30
90
30
PSI
120
90
PSI
120
120
FLOW
1 GPM
60
60
30
0
90
PSI
30
0
120
60
90
PSI
30
90
PSI
120
120
FLOW
1 GPM
207 kPa (30 psi)
207 kPa (30 psi)
207 kPa (30 psi)
Fig. 2.1.10 Restrictions in Series
Restrictions In Series
There are two basic types of circuits, series and parallel.
In Fig. 2.1.10, a pressure of 620 kPa (90 psi) is required to send 1
gpm through either circuit.
Orifices or relief valves in series in a hydraulic circuit offer a
resistance that is similar to resistors in series in an electrical circuit in
that the oil must flow through each resistance. The total resistance
equals to the sum of each individual resistance.
At this time, perform Lab 2-1-3
CIRCUIT
ONE
207 kPa (30 PSI)
CIRCUIT
TWO
FROM
PUMP
414 kPa (60 PSI)
CIRCUIT
THREE
620 kPa (90 PSI)
Fig. 2.1.11 Restrictions In Parallel
Restrictions In Parallel
In a system with parallel circuits, pump oil follows the path of least
resistances. In figure 2.1.11, the pump supplies oil to three parallel
circuits. Circuit three has the lowest priority and circuit one has the
highest priority.
Hydraulic Fundamentals Hydraulic System Components
Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, the students will be able to:
1. State how basic hydraulic principles are used in the operation of
hydraulic system components.
2. State the function of hydraulic tanks, fluids, pumps and motors,
various valves and cylinders.
3. Identify the different hydraulic tanks, pumps and motors, fluids,
valves and cylinders.
4. Identify the ISO symbol for the hydraulic tank, the pump and/or
motor, the various valves and the cylinders.
Introduction
Mobile construction machines are designed using various hydraulic
components (tanks, fluids, pumps and motors, valves and cylinders).
Some components when used in different parts of the circuit perform
different functions. Although these components may look alike, they
may be given different names. The ability to identify the component,
state the component's function and describe the component's
operation will allow the serviceman to reduce complex circuits to
several simple circuits that may be more easily understood.
Unit 3: Hydraulic Fundamentals
UNIT 3
Hydraulic Tank
Lesson 1: Hydraulic Tank

Basic Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic Tank
Hydraulic Fluids
HydraulicPumps and Motors
Pressure Control Valves
Directional Control Valves
Flow Control Valves
Cylinders
Introduction
When construction machines and equipment are in the design stage,
considerable thought is given to the type, size and location of the
hydraulic oil tank. Once the machine or equipment is in operation,
the hydraulic tank functions as a storage place for the hydraulic oil, a
device to remove heat from the oil and a seperator to remove air
from the oil. This unit will discuss some of the characteristics of the
hydraulic tank.
Objectives
1. Identify the common components of the hydraulic tank and
state the component function.
2. State the characteristics of the vented and the pressurized
hydraulic tank.
Unit 3
Lesson 1
3-1-4
FILL CAP
SIGHT GLASS
SUPPLY AND
RETURN LINES
DRAIN
Fig. 3.1.1 Hydraulic Tank
Hydraulic Tank
The hydraulic oil tank main function is to store oil, however, it has
some other functions as well. The tank must remove heat and
separate air from the oil.
Tanks must have sufficient strength, adequate capacity and keep dirt
out. Hydraulic tanks are usually but not always sealed.
Tank components seen in figure 3.1.1 are:
Fill Cap - Keeps contaminants out of the opening that's used to fill
and add oil to the tank and seals pressurized tanks.
Sight Glass - Used to check the oil level. The oil level should be
checked when the oil is cold. The oil level is usually correct when
the oil is in the middle of the sight glass.
Supply and Return Lines - The supply line allows oil to flow from
the tank to the system. The return line allows oil to flow from the
system to the tank.
Drain - Located at the lowest point in the tank, the drain is used to
remove old oil from the tank. The drain also allows for the removal
of water and sediment from the oil.
Unit 3
Lesson 1
3-1-5
VACUUM
RELIEF VALVE
FILL CAP
FILLER SCREEN
FILLER TUBE
BAFFLES
RETURN
SCREEN
RETURN
TO PUMP
ECOLOGY
DRAIN
PRESSURIZED TANK
Fig. 3.1.2 Pressurized Tank
Pressurized Tank
The two main types of hydraulic tanks are pressurized and vented
(unpressurized).
The pressurized tank is completely sealed. Atmospheric pressure
does not effect the pressure in the tank. However, when the oil is
sent through the system, it absorbs heat and expands. The expanding
oil compresses the air in the tank. The compressed air forces the oil
out of the tank and into the system.
The vacuum relief valve serves two purposes. It prevents a vacuum
and limits the maximum pressure in the tank.
The vacuum relief valve prevents a vacuum by opening and allowing
air to enter the tank when the tank pressure drops to 3.45 kPa (.5 psi).
When pressure in the tank reaches the vacuum relief valve pressure
setting, the valve opens and vents compressed air to the atmosphere.
The vacuum relief valve pressure setting may vary from 70 kPa (10
psi) to 207 kPa (30 psi).
Other tank components are:
Filler screen - keeps large contaminants from entering the tank when
the fill cap is removed.
Filler tube - allows the tank to be filled to the correct level, but not
over filled.
Baffles - prevents the return oil from flowing directly to the tank
outlet, allowing time for bubbles in the return oil to rise to the top.
Also, prevents the oil from sloshing which helps reduce forming of
the oil.
Ecology Drain - used to prevent accidental spills when removing
water and sediment from the tank.
Return screen - prevents larger particles from entering the tank, but
does not provide fine filtering,
Unit 3
Lesson 1
3-1-6
BREATHER
RETURN
TO PUMP
VENTED TANK
Fig. 3.1.3 Vented Tank
Vented Tank
The vented or un-pressurized tank differs from the pressurized tank in
that the vented tank has a breather. The breather allows air to enter
and exit freely. Atmospheric pressure on the top of the oil forces the
oil out of the tank and into the system. The breather has a screen that
prevents dirt from entering the tank.
VENTED
TANK
PRESSURIZED
Fig. 3.1.4 Hydraulic Tank ISO Symbols
ISO Symbol
Figure 3.1.4 shows the ISO symbol for the vented and the pressurized
hydraulic tanks.
The vented hydraulic tank symbol is merely an open-topped box or
rectangle. The pressurized tank symbol is drawn as a completely
closed box or rectangle. Tanks are shown with hydraulic lines to
enhance understanding.
Hydraulic Tank
Hydraulic Fluids
Flow Control Valves
Cylinders
Introduction
The selection and care of the hydraulic fluid will have an important
effect on the life of the system. Just like the hardware components
of a hydraulic system, the hydraulic fluid must be selected on the
basics of its characteristics and properties to accomplish the designed
task.
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson the student will:
1. State the functions of hydraulic fluids.
2. Measure the viscosity of fluids.
3. State the meaning of viscosity index.
4. List the types of fire resistant hydraulic fluids.
Hydraulic Fluids
Lesson 2: Hydraulic Fluids
Unit 3
Lesson 2
3-2-2
5,000
lbs
FORCE
Fig. 3.2.1 Hydraulic Fluids
Functions of Hydraulic Fluids

Fluids are virtually incompressible. Therefore, fluids can transmit
power instantaneously in a hydraulic system. For example, petroleum
oil compresses approximately 1% for every 2000 psi. Therefore,
petroleum oil can maintain a constant volume under high pressure.
Petroleum oil is the primary fluid used in developing most hydraulic
oils.
The primary functions of hydraulic fluids are:
Power transmission
Lubrication
Sealing
Cooling
Power Transmission
Because hydraulic fluids are virtually incompressible, once the
hydraulic system is filled with fluid it can instantly transmit power
from one area to another. However, this does not mean that all
hydraulic fluids are equal and will transmit power with the same
efficiency. Choosing the correct hydraulic fluid depends on the
application and the operating conditions.
Lubrication
Hydraulic fluid must lubricate the moving parts of the hydraulic
system. The rotating or sliding components must be able to function
without touching other surfaces. The hydraulic fluid must maintain a
thin film between the two surfaces to prevent friction, heat and wear.
Sealing
Many hydraulic components are designed to use hydraulic fluid
instead of mechanical seals within the component. The viscosity of
the fluid helps to determine its ability to function as a seal.
Unit 3
Lesson 2
3-2-3
Cooling
The hydraulic system develops heat as it transfers mechanical energy
to hydraulic energy and hydraulic energy back to mechanical energy.
As the fluid moves throughout the system, heat flows from the
warmer components to the cooler fluid. The fluid gives up the heat
to the reservoir or to coolers that are designed to maintain fluid
temperatures within design limits.
Other properties expected of the hydraulic fluid are the prevention of
rust and corrosion on metal parts, the resistance to foaming and
oxidation, the ability to separate air, water and other contaminates
from the fluid, and the ability to maintain stability over a wide range
of temperatures.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the measurement of a fluid's resistance to flow at a
specific temperature. A fluid which flows easily has a low viscosity.
A fluid which does not flow easily has a high viscosity.
A fluid's viscosity is affected by temperature. When a fluid becomes
warmer, the fluid's viscosity becomes lower. Likewise, when a fluid
cools, the viscosity increases. Vegetable oil is a very good example
of how viscosity changes with a change in temperature. When
vegetable oil is very cold, vegetable oil thickens and is very slow to
pour. As vegetable oil is heated, vegetable oil becomes thinner and
pours more readily.
Unit 3
Lesson 2
3-2-4
HEATER
THERMOMETER
ORIFICE
SAYBOLT
VISCOSIMETER
60 ml. FLASK
Fig. 3.2.2 Saybolt Viscosimeter
Saybolt Viscosimeter
The most common tool of measuring viscosity is the Saybolt
Viscosimeter (Figure 3.2.2). The Saybolt Viscosimeter was invented
by and named after George Saybolt.
The Saybolt Viscosimeter unit of measurement is the Saybolt
Universal Second (SUS). In the original viscosimeter a container of
fluid was heated to a specific temperature. When the temperature
was reached, a stopcock (orifice) was opened and the fluid flowed out
of the container and into a 60 ml. flask. A stopwatch was used to
measure the time it took to fill the flask. The viscosity was recorded
as the number of seconds the flask took to fill at a given temperature.
If a fluid, when heated to a temperature of 75F, took 115 seconds to
fill the flask, it's viscosity was 115 SUS @ 75F. If the same fluid
was heated to 100F and took 90 seconds to fill the flask, it's
viscosity would be 90 SUS @ 100F.
Viscosity Index
Viscosity index (VI) is a measure of a fluid's change in thickness with
respect to changes in temperature. If a fluid's consistency remains
relatively the same over varying temperatures, the fluid has a high
VI. If a fluid becomes thick at low temperatures and very thin at
high temperatures,the fluid has a low VI. In most hydraulic systems,
fluids with a high VI is desirable over fluids with a low VI.
Petroleum Oil
All petroleum oil becomes thin as the temperature goes up and
thickens as the temperature goes down. If the viscosity is too low,
there may be excessive leakage past seals and from joints. If the
viscosity is too high, sluggish operation may be the results and extra
power is needed to push the oil through the system. Viscosity of
petroleum oil is expressed by the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) numbers: 5W, 10W, 20W, 30W, 40W, etc. The lower the
Unit 3
Lesson 2
3-2-5
number, the better the oil will flow at low temperatures. The higher
the number, the more viscous the oil and the more suited to high
temperatures.
Synthetic Oils
Synthetic oils are formed by processes which chemically react
materials of a specific composition to produce a compound with
planned and predictable properties. Synthetic oils are specifically
blended for extreme service at both high and low temperatures.
Fire Resistant Fluids
There are three basic types of fire resistant fluids: water-glycols,
water-oil emulsions and synthetics.
Water-glycol fluids contains 35% to 50% water (water inhibits
burning), glycol (synthetic chemical similar to some anti-freeze) and
a water thickener. Additives are added to improve lubrication and to
prevent rust, corrosion and foaming. Water-glycol fluids are heavier
than oil and may cause pump cavitation at high speeds. These fluids
may react with certain metals and seals and cannot be used with some
types of paints.
Water-oil emulsion are the least expensive of the fire resistant fluids.
A similar amount (40%) of water is used as in water-glycol fluids to
inhibit burning. Water-oil can be used in typical hydraulic oil
systems. Additive may be added to prevent rust and foaming.
Certain conditions may require that synthetic fluids be used to meet
specific requirements. The fire resistive synthetic fluids are less
flammable than oil and more suitable for used in areas of high
pressure and high temperature.
Many times fire resistant fluids react to polyurethane seals and may
require that special seals be used.
Oil Life
The hydraulic oil never wears out. The use of filters to remove solid
particles and some chemicals add to the useful life of the oil.
However, eventually the oil will become so contaminated that it will
have to be replaced. In construction machines, the oil is replaced at
regular time intervals.
The contaminates in the oil may also be used as indicators of high
wear and prospective problem areas. One such program that uses oil
contaminates as its source of information is the Caterpillar Schedule
Oil Sampling Program (SOS).
At this time do Lab 3-2-1 and 3-2-2
Hydraulic Tank
Hydraulic Fluids
Flow Control Valves
Cylinders
Introduction
The selection and care of the hydraulic fluid will have an important
effect on the life of the system. Just like the hardware components
of a hydraulic system, the hydraulic fluid must be selected on the
basics of its characteristics and properties to accomplish the designed
task.
Objectives
1. State the functions of hydraulic fluids.
2. Measure the viscosity of fluids.
3. State the meaning of viscosity index.
4. List the types of fire resistant hydraulic fluids.
Hydraulic Fluids
Lesson 2: Hydraulic Fluids
Unit 3
Lesson 2
3-2-2
5,000
lbs
FORCE
Fig. 3.2.1 Hydraulic Fluids
Functions of Hydraulic Fluids

Fluids are virtually incompressible. Therefore, fluids can transmit
power instantaneously in a hydraulic system. For example, petroleum
oil compresses approximately 1% for every 2000 psi. Therefore,
petroleum oil can maintain a constant volume under high pressure.
Petroleum oil is the primary fluid used in developing most hydraulic
oils.
The primary functions of hydraulic fluids are:
Power transmission
Lubrication
Sealing
Cooling
Power Transmission
Because hydraulic fluids are virtually incompressible, once the
hydraulic system is filled with fluid it can instantly transmit power
from one area to another. However, this does not mean that all
hydraulic fluids are equal and will transmit power with the same
efficiency. Choosing the correct hydraulic fluid depends on the
application and the operating conditions.
Lubrication
Hydraulic fluid must lubricate the moving parts of the hydraulic
system. The rotating or sliding components must be able to function
without touching other surfaces. The hydraulic fluid must maintain a
thin film between the two surfaces to prevent friction, heat and wear.
Sealing
Many hydraulic components are designed to use hydraulic fluid
instead of mechanical seals within the component. The viscosity of
the fluid helps to determine its ability to function as a seal.
Unit 3
Lesson 2
3-2-3
Cooling
The hydraulic system develops heat as it transfers mechanical energy
to hydraulic energy and hydraulic energy back to mechanical energy.
As the fluid moves throughout the system, heat flows from the
warmer components to the cooler fluid. The fluid gives up the heat
to the reservoir or to coolers that are designed to maintain fluid
temperatures within design limits.
Other properties expected of the hydraulic fluid are the prevention of
rust and corrosion on metal parts, the resistance to foaming and
oxidation, the ability to separate air, water and other contaminates
from the fluid, and the ability to maintain stability over a wide range
of temperatures.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the measurement of a fluid's resistance to flow at a
specific temperature. A fluid which flows easily has a low viscosity.
A fluid which does not flow easily has a high viscosity.
A fluid's viscosity is affected by temperature. When a fluid becomes
warmer, the fluid's viscosity becomes lower. Likewise, when a fluid
cools, the viscosity increases. Vegetable oil is a very good example
of how viscosity changes with a change in temperature. When
vegetable oil is very cold, vegetable oil thickens and is very slow to
pour. As vegetable oil is heated, vegetable oil becomes thinner and
pours more readily.
Unit 3
Lesson 2
3-2-4
HEATER
THERMOMETER
ORIFICE
SAYBOLT
VISCOSIMETER
60 ml. FLASK
Fig. 3.2.2 Saybolt Viscosimeter
Saybolt Viscosimeter
The most common tool of measuring viscosity is the Saybolt
Viscosimeter (Figure 3.2.2). The Saybolt Viscosimeter was invented
by and named after George Saybolt.
The Saybolt Viscosimeter unit of measurement is the Saybolt
Universal Second (SUS). In the original viscosimeter a container of
fluid was heated to a specific temperature. When the temperature
was reached, a stopcock (orifice) was opened and the fluid flowed out
of the container and into a 60 ml. flask. A stopwatch was used to
measure the time it took to fill the flask. The viscosity was recorded
as the number of seconds the flask took to fill at a given temperature.
If a fluid, when heated to a temperature of 75F, took 115 seconds to
fill the flask, it's viscosity was 115 SUS @ 75F. If the same fluid
was heated to 100F and took 90 seconds to fill the flask, it's
viscosity would be 90 SUS @ 100F.
Viscosity Index
Viscosity index (VI) is a measure of a fluid's change in thickness with
respect to changes in temperature. If a fluid's consistency remains
relatively the same over varying temperatures, the fluid has a high
VI. If a fluid becomes thick at low temperatures and very thin at
high temperatures,the fluid has a low VI. In most hydraulic systems,
fluids with a high VI is desirable over fluids with a low VI.
Petroleum Oil
All petroleum oil becomes thin as the temperature goes up and
thickens as the temperature goes down. If the viscosity is too low,
there may be excessive leakage past seals and from joints. If the
viscosity is too high, sluggish operation may be the results and extra
power is needed to push the oil through the system. Viscosity of
petroleum oil is expressed by the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) numbers: 5W, 10W, 20W, 30W, 40W, etc. The lower the
Unit 3
Lesson 2
3-2-5
number, the better the oil will flow at low temperatures. The higher
the number, the more viscous the oil and the more suited to high
temperatures.
Synthetic Oils
Synthetic oils are formed by processes which chemically react
materials of a specific composition to produce a compound with
planned and predictable properties. Synthetic oils are specifically
blended for extreme service at both high and low temperatures.
Fire Resistant Fluids
There are three basic types of fire resistant fluids: water-glycols,
water-oil emulsions and synthetics.
Water-glycol fluids contains 35% to 50% water (water inhibits
burning), glycol (synthetic chemical similar to some anti-freeze) and
a water thickener. Additives are added to improve lubrication and to
prevent rust, corrosion and foaming. Water-glycol fluids are heavier
than oil and may cause pump cavitation at high speeds. These fluids
may react with certain metals and seals and cannot be used with some
types of paints.
Water-oil emulsion are the least expensive of the fire resistant fluids.
A similar amount (40%) of water is used as in water-glycol fluids to
inhibit burning. Water-oil can be used in typical hydraulic oil
systems. Additive may be added to prevent rust and foaming.
Certain conditions may require that synthetic fluids be used to meet
specific requirements. The fire resistive synthetic fluids are less
flammable than oil and more suitable for used in areas of high
pressure and high temperature.
Many times fire resistant fluids react to polyurethane seals and may
require that special seals be used.
Oil Life
The hydraulic oil never wears out. The use of filters to remove solid
particles and some chemicals add to the useful life of the oil.
However, eventually the oil will become so contaminated that it will
have to be replaced. In construction machines, the oil is replaced at
regular time intervals.
The contaminates in the oil may also be used as indicators of high
wear and prospective problem areas. One such program that uses oil
contaminates as its source of information is the Caterpillar Schedule
Oil Sampling Program (SOS).
At this time do Lab 3-2-1 and 3-2-2
Hydraulic Tank
Hydraulic Fluids
Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
Flow Control Valves
Cylinders
Fig. 3.3.0
Introduction
Pumps and motors are similar in construction but different in
operational characteristics. Therefore, most of the material in this
lesson will concentrate on the nomenclature and operation of pumps.
Objectives
1. State the differences between non-positive and positive
displacement pumps;
2. State the differences between fixed displacement and variable
displacement pumps;
3. State the operation of different types of pumps;
4. State the similarity and differences between pumps and
motors; and
5. State how pumps are rated.
Lesson 3: Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
Lesson 3: Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-2
HOUSING
DRIVE GEAR
OUTLET OIL
INLET OIL
IDLER GEAR
Fig. 3.3.1 Gear Pump
Hydraulic Pump
The hydraulic pump transfers mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy. It is a device that takes energy from one source (i.e. engine,
electric motor, etc.) and transfers that energy into a hydraulic form.
The pump takes oil from a storage container (i.e. tank) and pushes it
into a hydraulic system as flow.
All pumps produce oil flow in the same way. A vacuum is created at
the pump inlet. The higher atmospheric pressure pushes the oil
through the inlet passage and into the pump inlet chambers. The
pump gears carry the oil to the pump outlet chamber. The volume of
the chamber decreases as the chamber approaches the outlet. This
decrease in chamber size pushes the oil out the outlet.
Pumps produce only the flow (i.e. gallons per minute, liters per
minute, cubic centimeters per revolution, etc.) used in the hydraulic
system. Pumps DO NOT produce or cause "pressure". Pressure is
caused by the resistance to the flow. Resistance can be caused by
flow through hoses, orifices, fittings, cylinders, motors, or anything
in the system that hinders free flow to the tank.
Pumps can be classified into two types: Non-positive displacement
and positive displacement.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-3
HOUSING
DRIVE GEAR
PUMP OIL
TANK OIL
IDLER GEAR
Fig. 3.3.2 Gear Motor
Hydraulic Motor
The hydraulic motor transfers hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy. It uses the oil flow being pushed into the hydraulic system by
a pump and transfers it into a rotary motion to drive another device
(i.e. final drives, differential, transmission, wheel, fan, another pump,
etc.).
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-4
Non-Positive Displacement Pumps

Non-positive displacement pumps have more clearances between the
moving and stationary parts than positive displacement pumps. The
extra clearance allows more oil to be pushed back between the parts
as the outlet pressure (resistance to flow) increases. Non-positive
displacement pumps are less efficient than positive displacement
pumps because the output flow of the pump decreases greatly as the
outlet pressure increases. Non-positive displacement pumps are
generally either centrifugal impeller type or axial propeller type.
These are used in low pressure applications such as automotive water
pumps or charge pumps for piston pumps in high pressure hydraulic
systems.
Fig. 3.3.3 Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal Impeller Pump

The centrifugal impeller pump consists of two basic parts; the
impeller (2) that is mounted on an input shaft (4) and the housing (3).
The impeller has a solid disc back with curved blades (1) molded on
the input side.
Oil enters the center of the housing (5) near the input shaft and flows
into the impeller. The curved impeller blades propel the oil outward
against the housing. The housing is shaped to direct the oil to the
outlet port.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-5
PROPELLER
FLOW
INLET
FLOW
INLET
Fig. 3.3.4 Axial Propeller Pump
Axial Propeller Pump

The axial propeller type pump is shaped like an electric air fan. It is
mounted in a straight tube and has an open bladed propeller. Oil is
propelled down the tube by the rotation of the angled blades.
Positive Displacement Pumps
There are three basic types of positive displacement pumps: gear,
vane and piston. Positive displacement pumps have much smaller
clearances between components. This reduces leakage and provides
a much higher efficiency when used in a high pressure hydraulic
system. The output flow in a positive displacement pump is basically
the same for each pump revolution. Positive displacement pumps are
classified by both the control of their output flow and the
construction of the pump.
Positive displacement pumps are rated two ways. One is by the
maximum system pressure (i.e. 21,000 kPa or 3000 psi) at which the
pump is designed to operate. The second is by the specific output
delivered either per revolution or at a given speed against a specified
pressure. The pumps are rated either by lpm @ rpm@ kPa or by
gpm @ rpm @ psi (i.e. 380 lpm @ 2000 rpm @ 690 kPa or 100 gpm
@ 2000 rpm @ 100 psi).
When expressed in output per revolution, the flow rate can be easily
converted by multiplying by the speed in rpm (i.e.: 2000 rpm) and
dividing by a constant. For example, we will calculate the flow of a
pump that rotates 2000 rpm and has a flow of 11.55 in3/rev or 190
cc/rev.
GPM = in3/rev X rpm
231
GPM = 11.55 X 2000
231
GPM = 100
LPM = cc/rev X rpm

1000
LPM = 190 X 2000
1000
LPM = 380
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-6
Volumetric Efficiency
As pressure increases, the close clearances between the parts in a
positive displacement pump do not produce the same output flow as
input flow. Some oil will be forced back through the clearances
between the high pressure chamber and the low pressure chamber.
The resultant output flow, when compared to the input flow, is called
"volumetric efficiency". (Input flow is generally defined as the
"output flow @ 100 psi".) "Volumetric efficiency" changes as
pressure changes and must be specified for a given pressure. When a
pump that is rated at 100 gpm @ 2000 rpm @ 100 psi is operated
against 1000 psi, its output may drop to 97 gpm. This pump would
have a "volumetric efficiency" of 97% (97/100) @ 1000 psi.
Volumetric efficiency @ 1000 psi = output flow
input flow
Volumetric efficiency @ 1000 psi = 97
100
Volumetric efficiency @ 1000 psi = .97 or 97% efficient at 1000 psi
When the pressure increases to 2000 psi, the output may drop to 95
gpm. It would then have a "volumetric efficiency" of .95 or 95%
@ 2000 psi. The rpm must remain constant when measuring
"volumetric efficiency".
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-7
FIXED DISPLACEMENT
VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT
EXHAUST
SWASH
PLATE
SLIPPER
PISTON
EXHAUST
CONTROL LEVER
SWASH
PLATE
DRIVE
SHAFT
RETAINING
PLATE
BARREL
ASSEMBLY
INTAKE
INTAKE
Fig. 3.3.5 Piston Pumps
Fixed Displacement Versus Variable Displacement

The output flow of a fixed displacement pump is only changed by
varying the speed of the pump rotation. It must be rotated faster to
increase the flow or rotated slower to decrease the flow. The gear
type pump is a fixed displacement pump.
The vane type and piston type pumps may be fixed or variable. The
output flow from a variable displacement pump may be increased or
decreased independent of the speed of rotation. The output flow may
be manual controlled, automatic controlled or a combination of
manual and automatic controlled.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-8
8
6
7
11
10
Fig. 3.3.6 Gear Pump
Gear Pumps
The gear pump consists of seal retainers (1), seals (2), seal back-ups
(3), isolation plates (4), spacers (5), a drive gear (6), an idler gear (7),
a housing (8), a mounting flange (9), a flange seal (10) and pressure
balance plates (11) on either side of the gears. Bearings are mounted
in the housing and mounting flange on the sides of the gears to
support the gear shafts during rotation.
Gear pumps are positive displacement pumps. They deliver the same
amount of oil for each revolution of the input shaft. The pump output
is controlled by changing the speed of rotation. The maximum
operating pressure for gear pumps is limited to 4000 psi. This
pressure limitation is due to the hydraulic unbalance that is inherent
in the gear pump design. The hydraulic unbalance produces a side
load on the shafts that is resisted by the bearings and the gear teeth to
housing contact. The gear pump maintains a "volumetric efficiency"
above 90% when pressure is kept within the designed operating
pressure range.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-9
HOUSING
DRIVE GEAR
OUTLET OIL
INLET OIL
IDLER GEAR
Fig. 3.3.7 Gear Pump Flow
Gear Pump Flow

The output flow of the gear pump is determined by the tooth depth
and gear width. Most gear pump manufacturers standardized on a
tooth depth and profile that is determined by the centerline distance
(1.6", 2.0", 2.5", 3.0", etc.) between gear shafts. With standardized
tooth depths and profiles, the flow differences within each centerline
classification of pump is totally determined by the tooth width.
As the pump rotates, the oil is carried between the gear teeth and the
housing from the inlet side to the outlet side of the pump. The
direction of rotation of the drive gear shaft is determined by the
location of the inlet and outlet ports. The direction of rotation of the
drive gear will always be to move the oil around the outside of the
gears from the inlet port to the outlet port. This is true on both gear
pumps and gear motors. On most gear pumps the inlet port is larger
in diameter than the outlet port. On bi-directional pumps and motors,
the inlet port and outlet port will be the same size.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-10
HOUSING
DRIVE GEAR
INLET OIL
OUTLET OIL
FORCE
MESHING GEAR TEETH

IDLER GEAR
Fig. 3.3.8 Gear Pump Forces
Gear Pump Forces

The outlet flow from a gear pump is created by pushing the oil out of
the gear teeth as they come into mesh on the outlet side. The
resistance to oil flow creates the outlet pressure. The unbalance of the
gear pump is due to outlet port pressure being higher than inlet port
pressure. The higher pressure oil pushes the gears toward the inlet
port side of the housing. The shaft bearings carry the majority of the
side load to prevent excessive wear between the tooth tips and the
housing. On the higher pressure pumps, the gear shafts are slightly
tapered from the outboard end of the bearings to the gear. This
allows full contact between the shaft and bearing as the shaft bends
slightly under the unbalanced pressure.
The pressurized oil is also directed between the sealed area of the
pressure balance plates and the housing and mounting flange to seal
the ends of the gear teeth. The size of the sealed area between the
pressure balanced plates and the housing is what limits the amount of
force that pushes the plates against the ends of the gears.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-11
Fig. 3.3.9 Pressure Balance Plates
Pressure Balance Plates

There are two different types of pressure balance plates used in gear
pumps. The earlier type (1) has a flat back. This type uses an
isolation plate, a back-up for the seal, a seal shaped like a 3 and a
seal retainer. The later type (2) has a groove shaped like a 3 cut into
the back and is thicker than the earlier type. Two different types of
seals are used with the later type of pressure balance plates.
POCKET
PRESSURE BALANCE
PLATES
CHAMFERED EDGE
HEAD
SHARP EDGE
Fig. 3.3.10 Gear Pumps With Pocket
Gear Pumps with Pockets

Gear pumps with a housing that is machined with pockets for the
gears have a radius from the pocket walls to the bottom of the
pockets. The isolation plate or the later pressure balanced plate used
in the pocket must have chamfered or curved outer edges to fit fully
against the bottom of the pocket. Using a sharp edge isolation plate,
a sharp edge seal retainer or a sharp edge pressure balance plate in a
housing pocket will force the pressure balance plates against the ends
of the gears and cause a failure.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-12
Vane Pumps
Vane pumps are positive displacement pumps. The pump output can
be either fixed or variable.
9
10
11
12
4
13
9
Fig. 3.3.11 Vane Pump
Both the fixed and variable vane pumps use common part
nomenclature. Each pump consists of the housing (1), the cartridge
(2), the mounting plate (3), the mounting plate seal (4), the cartridge
seals (5), the cartridge backup rings (6), the snap ring (7) and the
input shaft and bearing (8). The cartridge consists of the support
plates (9) the ring (10), the flex plates (11), the slotted rotor (12) and
the vanes (13).
The slotted rotor is turned by the input shaft. The vanes move in and
out of the slots in the rotor and seal on the outer tips against the cam
ring. The inside of the fixed pump displacement ring is elliptical in
shape. The inside of the variable pump displacement ring is round in
shape. The flex plates seal the sides of the rotor and the ends of the
vanes. In some lower pressure designs, the support plates and
housing seal the sides of the rotating rotor and the ends of the vanes.
The support plates are used to direct the oil into the proper passages
in the housing. The housing, in addition to providing support for the
other parts of the vane pump, directs the flow in and out of the vane
pump.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-13
Fig. 3.3.12 Vane Pressurization
Vanes
The vanes are initially held against the cam ring by centrifugal force
created by the rotation of the rotor. As flow increases, the resultant
pressure that builds from the resistance to that flow is directed into
passages in the rotor beneath the vanes (1). This pressurized oil
beneath the vanes keep the vane tips pushed against the cam ring to
form a seal. To prevent the vanes from being pushed too hard against
the cam ring, the vanes are beveled back (arrow) to permit a balancing
pressure across the outer end.
Pressur
e
Pressure
PRESSURIZED FLEX PLATES
Fig. 3.3.13 Pressurized Flex Plates
Flex Plates
The same pressurized oil is also directed between the flex plates and
the support plates to seal the sides of the rotor and the end of the
vanes. The size of the seal area between the flex plate and the support
plates is what controls the force that pushes the flex plates against the
sides of the rotor and the end of the vanes. The kidney shaped seals
must be installed in the support plates with the rounded o-ring side
into the pocket and the flat plastic side against the flex plate.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-14
OUTLET
PORT
INLET PORT
ROTOR
CAM
RING
VANES
Fig. 3.3.14 Vane Pump Operation
Vane Pump Operation

When the rotor rotates around the inside of the cam ring, the vanes
slide in and out of the rotor slots to maintain the seal against the cam
ring. As the vanes move out of the slotted rotor, the volume between
the vanes changes. An increase in the distance between the cam ring
and the rotor causes an increase in the volume. The increase in
volume creates a slight vacuum that allows the inlet oil to be pushed
into the space between the vanes by atmospheric or tank pressure. As
the rotor continues to rotate, a decrease in the distance between the
ring and the rotor causes a decrease in the volume. The oil is pushed
out of that segment of the rotor into the outlet passage of the pump.
Fig. 3.3.15 Balanced Vane Pump
Balanced Vane Pump

The balanced vane pump has an elliptical shaped cam ring. This
shape results in the distance between the rotor and the cam ring
increasing and decreasing twice for each revolution. The two inlets
(1) and two outlets (2) opposite each other balance the forces against
the rotor. This design does not require large bearings and housings to
support the rotating parts. The maximum operating pressure for vane
pumps is 4000 psi. Vane pumps used in mobile hydraulics have a
maximum operating pressure of 3300 psi, or less.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-15
OUTLET
PORT
INLET PORT
RING
ROTOR
VANES
Fig. 3.3.16 Variable Vane Pump
Variable Vane Pump

Variable output vane pumps are controlled by shifting a round ring
back and forth in relation to the rotor centerline. Variable output
vane pumps are seldom, if ever, used in mobile hydraulic
applications.
INSTRUCTOR NOTE: At this time, perform Lab 3.3.2
Fig. 3.3.17 Common Parts
Piston Pumps
Most piston pumps and motors have similar or common parts and use
the same nomenclature. The pump parts in Figure 3.3.17 are the head
(1), the housing (2), the shaft (3), the pistons (4), the port plate (5),
the barrel (6) and the swashplate (7).
The two designs of piston pumps are the axial piston pump and the
radial piston pump. Both pumps are highly efficient, positive
displacement pumps. However, the output of some pumps are fixed
and the output of some pumps are variable.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-16
FIXED DISPLACEMENT
EXHAUST
SWASH
PLATE
SLIPPER
PISTON
EXHAUST
CONTROL LEVER
SWASH
PLATE
DRIVE
SHAFT
RETAINING
PLATE
BARREL
ASSEMBLY
INTAKE
INTAKE
Fig. 3.3.18 Common Parts
Axial Piston Pumps and Motors

The fixed displacement axial piston pumps and motors are built in a
straight housing or in an angled housing. The basic operation of
piston pumps and motors are the same.
Stright Housing Axial Piston Pumps and motors
Figure 3.3.18 shows an illustration of the positive displacement fixed
output axial piston pump and the positive displacement variable
output axial piston pump. In most publications the fact that both
pumps are positive displacement is considered to be understood and
the pumps are refered to as fixed displacement pumps and variable
displacement pumps.
In the fixed displacement axial piston pumps, the pistons move
backward and forward in a line that is near parallel to the centerline
of the shaft.
In the straight housing piston pump shown in the left illustration of
Figure 3.3.18, the pistons are held against a fixed, wedge-shaped
swashplate. The angle of the swashplate controls the distance the
pistons move in and out of the barrel chambers. The larger the angle
of the wedge-shaped swashplate, the greater the distance of piston
movement and the greater the pump output per revolution.
In the variable displacement axial piston pump, either the swashplate
or the barrel and port plate may pivot back and forth to change its
angle to the shaft. The changing angle causes the output flow to vary
between the minimum and maximum settings although the shaft
speed is held constant.
On either pump, when a piston moves backward, oil flows through
the intake and displaces the piston. As the pump rotates, the piston
moves forward, the oil is pushed out through the exhaust and into the
system.
Most piston pumps used on mobile equipment are axial piston pumps.
INSTRUCTOR NOTE: Use piston pump demonstrator to show
how oil enters and discharges from the barrel assembly.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-17
RETAINING PLATE
LINK
PISTON
PORT PLATE
HEAD
SHAFT
CASE
BARREL
FLUSHING VALVE
(INSIDE HEAD)
Fig. 3.3.19 Angled Housing Axial Piston Motor
Angled Housing Axial Piston Pump

In the angled housing piston pump shown in Figure 3.3.19, the
pistons are connected to the input shaft by piston links or spherical
piston ends that fit into sockets in a plate. The plate is an integral
part of the shaft. The angle of the housing to the shaft centerline
controls the distance the pistons move in and out of the barrel
chambers. The larger the angle of the housing, the greater the pump
output per revolution.
The output flow of a fixed displacement piston pump can only be
changed by changing the input shaft speed.
Straight and Angle Housing Piston Motors
In the straight housing fixed displacement piston motor, the angle of
the wedge-shaped swashplate determines the speed of the motor
output shaft.
In the angle housing fixed displacement piston motor, the angle of the
housing to the shaft centerline determines the speed of the motor
output shaft.
In both motors, the output shaft speed can only be changed by
changing the input flow to the motor.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-18
Some smaller piston pumps are designed for pressures of 10000 psi
or more. Piston pumps used in mobile equipment are designed for a
maximum pressure of 7000 psi or less.
CAM FOLLOWER
PISTON
CAM RING
VALVE
Fig. 3.3.20 Radial Piston Pump
Radial Piston Pump

In the radial piston pump Figure 3.3.20, the pistons moves outward
and inward in a line that is 90 degrees to the centerline of the shaft.
When the cam follower rolls down the cam ring, the piston moves
outward. Atmospheric pressure or a charge pump pushes oil through
the valve inlet port and displaces the piston movement. When the
cam follower rolls up the cam ring, the piston moves inward. Oil is
pushed out of the cylinder and through the outlet port.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-19
DRIVE GEAR
HOUSING
INLET
OUTLET
CRESCENT
RING GEAR
Fig. 3.3.21
Internal Gear Pump

The internal gear pump (Figure 3.3.21) has a small drive gear (pinion
gear) that drives a large ring gear (outer gear). The ring gear is
slightly larger in pitch than the drive gear. A stationary crescent is
located below the pinion gear between the drive gear and the ring
gear. The inlet and outlet ports are located at either end of the
crescent.
When the pump rotates, the teeth of the drive gear and the ring gear
unmesh at the pump inlet port. The void between the teeth increases
and fills with inlet oil. The oil is carried between the drive gear teeth
and the crescent, and the ring gear teeth and the crescent to the outlet
port. When the gears pass the outlet port, the void between the teeth
decreases and the teeth mash. This action forces the oil out from
between the teeth and into the outlet port.
The internal gear pump is used as the charging pump in some large
piston pumps.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-20
INNER
GEAR
OUTER
GEAR
Fig. 3.3.22
Conjugate Curve Pump

The conjugate curve pump (Figure 3.3.22) is also called a
GEROTORTM pump. The inner and outer members rotate within the
pump housing. Pumping is achieved by the way the lobes on the
inner and the outer member contact each other during rotation. As
the inner and outer members rotate, the inner member walks around
inside the outside member. The inlet and outlet ports are located on
the end covers of the housing. The fluid entering through the inlet is
carried around to the outlet and squeezed out when the lobes mesh.
A modified conjugate curve pump is used in many steering systems
hand metering unit (HMU). When used in the HMU, the outer gear
is stationary and only the inner gear rotates.
Unit 3
Lesson 3
3-3-21
MONO-DIRECTIONAL
FIXED DISPLACEMENT
PUMP
BI-DIRECTIONAL
FIXED DISPLACEMENT
PUMP
MONO-DIRECTIONAL
PUMP
BI-DIRECTIONAL
PUMP
Fig. 3.3.23 Pump ISO Symbols
Pump ISO Symbols

Pump ISO symbols are distinguished by a dark triangle in a circle
with the point of the triangle pointing toward the edge of the circle.
An arrow across the circle indicates a variable output per revolution.
MONO-DIRECTIONAL
FIXED DISPLACEMENT
MOTOR
BI-DIRECTIONAL
FIXED DISPLACEMENT
MOTOR
MONO-DIRECTIONAL
MOTOR
BI-DIRECTIONAL
MOTOR
Fig. 3.3.24 Motor ISO Symbols
Motor ISO Symbols

Motor ISO symbols are distinguished by a dark triangle in a circle
with the point of the triangle pointing toward the center of the circle.
An arrow across the circle indicates a variable input per revolution.
Hydraulic Tank
Hydraulic Fluids
Flow Control Valves
Cylinders
Introduction
Pressure Control Valves are used to control the pressure in a circuit
or in a system. The valve function will remain the same although the
design may change. Examples of pressure control valves include
relief valves, sequence valves, pressure reducing valves, pressure
differential valves and unloading valves.
Objectives
1. List the four most common pressure control valves.
2. State the functions of the relief valve, sequence valve,
pressure reducing valve and the pressure differential valve.
3. Identify the ISO symbol for the four most common pressure
control valves.
Lesson 4: Pressure Control Valves
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-2
Relief Valves
Hydraulic systems are designed to operate within a certain pressure
range. Exceeding this range can damage the system components or
become dangerous to personnel. The relief valve maintains the
pressure within the designed limit by opening and allowing excessive
oil to flow either to another circuit or back to the tank.
Fig. 3.4.1 Cracking Pressure
Simple Pressure Relief Valve, Cracking Pressure

Figure 3.4.1 shows a simple relief valve in the "cracking pressure"
position.
The simple relief valve (also called direct acting relief valve) is kept
closed by spring force. The spring tension is set to the "relief
pressure" setting. However, the relief pressure setting is not the
pressure at which the valve first begins to open.
When a condition develops that causes a resistance to the normal oil
flow in the circuit, excessive oil flow causes the oil pressure to
increase. The increasing oil pressure is sensed at the relief valve.
When the force of the increasing oil pressure overcomes the force of
the relief valve spring, the valve moves against the spring and begins
to open. The pressure required to begin valve opening is called the
"cracking pressure." The valve opens just enough to allow excess oil
to flow through the valve.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-3
Fig. 3.4.2 Relief Pressure Setting
Simple Pressure Relief Valve, Relief Pressure Setting

An increase in the resistance to oil flow increases the volume of
excess oil and increases the circuit pressure. The increase in circuit
pressure overcomes the new spring tension and further opens the
relief valve.
The process is repeated until the maximum volume of oil (full pump
flow) is flowing through the relief valve. This is the "relief pressure
setting" as shown in Figure 3.4.2.
The simple relief valve is commonly used where the volume of
excess oil flow is low or where there is a need for a quick response.
This makes the simple relief valve ideal for relieving shock pressures
or as a safety valve.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-4
PILOT VALVE
SPRING
PILOT VALVE
UNLOADING
VALVE SPRING
UNLOADING
VALVE
UNLOADING
VALVE ORIFICE
PUMP FLOW
TO
TANK
TO
SYSTEM
Fig. 3.4.3 System Oil Flow
Pilot Operated Relief Valve, CLOSE Position

The pilot operated relief valve (Figure 3.4.3) is often used in systems
that require a large volume of oil and a small differential between the
cracking pressure and the full flow pressure.
In the pilot operated relief valve, a pilot valve (simple relief valve) is
used to control the unloading valve (main valve).
The pilot valve is much smaller and does not handle large volume oil
flow. Therefore, the spring in the pilot valve is much smaller
allowing more precise pressure control. The difference between the
pilot valve cracking pressure and maximum pressure is held to a
minimum.
The unloading valve is large enough to handle the complete pump
flow at the designed maximum relief pressure. The unloading valve
uses the system oil pressure to keep the valve closed. Therefore, the
unloading valve spring does not need to be strong and heavy. This
allows the unloading valve to have a more precise opening pressure.
The system oil flows into the relief valve housing, through the
unloading valve orifice and fills the unloading valve spring chamber.
The oil in the unloading valve spring chamber comes in contact with
a small area of the pilot valve. This allows the pilot valve to use a
small spring to control a high pressure. When the oil pressure
increases in the system, the same pressure is in the unloading valve
spring chamber. Therefore, the oil pressure is the same on both sides
of the unloading valve. The combined force of the system oil
pressure in the unloading valve spring chamber and the spring force
on the top of the unloading valve is greater than the force of the
system oil pressure against the bottom of the valve. The combined
force in the spring chamber keeps the unloading valve closed.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-5
PILOT VALVE
SPRING
PILOT VALVE
ORIFICE
PILOT
VALVE
UNLOADING
VALVE SPRING
UNLOADING
VALVE
PUMP
FLOW
UNLOADING
VALVE ORIFICE
TO
TANK
TO
SYSTEM
Fig. 3.4.4 Pilot Valve Open
Pilot Operated Relief Valve, OPEN Position

When the system oil pressure exceeds the pilot valve spring setting
(Figure 3.4.4), the pilot valve opens. The open pilot valve allows the
oil in the unloading valve spring chamber to flow to the tank. The
pilot valve opening (orifice) is larger than the unloading valve orifice.
Therefore, oil flows pass the pilot valve much faster than through the
unloading valve orifice. This allows the pressure to decrease in the
unloading valve spring chamber. The force of the higher system oil
pressure moves the unloading valve against the spring. The excessive
pump oil flows through the throttling holes in the unloading valve to
the tank. The throttling holes allow the unloading valve to dump the
volume of oil necessary to maintain the desired relief pressure.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-6
FROM
PUMP
TO
TANK
Fig. 3.4.5 Relief Valve ISO Symbol
Relief Valve ISO Symbol CLOSED

The relief valve ISO graphic symbol in Figure 3.4.5 can represent
either a simple relief valve or a pilot operated relief valve. The ISO
symbol is the same for all relief valves.
The above relief valve ISO symbol shows a single valve envelope in
the CLOSED position. The system pressure is sensed through the
pilot line at the top of the envelope and works to move the valve
(arrow) against the spring. During normal operations, the pump flow
is blocked at the closed valve.
FROM
PUMP
TO
TANK
Fig. 3.4.6 Relief Valve ISO Symbol Open to Flow
Relief Valve ISO Symbol OPEN

The relief valve ISO symbol in Figure 3.4.6 shows a single valve
envelope in the OPEN position.
When the force of the system oil pressure overcomes the spring force,
the arrow moves down (valve opens) and connects the oil line from
the pump with the oil line to the tank. The pump oil flows through
the valve to the tank.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-7
TO
TANK
FROM
PUMP
Fig. 3.4.7 Variable Relief Valve
Variable Relief Valve ISO Symbol

Figure 3.4.7 shows the ISO symbol for a variable relief valve.
The variable relief valve is a single envelope valve with an arrow
through the spring. The arrow shows that the spring tension can be
varied.
UNLOADING
VALVE SPRING
CHAMBER
PILOT
VALVE
TO TANK
FROM
PUMP
OUTPUT TO
CIRCUIT 2
TO
CIRCUIT 1
UNLOADING
VALVE
Fig. 3.4.8 Sequence Valve CLOSED
Sequence Valve, CLOSE Position

The sequence valve (Figure 3.4.8) is simply a pilot operated relief
valve in series with the second circuit. The sequence valve is use
when two circuits are supplied by one pump and one circuit has
priority over the other.
The sequence valve blocks pump oil flow to circuit 2 until circuit 1 is
satisfied. When pump oil fills circuit 1, the oil pressure begins to
increase. The increase is sensed throughout the circuit as well as at
the bottom of the unloading valve and in the unloading valve spring
chamber of the sequence valve.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-8
UNLOADING
VALVE SPRING
CHAMBER
PILOT
VALVE
TO TANK
FROM
PUMP
OUTPUT TO
CIRCUIT 2
TO
CIRCUIT 1
UNLOADING
VALVE
Fig. 3.4.9 Sequence Valve OPEN
Sequence Valve, OPEN Position

When the pressure in the unloading valve spring chamber exceeds the
setting of the pilot valve spring, the pilot valve opens. The open pilot
valve allows the oil in the unloading valve spring chamber to flow to
the tank. This allows the pressure to decrease in the unloading valve
spring chamber. The force of the higher system oil pressure moves
the unloading valve against the unloading valve spring force and
opens the passage to circuit 2. Pump oil flows through the sequence
valve to circuit 2. The sequence valve remains open until the
pressure in circuit 1 decreases to less than the pressure setting of the
sequence valve.
FROM
PUMP
TO
CIRCUIT 2
Fig. 3.4.10 Sequence Valve ISO SYMBOL
Sequence Valve ISO Symbol

The operation of the sequence valve is the same as the operation of
the relief valve.
In the relief valve, the spring chamber is normally drained internally
to outlet passage. In the sequence valve, the outlet passage connects
to the second circuit. Because the second circuit is under pressure
when the sequence valve opens, the pilot valve spring chamber must
be externally drained to the tank.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-9
Pressure Reducing Valve

The pressure reducing valve allows two circuits of different pressures
to be supplied by the same pump. The maximum supply oil pressure
is controlled by the system relief valve. The pressure reducing valve
controls the maximum pressure in the controlled oil circuit.
DRAIN
SHIMS
VALVE VALVE
SPRING SPOOL
SUPPLY
OIL
CONTROLLED
OIL CIRCUIT
DRAIN
PISTON
PISTON
CHAMBER
Fig. 3.4.11 Pressure Reducing Valve
Pump Start-up
Figure 3.4.11 shows the pressure reducing valve in the normally open
position.
At pump start-up, the valve spring force holds the valve spool and the
piston to the right. The supply oil flows around the pressure reducing
valve spool to the controlled oil circuit (downstream side of the
valve). The supply oil also flows through the oil passage to the
piston chamber at the right of the valve spool. Any change in the
controlled oil circuit pressure is sensed in the piston chamber. At
pump start-up, the supply oil pressure and the controlled oil pressure
are the same.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-10
DRAIN
SHIMS
VALVE VALVE
SPRING SPOOL
ORIFICE
SUPPLY
OIL
CONTROLLED
OIL CIRCUIT
DRAIN
PISTON
PISTON
CHAMBER
Fig. 3.4.12 Normal Operating Condition
Normal Operating Condition

Figure 3.4.12 shows the pressure reducing valve in the normal
operating condition.
When the pressure increases in the controlled oil circuit, the increase
is sensed in the piston chamber. The increasing pressure moves the
piston to the left against the valve spool and the force of the spring.
When the valve spool moves to the left, the valve spool restricts the
supply oil flow through the valve and reduces the controlled oil
circuit pressure.
The moving valve spool creates a variable orifice between the supply
oil and the controlled oil circuit. The variable orifice allows the oil
flow to increase and decrease as needed to control the pressure in the
controlled oil circuit.
The oil in the spring chamber must be drained to the tank. Any
increase in the spring chamber oil pressure will cause an increase in
the valve setting.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-11
FROM
PUMP
TO CONTROLLED
OIL CIRCUIT
Fig. 3.4.13 Pressure Reducing Valve ISO Symbol
Pressure Reducing Valve ISO Symbol

Figure 3.4.13 shows the ISO symbol for the pressure reducing valve.
The ISO symbol uses a single envelope to represent the infinite
positioning or metering capability of the pressure reducing valve.
The pump oil flows through the NORMALLY OPEN valve to the
controlled oil circuit. The controlled oil circuit pressure is sensed
through the pilot line and moves the valve (arrow) against the spring.
When controlled oil circuit pressure overcomes the spring force, the
valve shifts downward and restricts the oil flow to the controlled oil
circuit. The upstream pressure may continue to increase. However,
the downstream pressure will not increase beyond the pressure
reducing valve setting.
When the controlled oil circuit pressure decreases, the spring force
will shift the arrow upward to the open position. The valve
constantly meters the oil flow to maintain the controlled oil circuit
pressure.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-12
Pressure Differential Valve

In figures 3.4.14 and 3.4.15, the spring exerts a 50 pound force on the
1 sq. inch valve spool. The supply oil pressure must exceed
345 kPa (50 psi) to overcome the spring force and move the valve
spool.
SECONDARY PRIMARY
CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT
SUPPLY OIL
50 PSI
SPRING
VALVE
SPOOL
VALVE
BODY
Fig. 3.4.14 Pump Start-up
Pump Start-up
Figure 3.4.14 shows a pressure differential valve. The pressure
differential valve maintains a specified difference in pressure between
two circuits.
At pump start-up and whenever the pressure in the primary circuit is
less than 345 kPa (50 psi), the spring force holds the valve spool to
the right. The oil flow is blocked to the secondary circuit. Any
change in the primary circuit pressure is sensed at the valve spool.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-13
SECONDARY PRIMARY
CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT
SUPPLY OIL
50 PSI
SPRING
VALVE
BODY
VALVE
SPOOL
Fig. 3.4.15
Normal Operating Condition

When the primary circuit is filled, pressure begins to increase. When
the primary circuit pressure increases to more than 345 kPa (50 psi),
the primary pressure overcomes the 345 kPa (50 psi) differential
valve spring force and moves the differential valve to the left. Supply
oil flows to the secondary circuit. Supply oil also flows through the
passage to the differential valve spring chamber.
When the secondary circuit is filled, the pressure begins to increase.
The same pressure increase is sensed in the differential valve spring
chamber. The combined oil pressure and spring force move the valve
spool to the right and attempts to shut off the flow of oil to the
secondary circuit. However, the increase in pressure in the primary
circuit keeps the valve open. The pressure increases in both the
primary and secondary circuits until the relief valve opens and sends
the pump flow back to the tank.
The pressure differential valve establishes a position that constantly
maintains a 345 kPa (50 psi) pressure difference between the primary
and the secondary circuits at all pressures above 345 kPa (50) psi.
Unit 3
Lesson 4
3-4-14
INLET
OUTLET
Fig. 3.4.16 Pressure Differential Valve ISO Symbol
Pressure Differential Valve ISO Symbol

The pressure differential valve ISO symbol (Figure 3.4.16) is a
combination of the pressure relief valve symbol and the pressure
reducing valve symbol.
The pressure from the inlet side is sensed by the valve and works
against the spring force as in the pressure relief valve. The outlet
pressure is sensed by the valve and works with the spring force. The
difference between the inlet and outlet pressures is always equal to
the valve spool spring force pressure regardless of changes in
pressure at the inlet port. Example, a spring force pressure of 345
kPa (50 psi) will produce a pressure differential between the inlet and
outlet pressure of 345 kPa (50 psi).
The spring is changed to meet any required change in the differential
pressure. Normally, shims are not used to change the pressure
requirements.
Hydraulic Tank
Hydraulic Fluids
Flow Control Valves
Cylinders
Introduction
Directional control valves are used to direct oil into separate circuits
of a hydraulic system. The maximum flow capacity and the pressure
drop through the valve are the first considerations. Directional
control valves may be interfaced with manual, hydraulic, pneumatic
and electronic controls. These factors are mostly determined during
the initial system design.
Objectives
1. State the function of the manual spool type control valve, the
rotary type control valve and the solenoid actuated control
valve.
2. State the function of the simple check valve, the pilot
operated check valve and the shuttle valve
3. Identify the ISO symbols for the various directional control
valves.
Lesson 5: Directional Control Valves
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-2
Directional Control Valve

The directional control valve is use to direct the supply oil to the
actuator in a hydraulic system.
The valve body is drilled, honed and sometime the bore is heat treated.
The inlet and outlet ports are drilled and threaded. The valve spool is
machined from high grade steel. Some valve spools are heat treated,
ground to size and polished. Other valve spools are chrome plated,
ground to size and polished. The valve body and valve spool are then
mated in assembly to the design specifications. When assembled, the
valve spool is the only part that moves.
VALVE BODY
SPOOL GROOVE
VALVE BORE
SPOOL LANDS
Fig. 3.5.1 Valve Spool
Valve Spool
The valve spool (Figure 3.5.1) consist of lands and groves. The spool
lands block the oil flow through the valve body. The spool groves
allow oil to flow around the spool and through the valve body.
The position of the spool when not activated is called the "normal"
position.
When an "open center" valve is in the normal position, the supply oil
flows through the valve and back to the tank. When a "close center"
valve is in the normal position, the supply oil is blocked by the valve
spool.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-3
FROM
CYLINDER
HEAD END
FROM
PUMP
FROM
CYLINDER
ROD END
VALVE
SPOOL
VALVE
BODY
LOAD
CHECK
VALVE TO
TANK
TO
TANK
TO TANK
Fig. 3.5.2 Directional Control Valve in HOLD
Open Center Directional Control Valve in HOLD Position

Figure 3.5.2 shows a cutaway diagram of a typical open center
directional control valve in the HOLD position.
In the HOLD position, the pump oil flows into the valve body,
around the valve spool and returns to the tank. The pump oil also
flows to the load check valve. The passage behind the load check is
filled with blocked oil. The blocked oil and the load check valve
spring keep the load check valve closed. The valve spool also blocks
the oil in the line to the rod end and the head end of the cylinder.
FROM
CYLINDER
HEAD END
FROM
PUMP
FROM
CYLINDER
ROD END
VALVE
SPOOL
VALVE
BODY
LOAD
CHECK
VALVE
TO
TANK
TO
TANK
TO TANK
Fig. 3.5.3 Directional Control Valve RAISED
Open Center Directional Control Valve in RAISE Position

Figure 3.5.3, shows the valve spool at the instant the spool is moved
to the RAISE position.
When the valve spool is moved to the RAISE position, the valve
spool blocks the pump oil flow to the tank. However, pump oil flow
is open to the load check valve. The valve spool also connects the
cylinder head end to the oil behind the load check valve and the
cylinder rod end to the tank passage. The load check valve prevents .
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-4
the oil in the head end of the cylinder from flowing into the
pump oil passage. The blocked pump oil flow causes an
increase in the oil pressure
FROM
CYLINDER
HEAD END
FROM
PUMP
FROM
CYLINDER
ROD END
VALVE
SPOOL
VALVE
BODY
LOAD
CHECK
VALVE
TO
TANK
TO
TANK
TO TANK
Fig. 3.5.4 Raise Position
Open Center Directional Control Valve, RAISE Position

In Figure 3.5.4, the increase in pump oil pressure overcomes the
pressure behind the load check valve (unseats the load check valve).
The pump oil flows pass the load check valve and around the valve
spool to the head end of the cylinder.
The oil in the rod end of the cylinder flows pass the valve spool to
the tank.
ONE
POSITION
TWO
POSITION
THREE
POSITION
Fig. 3.5.5 ISO Symbols
Directional Control Valve ISO Symbols

Basic Envelope
The basic valve ISO symbol in Figure 3.5.5 consists of one or more
basic envelopes. The number of envelopes used represents the
number of positions that the valve can be shifted.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-5
TWO-WAY
THREE-WAY
FOUR-WAY
SIX-WAY
Fig. 3.5.6 Valve Port
Valve Port
Shown in Figure 3.5.6 are the valve ports for attaching working lines.
A valve with two ports is commonly referred to as a two-way valve.
This is not to be confused with a two-position valve shown in Figure
3.5.5. Valves may have as many positions and ports as needed.
However, most valve positions are in the range of one to three and
valve ports in the range of two to six.
FLOW IN
ONE
DIRECTION
FLOW IN
EITHER
DIRECTION
PARALLEL
FLOW
CROSS
FLOW
FLOW
BLOCKED
Fig. 3.5.7 Flow Path
Flow Path
In Figure 3.5.7, the lines and arrows inside the envelopes are used
basically to represent the flow paths and directions between ports.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-6
A B
CLOSED CENTER
P T
A B
TANDEM CENTER
(CATERPILLAR
OPEN CENTER)
P T
A B
OPEN CENTER
P T
Fig. 3.5.8 Three Position Valve
Three Position Valve

Figure 3.5.8 shows three ISO symbols of the three position valve. In
the three position valve, the center position is the NEUTRAL or
HOLD position. When the valve is not doing work, the valve is
placed in the HOLD position.
Depending on the design of the spool, the center position serves
several purposes.
The ISO symbol at the top represents a closed center valve. When in
the HOLD position, the close center spool blocks all oil flow.
The ISO symbol in the middle represents a tandem center valve.
When in the HOLD position, the tandem center valve blocks oil flow
at A and B but connects the pump to the tank.
The ISO symbol on the bottom represents an open center valve.
When in the HOLD position, the open center valve connects all ports
to the tank.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-7
TO
TANK
LOWER
CHECK
VALVE
TO CYLINDER ROD END

TO CYLINDER HEAD EN
TO TANK
FROM
PUMP
RAISE
MANUAL CONTROL
Fig. 3.5.9 Six Way Valve
Three Position, Six Way, Open Center, Manual Controlled Valve

Figure 3.5.9, shows a three position, six way, open center, manual
controlled valve in the HOLD position. The pump oil flows around
the valve spool to the tank. The oil in the cylinder is blocked at the
control valve spool.
PILOT OIL
TO
TANK
LOWER
CHECK
VALVE
TO CYLINDER ROD END

TO CYLINDER HEAD END
TO TANK
FROM
PUMP
RAISE
PILOT CONTROL
PILOT OIL
Fig. 3.5.10 Six Way Valve
Six Way Valve

Three Position, Six Way, Close Center, Pilot Controlled Valve
Figure 3.5.10 shows a three position, six way, close center, pilot
controlled valve. In the HOLD position, all oil flow is blocked at the
control valve spool.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-8
SOLENOID
ACTUATOR
MANUAL
ACTUATOR
SPRING
ACTUATOR
PUSHBUTTON
ACTUATOR
PUSH-PULL LEVER
ACTUATOR
AIR
ACTUATOR
MECHANICAL
ACTUATOR
DETENTED
ACTUATOR
PEDAL
ACTUATOR
OIL
ACTUATOR
Fig. 3.5.11 Directional Control Valve Actuator
Directional Control Valve Actuator

Figure 3.5.11 shows the ISO symbols for various directional control
valve actuator.
ROD END
TO TANK
PORT
PORT
TO TANK
PORT
PORT
VALVE
BODY
CHANNELS
VALVE
BODY
ROD END
CHANNELS
PLUG
PLUG
PORT
FROM PUMP
PORT
HEAD END
PORT
FROM PUMP
PORT
HEAD END
Fig. 3.5.12 Rotary Valve
Rotary Valve
The rotary valve (Figure 3.5.12) consists of a round plug with
passages or channels. The channels in the plug connect with the ports
in the valve body. Instead of shifting to the right or to the left, the
valve rotates.
In the diagram on the left, the valve connects the pump to the rod end
of the cylinder. The oil in head end flows to the tank. When the
valve is rotated 90 degrees, the pump is connected to the head end
and the oil in the rod end flows to the tank.
The rotary valve shown is a four-way valve. However, rotary valves
may also be two-way or three-way. The rotary valve is used in low
pressure operations.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-9
TO
IMPLEMENT
FROM
PUMP
FROM
IMPLEMENT
TO
PUMP
Fig. 3.5.13 Check Valve
Check Valve
The purpose of a check valve is to readily permit oil flow in one
direction, but prevent (check) oil flow in the opposite direction. The
check valve is sometimes called a "one way" check valve.
Most check valves consist of a spring and a tapered seat valve as in
Figure 3.5.13 above. However, a round ball is sometimes used
instead of the tapered seat valve. In some circuits, the check valve
may be free floating (has no spring).
In the valve on the left, when the pump oil pressure overcomes the
oil pressure in back of the check valve plus the check valve slight
spring force, the check valve opens and allows the oil to flow to the
implement.
In the valve on the right, when the pressure of the pump oil is less
than the oil pressure in the implement, the check valve closes and
prevents implement oil flow back through the valve.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-10
Pilot Operated Check Valve

The pilot operated check valve differs from the simple check valve in
that the pilot operated check valve allows oil flow through the valve
in the reverse direction.
PILOT VALVE
OIL CHAMBER
PILOT
VALVE
TO
CYLINDER
ROD
PILOT
OIL
CHECK VALVE
FROM CONTROL
VALVE
Fig. 3.5.14 Forward Flow
Forward Flow
Figure 3.5.14 shows a pilot operated check valve. The pilot operated
check valve consist of a check valve, a pilot valve and a rod. The
pilot operated check valve allows free flow from the control valve to
the cylinder.
PILOT VALVE
OIL CHAMBER
PILOT
VALVE
ROD
FROM
CYLINDER
PILOT
OIL
TO CONTROL
VALVE
CHECK VALVE
Fig. 3.5.15 Flow Blocked
Flow Blocked
When oil flow from the control valve cease, the check valve seats as
shown on the right of Figure 3.5.15. The oil flow from the cylinder
to the control valve is blocked at the check valve.
The pilot operated check valve is most often used in operations where
load drift is a problem. The pilot operated check valve allows load
drift to be held to a very close tolerance.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-11
PILOT VALVE
OIL CHAMBER
PILOT
VALVE
ROD
FROM
CYLINDER
PILOT
OIL
TO CONTROL
VALVE
CHECK VALVE
Fig. 3.5.16 Reverse Flow
Reverse Flow
The valve in Figure 3.5.16, shows oil flow from the cylinder to the
control valve.
When flow is required, pilot oil is sent to the pilot valve oil chamber.
Pilot oil pressure moves the pilot valve and rod to the right and
unseats the check valve. The cylinder oil flows through the check
valve to the control valve and then to the tank.
The pressure ratio between the load pressure and the pilot pressure is
designed into the valve. The valve used on the Explorer training unit
has a pressure ratio of 3:1. The pressure needed to open the check
valve is equal to one-third of the load pressure. A load pressure of
4134 kPa (600 psi) requires a pilot pressure of 1378 kPa (200 psi) to
open the check valve.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-12
CHECK VALVE (OPEN)
CHECK VALVE (CLOSED)

PILOT
CIRCUIT 1
CIRCUIT 2
C
CIRCUIT 3
SHUTTLE VALVE
(RESOLVER VALVE)
PILOT OPERATED
CHECK VALVE
Fig. 3.5.17 Check Valve ISO Symbols
Check Valve ISO Symbols

In Figure 3.5.17, symbols A and B represents the simple check valve
in the OPEN and CLOSE positions.
Symbol C represent the shuttle valve. The shuttle (resolver) valve
allows two separate circuits to supply oil to a third circuit while
keeping the two separate circuits isolated from each other.
Symbol D represents the pilot operated check valve.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-13
TO
CYLINDERS
FROM
CYLINDER
TANK OIL
TANK OIL
Fig. 3.5.18 Make-up Valve
Make-up Valve
The make-up valve in Figure 3.5.18, looks similar to the check valve.
The makeup valve is normally positioned in the circuit between the
implement and the tank. During normal operations, the pump or
cylinder oil fills the area behind the make-up valve. The pressure in
the cylinder keeps the valve CLOSED. When the cylinder pressure is
approximately 14 kPa (2 psi) lower than the tank pressure, the makeup valve will OPEN. The tank oil bypasses the pump and flows
directly through the make-up valve to the cylinder.
The make-up valve is used to prevent cavitation. For example, when
a loader bucket is RAISED and the operator moves the control to the
FULLY LOWER position, the gravitational force on the bucket is
transmitted through the cylinder piston to the return oil. The
increased pressure on the return oil increases the flow from the
cylinder. When the cylinder piston displaces the return oil faster than
the pump can send oil to displace the piston, a vacuum is formed in
the cylinder and lines. A vacuum can cause the cylinder and lines to
cavitate. When the pressure in the cylinder and lines decreases to 14
kPa (2 psi) less than tank pressure, the make-up valve opens and
allows tank oil to flow through the make-up valve to the lines and
cylinder. This procedure prevents cavitation in the cylinder and lines.
Makeup Valve ISO Symbol
The operation (function) of the make-up valve and the check valve is
the same. Therefore, the ISO symbol for the make-up valve is the
same as the ISO symbol for the check valve.
INSTRUCTOR NOTE: At this time, perform Lab 3.5.2 and Lab
3.5.3
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-14
SOLENOID ACTUATED CONTROL VALVES

Solenoid Actuator
In a solenoid actuator, an electro-magnetic field moves an armature
which moves a push pin. The push pin moves the valve spool.
The two most popular solenoid actuators are the air gap and the wet
armature.
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
FIELD
COVER
MANUAL
OVERRIDE
PUSH
PIN
COIL
ARMATURE
Fig. 3.5.19 Air Gap Solenoid
Air Gap Solenoid

An air gap solenoid is shown in Figure 3.5.19. When the coil is
energized, an electro-magnetic field is created. Such a field develops
whenever electricity flows through a wire. When the wire is straight,
the field is relatively weak. When the wire is wound into a coil, the
electro-magnetic field becomes much stronger. The field takes a
circular shape around the coil. The higher the number of turns in the
coil, the stronger the field.
When the flow of electricity through the coil remains constant, the
electro-magnetic field acts very much like the field of a permanent
bar magnet. The electro-magnetic field attracts the armature. The
armature moves a push pin and the push pin moves the valve spool in
the control valve.
The air gap solenoid is protected by a cover. The air gap solenoid
also has a "manual override" feature. The manual override allows the
valve to be activated when the solenoid is defective or disabled. A
small metal pin is located in the cover. The pin is positioned directly
in line with the armature. When the pin is pushed into the cover, the
pin mechanically moves the armature. The armature moves the push
pin which shifts the spool.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-15
TUBE
PUSH PIN
HYDRAULIC
FLUID
MANUAL
OVERRIDE
FRAME
COIL
ARMATURE
Fig. 3.5.20 Wet Armature Solenoid
Wet Armature Solenoid

The wet armature solenoid (Figure 3.5.20) is a relatively new arrival
on the hydraulic scene.
The wet armature solenoid consist of a rectangular frame, coil, tube,
armature, push pin and manual override. The coil and rectangular
frame is encapsulated in plastic. The tube fits into a hole that runs
through the coil center and two sides of the frame. The armature is
housed within the tube and is bathed with hydraulic fluid from the
directional valve. The hydraulic fluid is a better conductor of the
electro-magnetic field than air. Therefore, the wet armature solenoid
works with greater force than the air gap solenoid.
When the coil is energized, an electro-magnetic field is created. The
electro-magnetic field moves the armature. The armature moves a
push pin and the push pin moves the valve spool in the control valve.
In the wet armature solenoid, the manual override is located on the
end of the tube which houses the armature and the push pin. The
manual override is used to check movement of the directional valve
spool. If the solenoid fails because the spool jammed, the spool
movement can be checked by pushing in the manual override. The
manual override may also be used to cycle the actuator without
energizing the complete electrical control system.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-16
P
T
Fig. 3.5.21 Two Position 4-Way Directional Control
Solenoid Controlled, Spring Offset, Pilot Operated, Two Position,

4-way Directional Control Valve
Figure 3.5.21, shows a Solenoid Controlled, Spring Offset, Pilot
Operated, Two Position, 4-way Directional Control Valve.
The solenoid controlled, spring offset, pilot operated, two position,
directional control valve is not frequently equipped with two
solenoids. The second solenoid is considered an unnecessary
expense and an additional solenoid to worry about in the system.
The solenoid is used to shift the pilot valve spool. The pilot valve
spool is returned to its original position by a spring. When a system
is designed for large oil flow, a large directional valve is required. A
substantial force is needed to shift the large valve spool. The
solenoid needed to generate that amount of force would be quite
large. In valves of this type, a small solenoid controlled pilot valve is
positioned on top of the larger main valve spool. When shifting is
required, pressurized oil flows from the small solenoid controlled
pilot valve to either side of the larger valve spool.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-17
SOLENOID CONTROLLED
PILOT VALVE
SOLENOID
SOLENOID
P
T
Fig. 3.5.22 Three Position 4-way Directional Control Valve
Solenoid Controlled, Pilot Operated, Three Position,

4-way Directional Control Valve
Figure 3.5.22 shows a Solenoid Controlled, Pilot Operated, Three
Position, 4-way Directional Control Valve.
The pilot valve is controlled by two solenoid valves. The pilot valve
also has a spring located at each end of the valve spool. When
neither solenoid is energized, the pilot valve spool springs hold the
pilot valve spool in the CENTER position. When the pilot valve is in
the CENTER position, pilot oil flow to the larger control valve is
blocked. The springs in the three position directional control valve
return the control spool to the center position.
Spring centering is the most common means of centering a
directional control valve spool. The directional control valve has a
spring located at each end of the valve spool. When pilot oil pressure
is applied to either end of the directional valve spool, the valve spool
moves and compresses the spring on the opposite end. When the
pilot oil pressure is removed, the spring returns the directional control
spool to the center position.
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-18
Solenoid Failure
Most solenoid actuator failures occur when valves are stuck. The
stuck valve spool prevents the armature from closing properly. The
most likely cause of a stuck valve spool is contamination.
Contaminant such as silt, metal chips, and other particles may
become lodged between the spool and bore causing the spool to stick.
Also, oxidized oil particles can create a gooey varnish which clogs
the clearance between the spool and bore walls and cause the spool to
stick to the bore. Silt, metal chips, and other contaminating particles
can be removed by installing a filter. The varnish build-up can be
removed by washing the valve in lacquer thinner. The proper oil and
filter change intervals can help to eliminate most of this type
problems.
When the valve is stuck and the solenoid is energized, the solenoid
coil receives a constant high flow of current that generates excessive
heat. The solenoid is not designed to dissipate the excessive heat and
the coil burns out. Overheating problems most often occur during
periods of high ambient (environmental) temperatures, or system low
voltage.
Problems with solenoid failure due to high ambient temperatures may
be controlled by increasing the air flow across the solenoid. The
temperature of the hydraulic oil can be lowered to allow more heat to
be drawn from the solenoid through the hydraulic system.
Sometimes, a different valve design may be required when operating
during very hot weather. Some arrangement must be made to allow
the system to operate at a lower temperature.
When the voltage to the coil is too low, the electro-magnetic field is
not sufficiently strong to attract the armature. Just as when the spool
is stuck, the current continues flowing through the coil. The constant
flow of current generates the excessive heat.
Other factors also affect the proper operation and life expectancy of
the solenoid actuator. The solenoid actuator may fail when cycled
excessively, when short-circuited, or when operated with an incorrect
electrical supply (wrong frequency, wrong voltage).
Unit 3
Lesson 5
3-5-19
A B
Fig. 3.5.23 Two Position, 4-way Valve
Spring Offset, Solenoid Controlled, Two Position, 4-Way Valve

In the ISO symbol in Figure 3.5.23, the spring offset directional
control valves is shown in its normal position. The pump oil flows to
A and the oil in B flows to the tank.
When the solenoid is energized, the solenoid moves the valve against
the spring. The pump oil then flows to B and the oil in A flows to the
tank.
A B
P T
Fig. 3.5.24 Three Position, 4-way Valve
Solenoid Controlled Pilot Operated, Spring Centered,

Three Position, 4-Way, Closed-Centered Valve
In the ISO symbol in Figure 3.5.24, the solenoid controlled pilot
operated, spring centered, three position, 4-way, closed-centered
valve is shown in its normal position. All four ways are blocked at
the valve. When the solenoid on the right is energized, the pump oil
flows to B and the oil in A flows to the tank. When the solenoid on
the left is energized, the pump oil flows to A and the oil in B flows to
the tank.
Cylinders
Lesson 7: Cylinders
Hydraulic Tank
Hydraulic Fluids
Flow Control Valves
Cylinders
Introduction
Cylinders are basically linear actuators. Their outputs are straight
line motion or force. The most common types are single acting
cylinders and double acting cylinders.
Objectives
1. Identify the two basic types of hydraulic cylinders.
2. State the function of the two basic types of hydraulic
cylinders.
3. Identify the basic cylinder components.
Unit 3
Lesson 7
3-7-2
CYLINDER
BODY
BORE SEAL
TANK
LOAD
HEAD END
ROD END
FROM
CONTROL VALVE
PISTON
ROD
Fig. 3.7.1 Single Acting Cylinder
Single Acting Cylinders

Figure 3.7.1 shows a single acting cylinder.
The tubular outer housing is the cylinder body. Inside the cylinder
body are the piston, piston seal and the rod. The bore refers to the
diameter of the piston. The head end (sometime called the blind end)
refers to the piston end of the cylinder. The rod end refers to the end
from which the rod extends and retracts.
GRAVITY
TO CONTROL
VALVE
FROM CONTROL
VALVE
EXTEND ROD
RETRACT ROD
Fig. 3.7.2 Vertical Lift Gravity Return Operation
Vertical Lift Gravity Return Operation

The single acting cylinder is often used on vertical lift gravity return
operations as shown in Figure 3.7.2. The control valve directs oil to
the head end of the cylinder. The oil pressure acts upon the piston to
extend the rod and lift the load. Gravity acting on the load is used to
retract the rod and lower the load.
Unit 3
Lesson 7
3-7-3
PISTON
PISTON
SEAL
HEAD
END
ROD
ROD
END
LOAD
FROM
CONTROL VALVE
TO
CONTROL VALVE
Fig. 3.7.3 Double Acting Cylinders
Double Acting Cylinders

Figure 3.7.3 shows a double acting cylinder. The double acting
cylinder is the most common hydraulic actuator used today. The
double acting cylinder is used on the implement, the steering and
other systems where the cylinder is required to do work in both
directions.
Since tie rod cylinders are the most common double acting cylinder,
the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA) guidelines are used for
the standards in bore size, mounting style and overall dimensions.
This allows tie rod cylinders from different manufacturers to be
interchangeable when they have the same description. However, it
must be remembered that cylinders may be equal in size without
being equal in quality.
Unit 3
Lesson 7
3-7-4
BORE
EFFECTIVE
AREA
EFFECTIVE
AREA
FROM CONTROL
VALVE
TO CONTROL
VALVE
TO CONTROL
VALVE
FROM CONTROL
VALVE
Fig. 3.7.4 Effective Area of a Cylinder
Effective Area of a Cylinder

The bore size of the cylinder refers to the inside diameter of the
cylinder. A cylinder with a large bore size creates a larger volume
per unit of length than a cylinder with a small bore size. The large
bore size cylinder takes more oil to move the piston the same
distance than the small bore size cylinder. Therefore for a given
flow rate, a large bore size cylinder moves slower than a small bore
size cylinder.
The effective area of a cylinder is the surface area of the piston and
piston seal upon which the oil pushes. Because one end of the rod
attaches to the piston and the opposite end extends out of the
cylinder, the rod end effective area is less than the head end effective
area. The oil can not push against the area of the piston that is
covered by the rod.
The volume of oil needed to fill the rod end of the cylinder is less
than the volume of oil needed to fill the head end of the cylinder.
Therefore, the cylinder rod retracts faster than the cylinder rod
extends for a given flow rate.
Unit 3
Lesson 7
3-7-5
PISTON
SEAL
HEAD SEAL
('O' RING)
ROD
GLAND
LOAD
ROD
SEAL
WIPER
SEAL
Fig. 3.7.5 Seals
Seals
Seals are used in various places throughout the cylinder as shown in
Figure 3.7.5.
The piston seal is used between the piston and the cylinder wall. The
design is such that oil pressure spreads the seal against the cylinder
wall, thus the greater the pressure the greater the sealing force.
The head end ('O' ring) seal prevents oil escaping between the rod
gland and the cylinder wall.
The rod seal is a "U" shaped or u-cup shaped seal that wipes the oil
off the rod as the rod is extended from the cylinder.
The wiper seal is fitted to the cylinder and prevents dirt or grit being
drawn into the cylinder as the cylinder rod retracts.
Seals are made of polyurethane, nitrile or viton. The material should
be verified to be compatible with the fluid used and the operating
conditions.
Unit 3
Lesson 7
3-7-6
HEAD END
RETURN OIL
PASSAGE
ROD END
RETURN OIL
PASSAGE
LOAD
HEAD END
SNUBBER
(DAMPER)
ROD END
SNUBBER
(DAMPER)
Fig. 3.7.6 Cylinder Equipped with Snubbers
Cylinders Equipped with Snubbers (Dampers)

Figure 3.7.6 shows a cylinder equipped with snubbers (dampers).
When a moving cylinder runs into a dead end (as at the end of the
cylinder's stroke), the concussion is called "shock loading." When
cylinders are subject to shock loading, snubbers are used to minimize
the effect.
When the piston approaches full stroke, the snubber moves into the
return oil passage and restricts the return oil flow from the cylinder.
The restriction causes an increase in the return oil pressure between
the return oil passage and the piston. The increase in oil pressure
provides a "cushioning effect" which slows the piston and minimizes
the shock that occurs at full stroke.
Some cylinders may require a head end snubber, some may require a
rod end snubber, while others may require both head end and rod end
snubbers.
Hydraulic Fundamentals Pilot Operated Hydraulic System
Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, the student will:
1. Trace the oil flow from the tank to the pump, through the various
hydraulic components, and back to the tank.
2. State the function of each component in the system.
3. State the system operation in the various modes.
Introduction
In this unit, students will use the basic hydraulic knowledge learned
in Unit I through Unit III to explain the functions of a pilot operated
implement hydraulic system.
The system components in this unit are colored dark gray, gray and
yellow. The yellow represents the current position of the
components in the ISO drawings and the movable parts of the
components in the orthographic drawings.
The hydraulic oil colors used in this unit are:
Green
Tank oil or oil connected to the tank.
Blue
Blocked oil
Red
High pressure oil or pump oil
Red and White Stripe
High pressure oil but less than Red oil.
Unit 4: Pilot Operated Systems
UNIT 4
BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

PILOT OPERATED IMPLEMENT
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Introduction
The pilot operated implement hydraulic system is used on various
models of mobile construction equipment. The illustrations used in
this lesson are for the Caterpillar 928G Wheel Loader.
Students will identify the basic hydraulic components used in the
pilot operated implement hydraulic system, state the functions of the
various components and trace the hydraulic oil flow through the
systems.
Objectives
1. State the hydraulic principles used in the operation of the
pilot operated hydraulic implement system.
2. Trace the oil flow and state the function of the components
of the pilot operated hydraulic implement system.
3. Identify the basic ISO symbols of the pilot operated
hydraulic implement system.
Pilot Operated Systems
Lesson 1: Pilot Operated Implement

Hydraulic System
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-2
LOWERING
VALVE
PRESSURE
REDUCING
VALVE
TO
STEERING
MAIN
RELIEF
VALVE
FROM
STEERING
MANIFOLD
AUX.
VALVE
TILT
VALVE
LIFT
VALVE
PILOT SHUTOFF
VALVE
PILOT
VALVE
Fig. 4.1.1 Implement Hydraulic System
Implement Hydraulic System

The schematic in Figure 4.1.1, shows the implement hydraulic system
with the engine running and all control levers in the HOLD position.
The gray and yellow ISO symbols represent movable components.
The yellow portion of the symbol shows the current position of the
component. Example, in Figure 4.1.1, the yellow center envelopes of
the main control valves show that the valves are in the HOLD
position.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-3
PRESSURE
REDUCING
VALVE
TO
STEERING
TO
TANK
MAIN
RELIEF
VALVE
FROM
STEERING
MANIFOLD
AUX.
VALVE
TILT
VALVE
LIFT
VALVE
PILOT SHUTOFF
VALVE
PILOT
VALVE
Fig. 4.1.2 Main System HOLD Position
Main System HOLD position

In the HOLD position, the main implement pump draws oil from the
tank and sends supply oil flow past the test port and the main relief
valve to the center envelope of the auxiliary control valve. The
supply oil flows through the center of the auxiliary control valve, the
center of the tilt control valve, the center of the lift control valve and
returns to the tank. This type system is called an "open center"
system.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-4
Pilot System HOLD Position
PRESSURE
REDUCING
VALVE
TO
TANK
TO
STEERING
MAIN
RELIEF
VALVE
MANIFOLD
AUX.
VALVE
TILT
VALVE
LIFT
VALVE
PILOT SHUTOFF
VALVE
PILOT
VALVE
Fig. 4.1.3 Pilot System HOLD Position
In the HOLD position, the pilot and steering system pump draws oil
from the tank and sends supply oil flow to the steering system supply
port and the pressure reducing valve. The pressure reducing valve
controls the maximum pressure in the pilot system. (The pressure
reducing valve operation is explained in Unit 3, Lesson 6.) Oil flows
from the pressure reducing valve, through the check valve to the
accumulator and to the pilot shutoff valve.
The accumulator serves as an emergency pilot oil supply when the
pump is not pumping oil.
When the pilot shutoff valve is in the OFF position, the pilot oil is
blocked. The pilot system will not function. When the pilot shutoff
valve is in the ON position, the oil flows through the pilot shutoff
valve to the auxiliary, tilt and lift pilot control valves.
When the pilot control valves are in the HOLD position, the pilot oil
is blocked at the pilot control valves. This type system is a "closed
center" system.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-5
PIVOT PLATE
UPPER PLUNGER
(Dump)
UPPER PLUNGER
(Tilt Back)
COIL ASSEMBLY
(Bucket Tilt Back kickout)
RETAINER
UPPER CENTERING SPRING
LOWER PLUNGER
RETAINER
METERING SPRING
LOWER CENTERING SPRING
RETAINER
TO
TANK
METERING STEM
(Dump)
METERING STEM SPRING

METERING STEM
(Tilt Back)
PILOT OIL
TO MAIN CONTROL VALVE
Fig. 4.1.4 Tilt Pilot Control Valve
Tilt Pilot Control Valve

Figure 4.1.4, shows the major components in the tilt pilot control
valve. Except for the coil assembly at the top of the dump section
(left side), the parts are the same for both sides of the valve.
With the engine running and the control lever in the HOLD position,
pilot oil enters the supply port (bottom center of valve body) and is
blocked by the metering stems. Any oil in the lines to the main
control valve is vented to the tank port through the center of the
metering stems.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-6
TO
TANK
PILOT OIL
FROM MAIN
CONTROL VALVE
TO MAIN
CONTROL VALVE
Fig. 4.1.5 TILT BACK Position
TILT BACK Position

When the operator moves the pilot control lever to the TILT BACK
position, the force causes the pivot plate to move the upper plunger,
the lower plunger, the metering spring, the metering stem spring
retainer, the metering stem spring and the metering stem down. Oil
from the pilot pump flows through the orifice and the center of the
metering stem to the main control valve. Return oil from the main
control valve flows through the dump metering stem port, the center
of the metering stem and to the tank port.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-7
LOWER
CENTERING
SPRING
METERING
SPRING
TO
TANK
METERING STEM
SPRING
TO
TANK
ORIFICE
METERING STEM
FROM
PUMP
FROM
PUMP
FROM MAIN
CONTROL VALVE
TO MAIN
CONTROL VALVE
Fig. 4.1.6 Metering Spring
Metering Spring
The job of the metering stem is to allow movement of the main
control valve spool in proportion to the movement of the pilot valve
lever. The metering stem and metering spring function as a pressure
reducing valve and control the oil pressure at the main control valve
spool.
When the metering stem moves down, pilot oil flows through the
orifice, the center of the metering stem and out to the main control
valve spool. The pilot oil is blocked at the main control valve spool
causing the pilot pressure to increase. The pressure increase
overcomes the main control valve spool spring and moves the main
control valve spool. The main control valve spool directs the main
system oil to the cylinder.
The pressure increase is also sensed against the metering stem. When
the pressure increase overcomes the applied force, the metering stem
moves up and compresses the metering spring. The movement
restricts pilot oil flow through the metering stem orifice. Restricting
the oil flow controls the pressure at the main control valve spool.
The metering spring therefore adjusts the pressure at the main control
valve spool in proportion to the movement of the pilot valve lever
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-8
TILT
PILOT
PASSAGE
LINE RELIEF
AND MAKEUP
VALVE
TANK
DUMP
INLET
CHECK
VALVE
MAIN CONTROL
SPOOL
OUTLET TANK
Fig. 4.1.7 Main Control Valve in HOLD Position
Control Valve in HOLD Position

Figure 4.1.7, shows a 928G main control valve in the HOLD position.
The function of the valve shown is representative of the tilt valve, lift
valve, auxiliary valve or the fourth function valve. The auxiliary
valve contains only line relief valves in both work ports.
When in HOLD, pump supply oil enters the center passage, flows
around the control spool, and through the outlet passages to the next
valve . Supply oil also flows through the internal passage to the
check valve. Oil flows past the check valve to the the main control
spool. The main control spool blocks supply oil flow to the work
ports (tilt and dump passages). The main control spool also blocks
the work port oil passages from the tank oil passages.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-9
TILT CONTROL VALVE

TILT BACK
HEAD END
PILOT
PASSAGE
CHECK
VALVE
INLET
ROD END
OUTLET
TANK
Fig. 4.1.8 TILT BACK Position
TILT BACK Position

When the operator moves the pilot control lever to the TILT position,
pilot oil (orange) moves the tilt control spool to the right. The control
spool blocks the oil outlet passages, opens the passage from the check
valve to the tilt cylinder head end and opens the passage from the tilt
cylinder rod end to the tank return. When the supply pressure is
higher than the pressure in the head end of the tilt cylinder, the supply
oil opens the check valve and flows past the control spool to the head
end of the tilt cylinder. The return oil flows from the rod end of the
tilt cylinder, past the control spool and to the tank. The bucket begins
tilting back.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-10
COMBINATION VALVE
ADJUSTMENT
PILOT VALVE
SPRING
MAIN VALVE
SPRING
MAIN VALVE
ORIFICE
MAKEUP
VALVE
PILOT
VALVE
MAIN VALVE
SPRING CHAMBER
Fig. 4.1.9 Combination Line Relief and Makeup Valve
Combination Line Relief and Makeup Valve

Figure 4.1.9, shows the combination line relief and makeup valve.
The line relief valve is simply a pilot operated relief valve. However,
the line relief valve is not designed to handle maximum implement
pump flow.
The oil in the cylinder is connected through lines to the right end of
the combination valve. The oil flows through the main valve orifice
to the main valve spring chamber. The oil pressure at the front (right)
of the valve is the same as the oil pressure in the spring chamber.
The oil pressure in the main valve spring chamber plus the force of
the spring keeps the valve closed.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-11
COMBINATION VALVE
LINE RELIEF VALVE "OPEN"
MAKEUP
VALVE
PILOT VALVE
ORIFICE
MAKEUP VALVE
DUMP
MAIN VALVE
ORIFICE
MAKEUP VALVE
DUMP
Fig. 4.1.10 Line Relief in RELIEF Position
Line Relief in RELIEF Position

In Figure 4.1.10, the line relief is shown in the RELIEF position.
When the oil pressure overcomes the setting of the pilot valve, the
pilot valve moves to the left against the spring. The high pressure oil
in the main valve spring chamber flows through the pilot valve
orifice to the pilot valve spring chamber drain passage. The pressure
in the main valve spring chamber decreases. The higher pressure oil
at the right side of the main valve moves the main valve to the left.
The high pressure oil flows past the main valve, through the makeup
valve dump openings to the tank.
The makeup valve does not move when the line relief valve opens.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-12
COMBINATION VALVE
MAKEUP VALVE "OPEN"
MAIN VALVE
SPRING
EFFECTIVE
AREA
EFFECTIVE
AREA
Fig. 4.1.11 MAKEUP Position
MAKEUP Position
Figure 4.1.11 shows the combination line relief and makeup valve in
the MAKEUP position. The tank pressure is sensed on the effective
area of the combination valve at all times. When the oil pressure in
the cylinder, the connecting line and the relief valve spring chamber
decreases to 13.78 kPa (2 psi) less than the oil pressure in the tank,
the tank pressure moves the makeup valve and the main valve to the
left against the main valve spring. The tank oil flows through the
newly opened passage to the connecting line and cylinder.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-13
LIFT CONTROL VALVE

LOWER
HEAD END
INLET
ROD END
PILOT
PASSAGE
TANK
CHECK
VALVE
OUTLET
MAKEUP
VALVE
Fig. 4.1.12 Lift Control Valve in LOWER Position
Lift Control Valve in LOWER Position

Figure 4.1.12 shows the lift control valve in the LOWER position.
When the operator moves the lift/lower pilot control lever to the
LOWER position, pilot oil (orange) moves the lift control spool to
the left. The control valve spool blocks the oil outlet passages, opens
the passage from the check valve to the lift cylinder rod end and
opens the passage from the lift cylinder head end to the tank return.
When the supply pressure is higher than the pressure in the rod end
of the tilt cylinder, the supply oil opens the check valve and flows
past the control spool to the rod end of the lift cylinder. The return
oil flows from the head end of the lift cylinder, past the control spool
and to the tank. The bucket begins to lower.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-14
LIFT CONTROL VALVE

FLOAT
HEAD END
INLET
ROD END
PILOT
PASSAGE
CHECK
VALVE
OUTLET
MAKEUP
VALVE
Fig. 4.1.13 Lift Control Valve in FLOAT Position
Lift Control Valve in FLOAT Position

Figure 4.1.13, shows the lift control valve in the FLOAT position.
When the operator moves the lift/lower pilot control lever to the
FLOAT position, pilot oil (orange) moves the lift control spool
completely to the left. The control spool opens the passage from the
check valve to the left side outlet and opens the passage from the lift
cylinder head end to the tank return. The control spool also connects
the lift cylinder rod end to the tank return. When the pump and both
ends of the lift cylinder are connected to the tank, the lift cylinder
cannot be hydraulically raised of lowered.
When the machine is moved and the lift/lower control is in the
FLOAT position, the implement follows the curvature of the ground.
INSTRUCTOR NOTE: At this time, using the 928G Wheel
Loader or the class machine and the appropriate Hydraulic
System, Testing and Adjusting Module, make the specified checks,
tests and adjustments.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-15
928G IMPLEMENT HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

HOLD
LOWERING
VALVE
PRESSURE
REDUCING
VALVE
TO
STEERING
MAIN
RELIEF
VALVE
FROM
STEERING
MANIFOLD
AUX.
VALVE
TILT BACK
DUMP VALVE
LIFT/LOWER
VALVE
PILOT SHUTOFF
VALVE
AUX
CONTROL
TILT BACK
DUMP CONTROL
LIFT/LOWER
CONTROL
Fig. 4.1.14
In the HOLD position, the oil from the steering and pilot pump flows
to the steering system supply port and the pressure reducing valve.
The pressure reducing valve controls the maximum pressure in the
pilot system. (The pressure reducing valve operation is explained in
Unit 3, chapter 6.) Oil flows from the pressure reducing valve,
through the check valve to the accumulator and to the pilot shutoff
valve.
The accumulator serves as an emergency pilot oil supply when the
pump is off.
When the pilot shutoff valve is in the OFF position, the pilot oil is
blocked. The pilot system will not function. When the pilot shutoff
valve is in the ON position, the oil flows through the pilot shutoff
valve to the auxiliary, tilt back/dump and lift/lower pilot control
valves. When the pilot control valves are in the HOLD position, the
pilot oil is blocked at the pilot control valves. This type system is
called a "closed center" system.
Oil from the main implement pump flows past the test port and the
main relief valve to the main control valve.
The implement pump oil flows through the center of the auxiliary
valve spool, the center of the tilt back/dump valve spool, the center of
the lift/lower valve spool and returns to the tank. This type system is
called an "open center" system.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-16
LOWERING
VALVE
TILT BACK
PRESSURE
REDUCING
VALVE
TO
STEERING
MAIN
RELIEF
VALVE
FROM
STEERING
MANIFOLD
AUX.
VALVE
TILT BACK
DUMP VALVE
LIFT/LOWER
VALVE
PILOT SHUTOFF
VALVE
AUX
CONTROL
TILT BACK
DUMP CONTROL
LIFT/LOWER
CONTROL
Fig. 4.1.15
This schematic shows the flow through the hydraulic system with the
tilt back/dump control lever in the TILT BACK position.
When the operator moves the tilt back/dump control lever to the TILT
BACK position, pilot oil flows past the tilt back/dump pilot control
valve to the end of the tilt back/dump valve spool in the main
implement control valve. Pilot oil moves the tilt back/dump valve
spool to the TILT BACK position. Oil from the opposite end of the
tilt back/dump valve spool flows past the tilt back/dump control valve
to the tank.
Movement of the tilt back/dump valve spool to the TILT BACK
position blocks the flow of implement pump oil to the tank and
directs implement pump oil to the head end of the tilt cylinder. Oil in
the rod end of the tilt cylinder is forced back past the tilt back/dump
valve spool to the tank.
The orifices in the pilot oil lines between the tilt back/dump pilot
control valve and the tilt back/dump valve spool causes a restriction
to the flow of pilot oil and provides better operator control of the tilt
back/dump valve spool.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-17
LOWERING
VALVE
LIFT
PRESSURE
REDUCING
VALVE
TO
STEERING
MAIN
RELIEF
VALVE
FROM
STEERING
MANIFOLD
AUX.
VALVE
TILT BACK
DUMP VALVE
LIFT/LOWER
VALVE
PILOT SHUTOFF
VALVE
AUX
CONTROL
TILT BACK
DUMP CONTROL
LIFT/LOWER
CONTROL
Fig. 4.1.16
Shown in this schematic are the conditions in the implement

hydraulic system with the lift/lower control lever in the LIFT
position.
When the operator moves the lift/lower control lever to the LIFT
position, pilot oil flows past the lift/lower pilot control valve to the
end of the lift/lower valve spool in the main implement control valve.
Pilot oil moves the lift/lower valve spool to the LIFT position. Oil
from the opposite end of the lift/lower valve spool flows past the
lift/lower control valve to the tank.
Movement of the lift/lower control spool to the LIFT position blocks
the flow of supply oil to the tank. Supply oil is directed to the head
ends of the lift cylinders. Oil in the rod ends of the cylinders is
forced past the lift/lower valve spool to the tank.
The orifices in the pilot oil lines between the lift/lower pilot control
valve and the lift/lower valve spool causes a restriction to the flow of
pilot oil and provides better operator control of the lift/lower valve
spool.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-18
LOWERING
VALVE
LOWER
PRESSURE
REDUCING
VALVE
TO
STEERING
MAIN
RELIEF
VALVE
FROM
STEERING
MANIFOLD
AUX.
VALVE
TILT BACK
DUMP VALVE
LIFT/LOWER
VALVE
PILOT SHUTOFF
VALVE
AUX
CONTROL
TILT BACK
DUMP CONTROL
LIFT/LOWER
CONTROL
Fig. 4.1.17
Shown in this schematic are the conditions in the implement

hydraulic system with the lift/lower control lever in the LOWER
position.
When the operator moves the lift/lower control lever to the LOWER
Pilot oil moves the lift/lower valve spool to the LOWER position.
Oil from the opposite end of the lift/lower valve spool flows past the
Movement of the lift/lower valve spool to the LOWER position
blocks the flow of supply oil to the tank. Supply oil is directed to the
rod ends of the lift cylinders. Oil in the head ends of the cylinders is
forced past the lift/lower valve spool to the tank.
The orifices in the pilot oil lines between the lift/lower pilot control
valve and the lift/lower valve spool causes a restriction to the flow of
pilot oil and provides better operator control of the lift/lower valve
spool.
Unit 4
Lesson 1
4-1-19
LOWERING
VALVE
FLOAT
PRESSURE
REDUCING
VALVE
TO
STEERING
MAIN
RELIEF
VALVE
FROM
STEERING
MANIFOLD
AUX.
VALVE
TILT BACK
DUMP VALVE
LIFT/LOWER
VALVE
PILOT SHUTOFF
VALVE
AUX
CONTROL
TILT BACK
DUMP CONTROL
LIFT/LOWER
CONTROL
Fig. 4.1.18
In this schematic, the lift/lower control lever has been moved to the
FLOAT position.
When the operator moves the lift/lower control lever to the FLOAT
Pilot oil moves the lift/lower valve spool to the FLOAT position. Oil
from the opposite end of the lift/lower valve spool flows past the
Movement of the lift/lower valve spool to the FLOAT position blocks
the flow of supply oil to the tank. Supply oil is directed to the rod
ends of the lift cylinders and to the tank. Oil in the head ends of the
cylinders is flows past the lift/lower valve spool to the tank.
When the machine is moved and the implement is in "float." The
bucket will follow the curvature of the ground. The slight pressure in
the rod ends of the lift/lower cylinders will not force the bucket into
the ground.
Main pump oil must flow through small orifices to fill the cavity
behind the makeup valve. With oil flowing from behind the makeup
valve faster than oil flows in, the pressure difference between the oil
around the makeup valve and the oil behind the makeup valve
becomes high enough to lift the makeup valve off its seat. When the
makeup valve moves off its seat, the oil from the implement pump
flows past the makeup valve to the tank. Both ends of the lift
cylinders are open to tank allowing the bucket to float along the
ground.

Basic Hydraulics2

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Basic

Tractor & Equipment

Caterpillar Basic Hydraulic systems

Proposed date (s)

Work shop engineers and technicians

Course Aims and Objectives

1. Give the meaning of 10 Hydraulic symbols

Fluid Power Symbols

Fluid Power Symbols users guide

A&O Caterpillar Basic Hydraulic systems

Hydraulic Fundamentals Hydraulic Principles

Upon completion of this unit, the student will be able to:

Unit 2: Hydraulic Fundamentals

BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Lesson 1: Hydraulic Principles

Fig. 2.1.1 Liquid Containers

Liquids Conform to Shape

Fig. 2.1.2 Liquid Under Pressure

Fig. 2.1.3 Gas is Compressible

Fig. 2.1.4 Hydraulics Doing Work

Hydraulics Doing Work

Force = Pressure x Area

Pressure = Force Area

Fig. 2.1.5 Pascal's Law

A simple formula allows us to determine the Force, the Pressure, and

Solving for the large piston we find:

Fig. 2.1.6 Mechanical Advantage

Fig. 2.1.7 No Restriction

Fig. 2.1.8 Orifice Offers Restriction

Orifice Offers Restriction

Fig. 2.1.9 Blocked Flow

Oil Flow to Tank Blocked

207 kPa (30 psi)

207 kPa (30 psi)

Fig. 2.1.10 Restrictions in Series

414 kPa (60 PSI)

Fig. 2.1.11 Restrictions In Parallel

Hydraulic Fundamentals Hydraulic System Components

Unit 3: Hydraulic Fundamentals

Lesson 1: Hydraulic Tank

Fig. 3.1.1 Hydraulic Tank

Fig. 3.1.2 Pressurized Tank

Fig. 3.1.4 Hydraulic Tank ISO Symbols

Basic Hydraulic Systems

Lesson 2: Hydraulic Fluids

Fig. 3.2.1 Hydraulic Fluids

Functions of Hydraulic Fluids

Fig. 3.2.2 Saybolt Viscosimeter

Basic Hydraulic Systems

Lesson 2: Hydraulic Fluids

Fig. 3.2.1 Hydraulic Fluids

Functions of Hydraulic Fluids

Fig. 3.2.2 Saybolt Viscosimeter

Basic Hydraulic Systems

Lesson 3: Hydraulic Pumps and Motors

Lesson 3: Hydraulic Pumps and Motors

Fig. 3.3.1 Gear Pump

Fig. 3.3.2 Gear Motor

Non-Positive Displacement Pumps

Fig. 3.3.3 Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal Impeller Pump

Fig. 3.3.4 Axial Propeller Pump

Axial Propeller Pump

LPM = cc/rev X rpm